PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT AMONG DIFFERENT SOCIOECONOMIC GROUPS: VIEWS FROM THE FIELD-Dissertation
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Transcript of PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT AMONG DIFFERENT SOCIOECONOMIC GROUPS: VIEWS FROM THE FIELD-Dissertation
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Chapter 1Introduction: Setting the Scene
1.1 Introduction
“Development is the word we use to describe the worldwide effort to eradicate poverty and its
associated ills. Since the end of World War II, a veritable development industry has arisen,
focused on improving life for billions of people around the world (Riall Nolan, 2002)”.1 However,
the outcome and fruits of development has not been trickled down although there has been an
increase in rate of growth, per-capita income, and reduction of poverty all over the world. The
fact remains that inequality has increased in the midst of reduction of poverty. There are
millions of people remaining unemployed, underemployed, lacking access to primary health
care facilities and even not having reasonable income to pay for food and other essentials. This
is true for many developing and underdeveloped countries of the world. Again, the intensity of
the problems of unemployment, minimum wage, access to primary health care and security of
life and property differ among different groups of people having different backgrounds. This has
indeed led to a difference in the ways people think and describe development and I have called
this perception of development. Indeed it is hypothesized that in Bangladesh, different socio-
economic groups of people have different ideas vis a vis perception regarding development and
its role. In this study, I will make an attempt to capture the perceptions of different socio-
economic groups of people who are in different occupations and belong to different classes in
the society.
However, prior to describing the perception of different socio-economic groups, I will briefly
highlight the emergence of the concept of development and different scholar’s definition
regarding development by discussing reviewing some literatures related to the concept of
1 Following quote has been taken from ‘Development Anthropology: Encounters in the real world’ by Riall Nolan, 2002, west view press, USA. Ch: 2, ‘The Rise of the Development Industry’, Page of 34 of Development as a global project.
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development. At the same time, I will discuss on perception with the relation of the topic.
These theoretical parts will be reflecting my main research topic as well.
1.2 Reviewing Literatures: Overview of the concept
1.2.1 Emergence of the Concept of Development
As I have already written in the introduction part that, I will depict the perception of people
from different occupations regarding development what I have found in the survey. One
question might arise in that point that why this is so necessary to understand the views of the
concept, development. What is development and how does it emerge in what perspective?
Therefore, if I only analyze and discuss the findings of that field views then this study will be
incomplete whether the word development is not being defined and discussed its emergence.
However, after the World War II, the economies of the colonial powers lay largely in ruin, a
number of overseas dependencies were in forceful uprising, as well as distinctly, and a troubled
relationship was taking shape between the West and the Soviet Union. As a result, the West
recognized the need for a framework to meet these challenges of collective security and
economic rebuilding. However, in 1944, midst of World War II, delegates from forty-four
countries met to reshape the world's international financial system. It was in the plush Mount
Washington Hotel in rural Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. It was designed to ensure that the
delegates would have no distractions and no pressure from lobbyists as they worked on their
plans for post-war reconstruction. The resulting Bretton Woods agreement created the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), better known as the World Bank. The Bretton Woods Agreement had the
key principle of rebuilding after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs
and infrastructure loans to war-ravaged nations. In addition, by 1946, it was in full operation
through the newly established International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD,
the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Bretton Woods framework
embodied and prompted an economic approach to development in which rapid reconstruction
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and growth were seen as essential to the establishment of national economic health (Nolan,
2002:34 -35).2
Therefore, we can see that, in 1950s and 1960s, development was synonymous with only
economic growth was positively related to self-sustained growth that indicates Investment,
Growth, National Income, and Savings. In addition, theorists of the 1950s and 1960s the process
of development viewed as a series of successive stags of societal and economic growth through
which every country must exceed. As in this periods was primarily considered as economic
theory of development had historically been followed by the more developed countries.
Development thus became synonymous with fast and collective economic growth. However, it
was linear stages approach and mostly replaced in the 1970s by two competing schools of
thoughts. First, the theories and patterns of structural change used modern economic theory
including statistical analysis in an attempt to represent the interior procedure of structural
change in generating and sustaining rapid economic growth that a typical developing country
must undergo if it is succeed. The second, the international-dependence revolution or
neocolonial dependence model, which was an indirect consequence of Marxist thinking. Under
development in terms of international and domestic power relationships was viewed in this
stage. In addition, ‘Dependency theories’ tended to highlight external and internal institutional
and political constraints on economic development. In the periods of the 1980s and 1990s, a
fourth approach prevailed which is called neoclassical sometimes-called neoliberal
counterrevolution in economic thought emphasized the beneficial role of free markets where
get the prices right by free market forces, open economies and the privatization of inefficient
public enterprises (Todaro and Smith, 2009: 110).3 Therefore, in the 1990s, both modernization
and dependency theories did not have stayed alive as a possible paradigm for considerate
change and transformation of poverty and inequality (Gardner and David Lewis, 1996:20).4
Consequently, in the post-1980s era has been associated with the appreciation of much greater
2 Following discussion has been rephrased and rewritten by me and has been taken from, ‘Development Anthropology: Encounters in the real world’ by Riall Nolan, 2002, west view press, USA. Chapter:2, ‘The Rise of the Development Industry’. Page 34 -35 of ‘Creating the Framework’. 3 Following discussion has been rephrased and rewritten by me and has been taken from, ‘Economic Development’ by Michale P.Todaro and Stephen C.Smith, ch:3,p.110.4Following discussion has been rephrased and rewritten by me and has been taken from, ‘Anthropology, Development and Post-modern Challenge’ by Katy Gardner and David Lewis,1996,p:20
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diversity in conceptions of development. This has included greater awareness of environmental
concerns, gender equity and grassroots approaches. The concept of ‘post-development’ has
come to the forefront since 1990. One of the most eminent proponents of this approach is
Arturo Escobar. He and other post-development thinkers (See Rahnema with Bawtree 19197;
Sachs 1912) dispute with the Eurocentric (based on ideas of Western/Northern superiority)
assumptions that, the development process as it has been experienced by Southern counties. In
addition, they also argue that, Development has helped incorporate large areas of the globe
into a Northern-dominated economic and political system. Moreover, indigenous cultures and
the sustainability of natural environments have been destroyed and threatened which has also
created inferiority mind-set among people of the South (Wills, 2005:28).5
Moreover, during the period of 1990s, ‘Post-modernism’ is being emerged with the rejection of
modernity, which has been explained as culturally and intellectually (Gardner and David Lewis,
1996). Culturally, in the North post-modern tendencies can be traced back to the 1940s and
1950s, wherein the arts have increasingly moved beyond modernism to a broader, more
pluralistic range of styles and techniques; parody and multimedia forms are now common.
Similarly, the boundaries between high and low culture are increasingly broken down.
Intellectually, post-modernism involves the end of the dominance of unitary theories of
progress and belief in scientific rationality (Gardner and David Lewis, 1996:20-21).6
‘’NGOs are usually understood to be the group of organizations engaged in development and
poverty reduction work at local, national and global levels around the world” (Lewis 2001).
Similarly in Bangladesh NGOs are taking a great part in development. Presently Bangladesh is
considered as an epicenter as well as a laboratory for NGOs. Over the last fifteen years the
growth of NGOs, particularly domestic organization, has been impressive like ASA (Association
for Social Advancement), BRAC. Anyway, after the establishment of Bangladesh in 1971, a
number of social development agencies have emerged out as an expression of a practical
5 Following discussion has been rephrased and rewritten by me and has been taken from, ‘Theories and Practices of Development’ by Katie Wills, Routledge, 2005, Ch: 1- ‘Introduction: What do we mean by development?’ Page 286 Following discussion has been rephrased and rewritten by me and has been taken from ‘Anthropology, Development and Post-modern Challenge’ by Katy Gardner and David Lewis,1996,p:20-21
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idealism. The immediate post-independence inflow of foreign aid was primarily for relief,
rehabilitation, and repairing infrastructure in the war ravaged country. However, now
Bangladesh is being considered as an epicenter as well as a laboratory for NGOs. Over the last
fifteen years, the growth of NGOs has been impressive. In Bangladesh, NGOs constitute a
vibrant entity, which continues to table new confronts for the intellect as well as for the polity
in the country (Khan, Ahmed and Quddus, 2009: 8-10, 41.) 7
Therefore, I think it is necessary to have a better view of the perception of development that
what people really think of it.
1.2.2 Development: Different Viewpoints
There are different viewpoints on development from various perspectives, which also refer to
the development theories that have been discussed in the previous section in this study.
Among them, I will discuss some of the viewpoints definitions regarding development.
According to Sen, “development has to be more concerned with enhancing the lives we
lead and the freedom we enjoy.”8
-Professor Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom, 1999, p.14
From the above statement, what I can understand that, Sen emphasizes and concerned with
the achievement of a better life that people succeed in living, which should be the focus of
development analysis. This includes certainly the time-span of the life itself, and thus life
expectancy data have an immediate relevance to the living standard and through that to the
concept of development, but the nature of the life that people succeed in living in each period
is also a matter of importance. People value their capability doing certain things and to get
certain types of beings such as being well nourished, being free from avoidable morbidity, being
7 Following information has been rephrased and taken from ‘Recreating the Commons? NGOs in Bangladesh’ edited by Farida Chowdhury Khan, Ahrar Ahmed and Munir Quddus. (Bangladesh Development Initiative at The University Press Limited), 2009. Page of 8-10 and 41 of ‘NGOs in Bangladesh’. 8 Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (New York, 1999). P.14. See also ‘Economic Development’ by Michael P.Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, 2009, tenth edition, 2011-2012. Chapter 1, ‘Economics, Institutions, and Development: A Global Perspective’, Page of 16.
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able to move about as desired, and so on. The "doings" and "beings" possibly will be broadly
called "functioning" of a person (Sen,1988: p.15).9
However, Sen also emphasized on the freedom we enjoy which refers, a person has in terms of
his or her choice of functioning. Freedom from famine and malnutrition, freedom from poverty,
access to health care and freedom from premature mortality has to be included in the
development analysis. In his perspective, economic growth remains significant, except not as a
goal in itself. It is important in its potential contribution to a wide range of freedoms but not
enough in itself.
In conclusion, of his view, I can summarize that, development is happiness and improving the
well-being of the people. Happiness is the important part of well-being.
Human Development approach of United Nations Development Program (UNDP):
Human development can be simply defined as a process of enlarging choices such as,
some economic, some social, some political, and some cultural. Enlarging these choices,
building human capabilities is needed. The most basic capabilities for human
development are to lead long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to
the resources needed for a decent standard of living, and to be able to participate in the
life of the community. Development is here thus people have to lead lives that they
value by expanding the choices. As Aristotle said in ancient Greece, “Wealth is evidently
not the good we are seeking, for it is merely useful for the sake of something else.” In
seeking that something else, human development shares a common vision with human
rights where People must be free to exercise their choices and to participate in decision-
making that affects their lives. Human development and human rights are both
9 Following information has been taken from ‘Handbook of Development Economics’, Volume L by AMARTYA SEN, Chapter 1,‘The Concept of Development’, Edited by H. Chenery and T.N. Srinivasan © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1988, p.15. https://koppa.jyu.fi/en/courses/134525/spring-2014/Sen-Concept-of-Development.pdf
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reinforcing, cooperating, and building self-respect as well as the respect of others
(Source: Web). 10
According to Sen, "Human development, as an approach, is concerned with what I take to be
the basic development idea: namely, advancing the richness of human life, rather than the
richness of the economy in which human beings live, which is only a part of it (Source: Web)."11
According to Todaro, an American economist and a pioneer in the field of development
economics, “Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-
dimensional process involving restructuring and reorientation of entire economic and
social system.” 12
-Michale P. Todaro
Edwards in his recent book defines “development as the reduction of material want and
the enhancement of people’s ability to live a life they consider good across the broadest
range possible in a population.”13
-Edwards, 1999b: 4
Todaro and Edwards also talks about positive changes in peoples’ quality of life in economic,
political, and social terms. Todaro and Stephen C. Smith in their ‘Economic Development’
(2009), explain that, development must stands for the entire range of change that refers an
entire social system, turned to basic needs and condition of life regarded as materially and
spiritually better (Todaro and Smith, 2009: 15 -16).14
10 Following information has been rephrased and taken from following sites: http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/moronesj/human.dev.concept.summaries/The%20Human%20Development%20concept.doc and also http://www.arab-hdr.org/publications/contents/2002/ch1-e.pdf11 Origins of the Human Development Approach athttp://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/moronesj/human.dev.concept.summaries/The%20Human%20Development%20concept.doc12 Available at: http://www.uky.edu/AS/Courses/GEO260/Powerpoint/Concept_of_Development.ppt ’13 The Management of Non-Governmental Development Organizations, An Introduction by David Lewis: NGOs and the contexts of ‘development’ and ‘relief’ ……p:67 available at: http://hr.law.vnu.edu.vn/sites/default/files/resources/management_of_non_governmental_development_organizations__an_introduction__.pdf14 Following information has been rewritten from ‘Economic Development’ by Michael P.Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, 2009, tenth edition, 2011-2012. Chapter 1, ‘Economics, Institutions, and Development: A Global Perspective’, Page of 15 -16 of ‘The new economic view of development’
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According to Seers, “The questions to ask about a country’s development are three:
What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment?
What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high
levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country
concerned”. 15
- Dudley Seers, 1977, p. 3
These three things are considered the vital challenges that a nation attempt to fight or at least
try to minimize. To Seers, before we can declare that society as a developed one all these three
must be at low levels. This invariably means that a rise in any one of these central challenges
disqualifies that society from being called developed.
According to Chambers, “Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of
people, poor rural women, and men, to gain for themselves and their children more of
what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a
livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of
development.”16
-Robert Chambers, 1983, p:147
He therefore refers development as to welfare programs, aids, and resources toward the
alleviating poverty, transforming rural areas, and provision of the basic needs of the poor to
make sure incessant continued existence of their race through posterity.
1.2.3 Perception and Development
It is necessary to discuss few things on the perception of human beings related to this study
title. Theoretically, perception is the process of gathering information through senses of human
mind. Previous experiences and learning, attitudes and interests, needs, feelings, finally the
current situations are directly influencing perception of human beings. At the same time,
Perception differs from individual to individual owing to a diversity of personal, socio-
15 Available at: http://www.academia.edu/466731/THE_CONCEPT_OF_DEVELOPMENT16 Available at: http://www.academia.edu/466731/THE_CONCEPT_OF_DEVELOPMENT
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economical, and cultural differences. Age, gender, race, and experiences are the examples of
personal perception filters. Socio-economic filters include occupation, level of education,
environmental factors, and family upbringing.17 Therefore, with the basis of this theoretical
explanation, I have arranged the questions through which different people have explained their
views variously from their diversity of personal, socio-economical, and cultural differences.
Therefore it can be said that, perception is a personal description and own interpretation of
human mind basis of their surroundings. Expert’s point of view and definitions might not work
to human perception, as people perceive from their own understanding most of the time and
theory might not work to them.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
With the relation of the following objectives, the questionnaire has been set for the survey. I
have responded all the objectives though my findings. The objectives of the study are as
follows:
1. To identify how individuals with different socio-economic backgrounds understand and
describe development;
2. To find out whether there is any difference in the understanding vis a vis in perception
of development;
3. To discern the reasons for difference in perception among between and within different
socio-economic categories
4. To reveal the response and perception of people toward assess development
1.4 Rationale of the Study
This study has been done with the purpose of endeavoring the perception of development from
the perspective and views of working class people who are mostly ignored and unprivileged in
our society. In most cases, development does not reach to them at all. Furthermore, students
are the most possible change maker for the country and they are the larger group whose views
17 Available at: http://www.educ.kent.edu/community/vlo/perception/index.html
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regarding development are obligatory to understand. Students can contribute and play the
great role of making any policy for the sake of improvement of the country.
1.5 Conclusion
In concluding part of this chapter, it can be said that, development is not only about rising
economic growth of a country but also entire society’s improvement is essential here. It is
about happiness of human being. If people are free from hunger, diseases and have health
security, high literacy rate, freedom of choices, nutrition then a nation will have happiness and
can achieve development.
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Chapter 2Research Methodology
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents an overview of methodology and procedures applied in this study. It
describes the process that was employed to collect and analyze data in order to understand
and discover the perception of various levels of people who are in different type’s occupations.
Both qualitative as well as quantitative method has been used to carry out this research.
Qualitative data is collected through interviewing the main question: what do you mean by
development? Quantitative data, on the other hand, has been obtained through
questionnaires.
2.2 Study Area
The key focus of this study is to understand the perception of different socio-economic groups
who are students and working people like, rickshaw pulling, garments sectors, day laborer and
so on. Moreover, this study has been designed occupation basis. Therefore, to collect primary
data, slum areas and messes in Dhaka city or urban areas have been selected deliberately. CNG
station at Basabo, Rampura, Magbazar, Madhubag, Mirbagh, Bashundhara gate areas has been
selected for working people. For students North South University and Dhaka University have
been selected as time duration was short.
2.3 Techniques of Data Collection
Data were collected during February to March 2014. Both Primary and Secondary methods of
data collection have been used for the study.
2.4 Secondary Data
For a fine approaching regarding the research topic, secondary data has been gathered from
journal articles, published books, research reports, and internet documents etc. The books and
published documents relevant to the study were collected from my course materials at North
South University. A list of these documents is given in the bibliography.
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2.5 Questionnaire Survey
Data have been collected through questionnaire from 200 respondents in seven occupations
Respondents and occupations have been selected deliberately. There was one questionnaire
for all groups of people. The questions were both open and close ended. There were three
parts in the questionnaire. First part (Ka) was about socio-economic background of the
respondent and there were ten questions. Second (Kha) part was about the self-perception and
there were two questions. In the last part (ga) had the main question regarding the research
topic, the perception of respondents regarding development and there were three questions
where last two questions were open-ended. In last part, the first question was close ended
regarding the meaning of development that has been pre-tested before closed-ended. Some
parts of it were designed to get opinions and comments on specific issues from the
respondents. Close-ended questions were used to save time and open-ended questions to get
in-depth knowledge and insight; as well as personal experiences and observations.
Table 1: Occupational Background of the Respondents
Occupations Total
Respondents
Students 56
Tokai (street children) 06
Garments workers 54
House Keeper (Bua) 18
Rickshaw puller 27
CNG drivers 19
Day Laborer 20
Total= 200
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2.6 Sample size
Total respondents were 200 from the Dhaka city’s’ some areas like, Basabo, Rampura,
Magbazar, Madhubag, Mirbagh, Bashundhara gate, North South University and Dhaka
University. The respondents were purposively selected. For the purpose of the study, the
selected respondents are divided into seven occupations as mentioned in the above table:1
which contains the occupational background of respondents.
Table 2: Proportion of Male and Female based on occupations
2.7 Data Processing and Analysis
The collected data was accumulated, categorized, and analyzed keeping in mind the objectives
of the study. The analysis of quantitative data of the above stated sources has been done with
the help of MS Excel.
The open-ended information will be presented in a narrative form in the Chapter 4. Moreover,
in some cases, charts and table presentation have also been used to present the findings of the
data in a graphic manner. Furthermore, in this study data has been collected by questionnaire
survey.
Occupations Number of Male and Female
respondents
Ratio of Female and
Male
Female Male
Students 22 34 40:60
Street Children(Tokai) 04 02 33:67
Garments workers 38 16 70:30
House Keeper (Bua) 18 00 100:00
Rickshaw puller 00 27 00:100
CNG drivers 00 19 00:100
Day Laborer 06 14 30:70
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2.8 Research questionnaire
Questionnaire analysis with the relation of objectives as follows:
1. Part ‘Ka’-Socio-economic background (Close-ended questions): There were ten questions
in this part given below. All questions of this part was related to the first objective is to
identify how individuals with different socio-economic background understand and
describe development. Like as, the questions of Gender, Age, monthly income, academic
qualification, living place, marital Status and monthly house rent of the respondents were
related to the objective of discerning the reasons for difference in perception among
between and within different socio-economic categories of the respondents. It is the third
objective of this study. In addition, questions of Occupation was divided into two
categories; main and subsidiary occupation: This part was related to objective two and
three; To find out whether there is any difference in the understanding vis a vis in
perception of development, To discern the reasons for difference in perception among
between and within different socio-economic categories
2. Part ‘Kha’ -Self-perception (close-ended questions): There were two questions on own
work place satisfaction and thinking of own Social status. This part was included in the
questionnaire to reveal the response and perception of people toward assess
development. It is the fourth objective of the study.
3. Part ‘Ga’ – Perception of Development: There were three main questionnaires for the
study. Perception of development (close-ended questions), Perception of development in
own word (open-ended question) and Reason of seeing development in that sense (open-
ended questions). This part was related to the all objectives of the study
Chapter 3
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Data Analysis
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the data collected through survey questionnaire from the field among
different occupations. Data analysis will have been presented by occupation basis and linked up
with the objectives during analysis. There were seven occupations have been surveyed in the
field and have been chosen deliberately.
3.2 Description of the background of the respondents
I have mentioned the different categories of respondents that I covered in my survey. In this
section, I will describe their occupations and socio-economic background.
Street children
Street children in Dhaka city are generally called ‘Tokai’ in Bengali. They are used to lift up
discarded belongings from street and work recycling rubbish, begging, washing busses, selling
flowers on the street, or doing any sort of things. It helps them to earn money for some food.
Most of them are survived on the streets.
However, I have met some of them during picking up discarded things at Bashundhara gate.
They were 6 and almost same ages, as I have given the data below though a diagram to present
here. The age group of street children was within 25 years old. All of them are within this age
group. In this group, they were all below 18 years. However, when I have asked them all the
questions in the questionnaire, got some information regarding their family life and perception
on development. They perceive development according to their own needs what they expect to
accomplish in their future life.
Figure 1: Living Place of street children
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Among six, 67% of them are living on
footpath who do not have any family and 33% of are living in slum with their parents as figure 1
shows. As they do not have permanent work therefore, their monthly income is not fixed. They
have monthly income range up to 3000 taka as I have found in my survey.
Figure 2: Work Place Satisfaction
At the same time, they are not in a formal
or registered occupation; only working for getting some money to buy foods it is not
satisfactory for them. All of them have said that, they are not satisfied enough with their work,
as people do not appreciate their work and do not pay much. In the questionnaire, part two
(kha) had the first question about workplace satisfaction where have three questions and the
third question was not satisfied. And there were seven reasons behind this in the third
question. Among them number one reason was ‘people do not appreciate this work’ and
number two was ‘income is not much in this work’. 100% of them have said that they are not
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satisfied and 50% of have said the reason behind this was ‘people do not appreciate this work’
and 50% of have said ‘income is not much in this work’ as the figure 2 displays the result.
Similarly, all of them have same perception regarding their own social status as ‘Extreme Poor’.
When I have made them understand about the social classes in our society, they all have said all
are extreme poor because of not having any permanent shelter and not have any certainty of
getting foods three times in a day including opportunity to go to school.
Thus, for them development is only carrying out needs what they do not have for surviving. For
their surviving, they need food security and shelter what I have come to know from them.
Therefore, 100% of them want work opportunities that increase their income for surviving.
Figure 3: Perception of Development with multiple responses
Hence, we can see from the figure 3 that, 67% of them want to increase their income.
Furthermore, as they are in age of going to school they expect to be educated. For that, they
need a work opportunity so that they can go to night school and can be able to write and read
at least. For this, 100% of them want to be literate also; as figure 3 displays. Increase of income
with a permanent work ensures their permanent living place that ensures their life security at
least. As they are the street children, do not have any shelter permanently and food security
they feel insecure with their life. Hence, 67% of them want life security must.
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This is how street children perceive development according to their own needs I have displayed
though the above column.
Garments Workers
In Bangladesh, garments workers have been contributing significantly in the economy through
earning foreign currency. Most of them generally come to Dhaka from villages of different parts
of Bangladesh with the hope of a better life. Usually they live in slum and messes for cheap
house rent.
I went Rampura, Mirbagh, Madhubagh and some it’s nearer area’s slum and messes for my
survey. I have found 54 garments workers during my survey, among them most of them were
female. Among 54 workers (Table: 2) 38 workers were female and 16 workers were male.
Among 38 female workers, some were divorced and separated in 38 female workers.
Figure 4: Academic Qualification
However, 72% of them have only primary education and 14% of them have only secondary
education where 7% of them have only higher secondary education. In addition, some of them
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were only able to write and read the rate of was that 7% as figure 4 shows. Therefore, from the
above column what we can see that majority part had only primary education.
Figure 5: Monthly Income Range
As they do not have higher academic qualification, it creates many difficulties in work at the
factory. At the same time factory owners, pay extremely low wages for their work. Usually most
of them do the same work of sewing operator I have surveyed and they have monthly income
range of 3000 to 8000 taka only. This 3000 to 8000tk is a range as I have designed my survey
questionnaire, anyway in the range of 3000 to 8000tk most of them earn only 3000 to 4000 tk I
have come to know from them. That is very small amount of money to lead their family. Within
this money, they have to manage all the things like feeding family members, giving house rent,
transport cost, cost of clothes and so on. As most of them earn very small amount of money
they have to live in slum or mess, which is not suitable for female for their health and life
security. Nevertheless, who have at least secondary and higher secondary educations get the
work of supervisor, cutting master, Pattern Master, Chief Quality Controller and earn in a range
of 8000 to 13000 taka per month. They were only 7% of workers as figure 5 shows.
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However, according to Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD) Bangladesh study by KG Moazzem and
Saifa Raz (CPD) 2013: Revision of the Minimum Wage in the RMG Sector in 2013 minimum
wage structure; current minimum wage structure table has been shown below: 18
Current Minimum Wage Structure (Effective since 1 November 2010):Grading (Main Posts) Basic House rent
(40% of Basic)
Medical
Allowance
Net Salary
Grade 1: Pattern Master, Chief Quality Controller Tk. 6,500 Tk. 2,600 Tk. 200 Tk. 9,300
Grade 2: Mechanic, Electrician, Cutting Master Tk. 5,000 Tk. 2,000 Tk. 200 Tk. 7,200
Grade 3: Sample Machinist, Senior Machine
Operator
Tk. 2,870 Tk. 1,148 Tk. 200 Tk. 4,218
Grade 4: Sewing Machine Operator, Quality
Inspector, Cutter, Packer, Line Leader
Tk. 2,615 Tk. 1,046 Tk. 200 Tk. 3,861
Grade 5: Junior Machine Operator, Junior Cutter,
Junior Marker
Tk. 2,395 Tk. 958 Tk. 200 Tk. 3,553
Grade 6: Operator of General Sewing/ Button
Machine
Tk. 2,230 Tk. 892 Tk.200 Tk. 3,322
Grade 7: Assistant Sewing Machine Operator,
Assistant Dry washing man, Line
Iron Man
Tk. 2,000 Tk. 800 Tk.200 Tk. 3,000
Trainee Tk. 2,500
Therefore, the above table clear my analysis what I have found from the field regarding
monthly income of garments workers.
Figure 6: Work Place Satisfaction
18Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD) Bangladesh study by KG Moazzem and Saifa Raz (CPD) 2013: Revision of the Minimum Wage in the RMG Sector in 2013 minimum wage structure, p: 14. Also see: http://cpd.org.bd/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/CPD-on-Minimum-Wage.pdf
P a g e | 21
In this case, they are not happy with their work fully. Majority said they are not satisfied with
their work. Almost 80% of (fig:6)them as above column shows are not satisfied behind the
reason is income is not much at the same time, 9% of them have said they are not satisfied
because of not paying their salary in time. Rest 11% of them has said they approximately
satisfied because they have other earner in their family. No one said fully satisfied with his or
her workplace because the above reasons I have found during the survey.
In this case, they do not feel themselves as solvent and non-poor in the society. Some of them
even think of their social status as extreme poor because of their too much family burden. 83%
of workers think, they are poor and 17% of workers think they are extreme poor. Because of
their hardship and so many scarcities with their daily life, they have this type of perception
regarding their social status as they said to me.
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Figure 7: Perception of Development
All the workers of garments sector I surveyed have come from different parts of the Bangladesh
as I mentioned above part in the analysis. They have come with hope of leading a better life
with their family. Because of low income in most cases, they have to live in slum and some live
in messes. However, slum is not a healthy and secured place ever that most of female workers
have said. In terms of the perception of development 26% of workers as figure 7 shows, they
mean life security as they feel unsafe and all were female workers. There were twelve options
in the question of ‘meaning of development’. Among those options, 19% of them have said,
development means hunger free life, 43% of them have said, poverty alleviation, 93% of them
have said increase of income, 16% of them have said health development, only 2% of have said
political stability and 26% of said life security respectively. They define development according
to their own scarcity and needs as I have talked to them and come to know about their life
style. Almost everyone wants increasing income so that all needs can be fulfilled. Poverty
reduction will occur when income rises as they expressed.
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Day Laborer
“Day labor is work done where the worker is hired and paid one day at a time, with no promise
that more work will be available in the future. It is a form of contingent work or casual work
(Source: Wikipedia).”19 However, a day laborer in Bangladesh generally has no permanent work.
They live from hand-to-mouth. They start every day with uncertainty of getting a work. Even if
he gets any work there, he would be ill paid.
Figure 8: Monthly Income
In addition, I have found this in my survey data. I have found 20 day-laborers in Rampura and
06 were female, 14 were male laborer. They have been passing though hardship because of
uncertainty of getting work every day and ill paid in work. In my survey data also says that. The
diagram displays 80% of them have monthly income up to 3000taka and only 20% of (fig: 8)
them have the monthly income range 3001-8000taka. However, these income ranges are not
also fixed for them. They do not have any permanent work therefore everyday they cannot
earn in the same way.
Figure 9: Academic Qualification
19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_labor
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Day laborers are not also educated enough. From figure 9, only 65% of them are able to write
and read only and rest of 35% of them is illiterate. Those 65% of them only can sign and write
few words not more than that. Because of not having good academic qualification most cases
do not get a permanent work.
Because of being ill paid, they are not satisfied with their work whatever they get. Above
column displays in the diagram that 100% of them are not satisfied with their workplace
because income is not much in their work. Because of not getting permanent work and much
money in the work, they feel and perceive that they are extreme poor. 100% of them have said
to me during the survey.
Among 20 day laborers 100% of them have said development means increase of income and
work opportunity in the survey as above column shows in above diagram. As these two are
their needs and expectation, they perceive development of their own perspective.
Domestic workers
“The International Labour Office (ILO 1990) defines, domestic work as helpers and cleaners
sweep, vacuum clean, was and polish, take care of household linen, purchase household
supplies, prepare food, serve meals and perform various other domestic duties like; a)
sweeping, vacuum cleaning, polishing and washing floors and furniture, or washing windows
P a g e | 25
and other fixtures; b) washing, ironing and mending linen and other textiles; c) washing dishes;
d) preparing, cooking and serving meals and refreshments; e) purchasing food and various
other performing related tasks; f ) performing related tasks; g) supervising other workers.”20
Therefore, I can say that domestic workers have to do almost all type of domestic work in a
house where she works. Some of them live in the particular house and some of them live out
after doing their tasks as ILO defines about their tasks. However, they usually migrate from
rural to urban and live in slum areas in Dhaka city. However, I have surveyed 18 domestic
workers at different slums around Dhaka.
Figure 10: Marital Status
Most of them are separated from their husband and lead family in their only income. 72% of
(fig 10) them are separated from their husband and come from rural areas. Rest of 28% is
married though their husband cannot contribute financially successfully therefore, they have to
take the burden of their family.
100% of them have monthly income range of 3001-8000 taka which is not sufficient for leading
their family. But in some cases, some of their daughter work in garments and lead family with
20 Domestic Service in Bangladesh A Case Study in Dhaka by Nadia Selim, February 2009 ,p:30Also available at: http://www.expressionsltd.com/content/Publications/Domestic%20Service%20in%20Bangladesh.pdf
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sharing. Anyway, with this low income they have to give house rent and maintain others
demand which is tougher for them.
Figure 11: Academic Qualification
Above diagram shows that 72% of (fig: 11) them are totally illiterate and 28% of are only able to
write some words and read some sentences. Therefore, they cannot manage any good work for
their betterment.
Figure 12: Work Place Satisfaction
As their income is low, they are not satisfied at the same time they have to be physically and
mentally harassed in many ways where they work and in outside for their work therefore they
do not feel happy. Figure 12 shows that, 56% of them are not satisfied because of low income
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and 44% of them are dissatisfied because of not appreciated for the work. At the same time, all
of them perceive belong to extreme poor class.
Figure 13: Perception of Development
Most of the time they have face many type of violence where they work and where they live.
Therefore from the figure 13, we can see that, 94% of them perceive, development means
ensuring life security. As their income is low, they want to increase income and alleviate
poverty. 94% of them perceive development mean poverty alleviation and 100% of them
perceive development mean increase of income. Much type of health problems has to face
them as they live in very unhealthy place then they want their health security. 83% of them
perceive development mean health development and 6% of perceive work opportunity.
Rickshaw pullers
Rickshaw is a vital transport in Dhaka city. The unskilled and poor people who migrate from
rural to urban areas various work and rickshaw pulling is one of them. For their livelihood it is
an effective earning source they think.
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Figure 14: Academic Qualification
However, I have surveyed on 27 rickshaw pullers in Dhaka at some areas I have mentioned
previous discussion. Some of them live in slum and some in messes in a group. Among them
81% of are illiterate while only 19% of are (fig:14) only can write and read some words and can
sign as above column presents the percentage. For being uneducated they have to be deceived
by many others with fare. However, I have found most young rickshaw pullers during my
survey.
Figure 15: Age Group
From figure 15, we can see that, almost 90% of them are within 30 years age group while, 11%
of them are 36 to 40 years age group. The age group of within 30 years is enthusiastic and hard
working as I have found.
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Figure 16: Monthly Income
Those are within 30 years age groups earn monthly 8000 to 13000 tk by pulling rickshaw. Figure
16 shows that, 93% of earn within this range while 7% of them earn 3001 to 8000 tk per month
and they are aged people.
Figure 17: Work Place Satisfaction
The young age group within 30 years old are satisfied with their work approximately and they
are 89% of (fig: 17) people while 11% of are dissatisfied because they cannot earn more who
are in 40 years age range.
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As they have to lead the whole family, they want to earn more and think themselves as poor.
100% of them think they are poor and cannot fulfill their expectations successfully.
Figure 18: Perception of Development
It is right that young age group within 30 years are hard worker but they cannot drive everyday
because of their health problem as this is very tough physical work for them. Therefore, from
their own need 62% of (fig: 18) them perceive development mean health security. Almost 81%
of perceive development as life security while 85% of them want political stability as road
accident is very common in this work at the same time because of political unrest they fear to
be burnt by petrol bomb or fire. As they have to be deceived because of being uneducated 81%
of them perceive development mean, able to write and read. Almost 70% of them want to
increase income as they have their own family burden and there is no fixed monthly income.
Therefore, development means increase of income as they have meant. They perceive
development from their own needs and perspective like above occupations.
CNG Auto Rickshaw Drivers
Auto rickshaws were previously two-stroke engine petrol-running models, which have been
identified as one of the principal causes of air pollution in Dhaka. Thus, government since 2003
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banned traditional auto rickshaws from the capital and encouraged the development of four-
stroke compressed natural gases (CNG)-powered engines permitted to operate within the
capital limits. The newly manufactured CNG auto rickshaws are more fuel-efficient and have a
lower center of gravity, making them safer than older models. Furthermore, all CNGs are
painted green to signify that the vehicles are eco-friendly and that each one has a meter built in
as standard.21 However, I have found 19 drivers from Basabo near to my living place where all
of them have monthly income range from 1300 to 20,000 taka. Similarly, all of them
approximately satisfied with their work and they think that they belong to lower class instead of
not belonging to poor or extreme poor class as they said to me that they have roughly monthly
income which support them to be almost solvent with their family.
Figure 19: Perception of Development
However, when I have asked them to know about their perception on development all (100%)
of them said to mean life security while 90% of said(fig:19) that they mean political stability
respectively. Because of frequent hartal (shut down), blockade, and throwing petrol bomb, set
fire to vehicle make them scare of driving. Among them, 26% of them also mean increase
income of all groups of people and 47% of them mean poverty alleviation of everyone who is
21 “Police purge for Dhaka rickshaw” at BBC. December 20, 2002. Retrieved 2011-03-22. and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_rickshaw
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extremely poor. They are not only expecting and concerned about themselves think of the
nation, as I have understood after talking to them.
Students
I went to North South University and Dhaka University for survey and I have surveyed
deliberately 56 students from these two universities. Within these 56 students, 34 students
were from North South University where 15 students were female and 19 students were male
and 22 from Dhaka University where 7 students were female and 15 students were male. They
had different opinions and reaction regarding the perception of development. From the
national perspective and for the betterment of Bangladesh students have given their opinion by
answering the perception of development. I have found most of the bachelor students from
these two universities and some of them were from master’s level.
Figure 20: Subsidiary Occupations
As I have found, half of them are doing part time job (fig:20) and full time that are in masters
level and half of them are full time students. All of them who are doing job beside their study
have said that being solvent and self-reliant at the same time for contributing in the economy
of the country they are doing job beside study.
At the same time, those are doing job satisfied approximately, as all have a big ambition to be
successful in their career path are working hard. 50% of them satisfied approximately as 50% of
are doing job and others are full time students.
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Figure 21: Living Place
Figure 21 displays that 34% of them are living in their own house while same percentage of
students are living in the hostel and most of them are studying at Dhaka University. In addition,
29% of them are living in rented house and both from DU and NSU while 2% of are also live in
mess and mostly are male students have come from outside of Dhaka.
Figure 22: Social Status
Figure 22 shows, 66% of students think that they belong to middle class while only 14% of think
upper middle class. Rests of 20% of students think upper class. However, those are living in
rented houses, hostels and messes they think of belonging to middle class on the other hand
those have their own house they also think of belonging to middle class, as they are not doing
P a g e | 34
any job and contribute to the family. Furthermore, who have their own house and a full time or
part time job they think they belong to upper middle class. Some students are studying at NSU
think in other way. They are not concerned with contributing to their family or being solvent
during their graduation. They think after graduation matter of career would be their concerning
subject. Presently they are well enough for the financial condition of their family therefore job
is not important and they think they belong to upper class. When they would be successful
professional after graduation then would belong to rich class.
Figure 23: Perception of Development
Students have given different types definition regarding development. They all views
development from the national perspective and for the sake of development really want to
contribute in different field of Bangladesh. Almost all female students have said development
means women empowerment, gender equity, and stopping violence against women from
Bangladesh. Some other students also said, development child development, reducing infant
mortality and over population at the same time, stopping child labor and fulfilling the goal of
MDGs (will be discussed in chapter 4). The 48% of (fig: 23)students have said the meaning of
development as above mentioned. In addition, 68% of said development means poverty
alleviation, which must has to done otherwise development will not be happened while 54% of
students have added political stability is must. 9% of said hunger fee means development and
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7% of students have said increasing income of all groups including employment opportunity as
said 32% of students. Besides that, 18% of students have said health security, 4% of students
have said life security mean to development. At the same time development means to a
healthy environment and environments is a burning issue now a days so it has to be saved as
36% of students have said that. Illiterate nation cannot be development. If development needs
to occur then everyone must have to be literate at least as 16% of students have said.
3.3 Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that, according to objectives, there are different level of
understanding because of different socio-economic background and there is also difference
within the group for gender, age, academic qualifications as well. Except students, no one had
subsidiary occupations as I have found.
Chapter 4 Discussing Perception of Development from the Field Views
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4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the perception of development according to different socio-economic
groups who are in different occupations. Before the survey, I went to the field for pre-testing to
close the answers of the question ‘What do you mean by development’. All of these will be
discussed in this chapter broadly with relating to the objective of the study. After getting
various answers, I have closed the first question of part ‘Ga’ in the questionnaire. Among those
answers, students are thinking from the national perspective while the working class people
who live from hand to mouth are thinking about development from their own needs and
perspectives what they expect to survive. Students are telling in from their perception that
development is about not only rising GDP but also the improvement of mental and physical
health, alleviation poverty, development of social and cultural system of a country. On the
other hand, the working classes people have said development mean mainly rising of own
income and for that, the existing problems need to be solved.
4.2 Perception of development by different groups of respondents
There are 67% of street children who have said that development means life security during
survey. The group of street children (Tokai) is extremely vulnerable and unprivileged street
children in our society. They cannot even fulfill their minimum basic needs; as a result, they
always feel insecure. Summary of their speech is given below in English, but they have told me
in Bengali:
According to street children, a permanent and secured shelter for living where no one would
force to leave them from that house, basic foods three times in a day, no evil cannot touch and
force for doing crime is the life security.
They have to face this kind of situation everyday; therefore, they have defined like this.
Furthermore, development is the work opportunity, ability to write, read an increase of income
for street children. They all want fixed work for survival and carrying out of their dream of going
to school. Because of illiteracy, they have to be entrapped and deceived by many people.
P a g e | 37
However, to them development means own development and accomplish own needs and
expectations. On the other hand, garments workers have seen and perceive development in
different ways at the same times, female worker’s perception is different rather than male
workers within this occupation as I have found from the field. Female workers are more
concerned about health development and life security than male workers are. 16% of workers
said development means health development and 26% of them have said that development
means life security. As I have found this data, all of them were female workers who said about
development from this view. I am going to summarize what they have meant to life security
and health development below:
According to female garments workers, life security means safely resorting to their way in the
home and office, as they have to be harassed physically and mentally by some rowdy people. At
the same time secured living place. The female workers who are separated from their husband
feel too much insecure at their living place in slum as many bad guys tease them. Similarly,
health development means a healthy living place and bearable work pressure at their work
place as slum is not the place for healthy living, many diseases attack them frequently as well as
too much work pressure at factory or work place reduces their strength. Therefore, they define
development as life security and health security or development.
However, hunger free, poverty alleviation, rise of income, political stability are also the concern
of female workers as well as male worker’s concern as they define development like this terms.
Who suffer from hunger define development as hunger free, who are extremely poor and
income is too low define poverty alleviation and income increase who suffer from unrest of
political parties define like this, not all said same answers because problem and needs are not
same for all. Women are always concerned about security issues as they have to face so many
troublesome on the way of their work place and home and they have to suffer mostly from
much kind of diseases because of unhealthy living place. Therefore, within the group it differs
which has been indentified from the field and this is the 3rd objective of this study. Furthermore,
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it can be seen that meaning of life security to street children and Garments workers are not
same. It differs because of their different socio-economic background.
Including all of these, the group of day laborer do not have any guarantee of getting work
every day and the income of those works are too low therefore, they all have same needs of
increase income and work opportunity for their survival. They want to sustain with their family
as they have burden to lead the family. Fixed incomes, which at least ensure their sustenance is
the key requirement for them and for a fixed income, they need permanent work, which enable
them to earn money for their livelihood. As a result, there are no different opinions regarding
development within this group according to the 3rd objective in this study as I have found. They
all have said same words about development what they suffer from. As they are suffering from
uncertain work and income, they mean development means to accomplish those expectations.
However, there are many different perceptions between garments workers and day laborers as
they have different needs from their own perspectives. A garment worker has permanent job
and fixed monthly income though that is not sufficient for their livelihood as they mean
development from their perspective and day laborer does not have even any permanent work
so they mean development from their need. Conversely, life security and health development
are vital issues for domestic workers who work for fulfilling their minimum needs. Therefore,
almost all of them have same needs. They define development in terms of health development,
life security, and increase income so that their poverty would reduce and except for a better
work. I have summarized that they mean to life security and health development below:
In the group of domestic workers, it can be seen that, they do not have any safety at their living
place even where they work, sometimes they have to be harassed physically at their work, and
bad people tease them to abuse. Most of them are separated from their husband and it will
create more problems in their life, therefore they go outside for work. From this perspective
life, security means safe work place and home to domestic worker where they do not have
violence against them. On the other hand, have to suffer from many diseases for polluted
water, insanitary toilet, and kitchen. Therefore, health security is must for development.
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They think development from their needs as they do not have life security as female and most
of them do not have husband. Besides that, income and poverty reduction are most necessary
element for their livelihood. On the other hand, day laborers have different needs of a certain
work and they also need an approximate income for their survival. However, for that between
these two occupations have different perceptions regarding development. But, Rickshaw
pullers are not like domestic workers, they can earn monthly more 13 thousand taka if he works
hard on the other hand their monthly income range up to 8thousand taka. The young pullers
can work hard though too much hard work makes them sick. In addition, the aged pullers
cannot work hard as well as their physical strength is also little. In addition to this, political
instability makes their life insecure therefore; they feel insecure. Besides this, illiteracy makes
their life hell. People deceive them frequently. Because of this, almost all of them have same
perception regarding development. Political stability, which ensure their life security, health
security, ability to write and read, and finally income increase which is the main needs are
meant to development for them.
According to rickshaw pullers, life security means safe pulling rickshaw on road accident like
throwing petrol bomb, set fire to rickshaw can occur any time because of political unrest. On
the other hand, health security means physical strength and not being sick to them.
Between rickshaw pullers and domestic workers, have different needs. There are gender
differences between these two occupations as they have different perceptions regarding
development. CNG auto rickshaw drivers have comparatively higher income than other
occupation I have discussed so far. Therefore, they define development not only from their own
needs but also from national perspective like as, 47% of them have said to reduce poverty while
26% of said increase incomes. However, they also feel insecure with their life on the road
because of unrests. Rickshaw pullers and CNG auto drivers almost have similar perception and
little differences. Life security issues are similar to CNG auto drivers.
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Conversely, Students are the pillar for a nation as they can make any type of change in a
country for its development and advancement. They have defined development from various
perspectives for the sake of country’s welfare. Within this groups almost all female talks about
women empowerment, as they are very concerned about their rights. There are 48% of
students who talks about fulfill the target of MDGs, reducing population explosion, stopping
child labor, stopping violence against women and equity of men and women for the sake of
development in the country. They mean to development like this. There are eight millennium
development goals (MDGs) to fulfill by 2015. United Nations declares the eight goals in the year
of 2000:
“Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger; Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education;
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women; Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality; Goal 5:
Improve Maternal Health; Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases; Goal7: Ensure
Environmental Sustainability; Goal 8: Develop A Global Partnership for Development.”22
However, within this group, some said huger free, poverty alleviation, and increase income of
all level and groups of people is meant to development. On the other hand, some said, health
development and life security are must for development for that government should take steps
seriously with the support of development organizations and stopping political unrest as well as
ensure security of women by stopping sexual harassments, violence at home. Some said about
reducing unemployment and increase literacy rate for the higher growth of our GDP rate. There
are 36% of students said environment has to be saved for development. According to students,
stopping cutting trees, planting more trees, reducing noise, water and air pollution can save
environment.
4.3 Conclusion
In conclusion in this chapter I can say that, perception of development differ person to person.
Like, meaning of life security is different in different groups of people. Women and men want
22 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/global.shtml
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life security in different ways from their own needs and socio-economic background as
discussed in chapter 1. There are differences in understanding in perception of development as
people have different needs and academic and family background. Therefore, among the all
occupations different level of perceptions of development as the working class people are the
most unprivileged and ignored in the society, they define development from their own needs
and scarcity. On the other hand, students are the asset for a nation; therefore, they view
development in most vital issues, which can make possible development in Bangladesh.
Objectives of the study wanted to identify these differences.
Chapter 5 Findings and Conclusion
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Throughout the study, indentifying the understanding and perception of development across
different occupations various reasons has been found. Now I will be presenting of those in this
section in discussion.
1. Rural-Urban migration
As I have surveyed in Dhaka city, I have been found all the urban poor who have migrated from
rural to urban for their betterment. They live in slums and other places making messes with
cheap rent. They have to endure economic and social deprivation. They live in unstable forms
where is no certainty of fulfill basic needs at least. Except garments workers, most of are in
unregistered work where is no fixed income per month. Although garments workers are in
formal work but their income is also low. Therefore, they suffer from extreme poverty and
hunger. As the working people are mostly migrated to Dhaka city considered as urban poor.
They are excluded and deprived mostly from all decision-making process and parts in our
society.
According to UNICEF,
“Extreme poverty in rural areas is the key issue in driving the mass migration to urban centers.
Yet, poverty is also the reality in urban areas, as a growing population places further strains on
the limited infrastructure and services. Millions of slum-dwellers in Bangladesh live stressful
lives among teaming rubbish because there is no waste disposal system. Slum houses perch on
the edges of fetid cesspools as there is inadequate sewer drainage and little access to sanitary
latrines. Raw sewage and industrial waste continue to be discharged into rivers and ponds.
These unsanitary conditions are exacerbated by seasonal floods.”23
2. Lack of work opportunity
The urban poor have come from rural areas for a fixed work so that they can survive better
than where they were previously. However, most of them are unskilled labor and illiterate
therefore getting a fixed work is not easy to them. At the same time there is not much work as
well, which is registered. Therefore, most of them join in informal work that is not certain and
income is too low.
3. Insecurity and uncertainty23 http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/URBAN_Water_Sanitation_and_Hygiene.pdf
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Economic and social deprivation leads to lack of work opportunity, ill health, insecurity and
uncertainty that makes their life difficult to survive. Lack of work opportunity and low incomes
fell them into extreme poverty and make their life in full of insecurity and uncertainty. Not only
hunger but also housing safety is a big issue for them. Street children and the women who live
in that kind of dwelling areas are not safe in any side. They are used to be harassed most of the
times physically and teased by bad people at the same time are forced to do offense. In
addition, women are not safe at their work place where they do household works as domestic
workers. Moreover, political unrest makes hell the life of this working class who live from
hand-to-mouth as because at that moment they have life risk of being burnt or attacked by
bomb or picketers on the road much. Consequently, in the terms of security, these people are
extremely vulnerable.
4. Forced to do unlawful activity
Among the urban poor children and women are the most vulnerable. In most cases, children
have to be forced on the streets for wrongdoings or exploited as domestic slaves in the houses
of wealthy families. Children and women are exploited in many ways at their living place, work
place and on the road as well. Their rights are not achieved at all. They are often recruited by
unlawful organizations to serve as drug peddlers and so many illegal works.
5. Women are repeatedly harassed
There are so many female workers I have found during my survey have come Dhaka with a
hope for a new beginning. Some of them are divorced; some of them are separated from their
husband. The reason behind it, husband offers dowry to their wife and they failed to fulfill the
demand of their husband as a result they have to be the subject to tortured physically and then
divorced or separated. When they come to Dhaka for a work to survival, bad people start
bothering them in many ways.
6. Insanitation
Slum dwellers live in the insanitary place and lead unhealthy life. They have to suffer from many
health diseases for this. Most of them are unskilled labor and physically unfit as well and in
addition, an unhealthy dwelling place causes their life to full of misery.
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7. Lack of access to pure water causes heath dieses
They also have to drink polluted water and use which causes many skin disease and so many
waterborne diseases.
8. Fulfill the target of MDGs and reduce population explosion
Students perceive and suggest for the better progression fulfill the eight goals of MDGs at the
same time control over population, which affect on the environment also.
However, throughout the above discussion, the result of the study has been revealed and the
last and fourth objective of the study is fulfilled.
Conclusion
After the whole discussion, what I can say that, defining development in particular terms like
only economic growth is not simplistic way. This is a generalized view that people perceive and
think in different levels. Therefore, what Prof. Sen says the happiness is depicted though the
data analysis.
Bibliography
Gardner, Katy and David Lewis (1996), “Anthropology, Development and Post-modern Challenge”, pp.20-21
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Nolan, Riall (2002), “Development Anthropology: Encounters in the real world”, west view press, USA. Ch: 2, ‘The Rise of the Development Industry’, pp.34 -35
Todaro, Michale P. and Stephen C.Smith (2009), “Economic Development”, Printed in the United States of America, ch:1 and 3,pp.15-16 and 110.
Wills, Katie, Routledge (2005), “Theories and Practices of Development” Ch: 1,P. 28
Khan, Farida Chowdhury, Ahrar Ahmed and Munir Quddus( 2009), ‘Recreating the Commons? NGOs in Bangladesh” (Bangladesh Development Initiative at The University Press Limited), pp.8-10 and 41. Sen, Amartya (1999), New York, “Development as Freedom” P.14.
Sen, Amartya (1988), “Handbook of Development Economics”, Volume L , Chapter 1Edited by H. Chenery and T.N. Srinivasan © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., p.15.
Selim, Nadia (February 2009), “Domestic Service in Bangladesh A Case Study in Dhaka” p.30
Lewis, David, (2001), “The Management of Non-Governmental Development Organizations, An Introduction”, Routledge,London and New York, p.67.
Moazzem, KG and Saifa Raz ,( 2013 ), “Revision of the Minimum Wage in the RMG Sector in 2013 minimum wage structure”, Centre for Policy Dialogue Bangladesh (CPD) study, p:14.
"Police purge for Dhaka rickshaws".at BBC. December 20, 2002. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
Retrieved from the website:
See:http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/moronesj/human.dev.concept.summaries/The%20Human%20Development%20concept.docSee:http://personal.lse.ac.uk/lewisd/images/NonGovernmental%20Organizations%20and%20Development%20vouchers.pdf, ‘Non-Governmantal Organizations and Develpoement’ by David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji, p.24. See:https://koppa.jyu.fi/en/courses/134525/spring-2014/Sen-Concept-of-Development.pdfSee:http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/moronesj/human.dev.concept.summaries/The%20Human%20Development%20concept.doc and also http://www.arab-hdr.org/publications/contents/2002/ch1-e.pdfSee: Origins of the Human Development Approach at: http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/moronesj/human.dev.concept.summaries/The%20Human%20Development%20concept.docSee: http://www.uky.edu/AS/Courses/GEO260/Powerpoint/Concept_of_Development.ppt ’
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See:http://hr.law.vnu.edu.vn/sites/default/files/resources/management_of_non_governmental_development_organizations__an_introduction__.pdfSee: http://www.academia.edu/466731/THE_CONCEPT_OF_DEVELOPMENTSee: http://www.educ.kent.edu/community/vlo/perception/index.htmlSee:http://cpd.org.bd/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/CPD-on-Minimum-Wage.pdfSee: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_laborSee:http://www.expressionsltd.com/content/Publications/Domestic%20Service%20in%20Bangladesh.pdfSee: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_rickshawSee: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/global.shtmlSee: http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/URBAN_Water_Sanitation_and_Hygiene.pdf
Appendix
Questionnaire Code:
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Area name _______ Place ______ Time____
1. (Ka) Socio-Economic Background
1. Respondent’s name
2. Gender – 1)Male 2) Female
3. Age-1)Up to 25 2) 26-30 3)31-35 4)36-40 5)41-46 6)47-50 7)51-60 plus
4. Marital status -1) Married 2)Unmarried 3) Widowed 4)divorced 5)Separated
5. Family Size -1) up to 3; 2) 4-6; 3) 7-10; 4)10 plus; 5) Not Applicable
6. Occupation -1) Main Occupation: 1. Student 2. Day Laborer 3. Garments Worker 4.
Rickshaw puller 5. CNG auto rickshaw driver 6. Vendor 7. Mistri (Labor) 8. Street
children (Tokai) 9. Domestic worker 10. Unemployed 11. Others.
2) Subsidiary occupation? -1. What is that and why have you taken? 2. NO
7. Monthly Income -1) up to 3000 tk 2) 3001 -8000 tk 3)8001-13000 tk 4) 13001-20000
tk 5)20,001-30,000 tk 6)30,001-40,000 tk 7)40,001-60,000 plus 8) Not applicable
8. Academic Qualification-1) Able to write and read 2) Primary 3) Secondary 4) Higher
secondary 5) Graduate 6) Post-graduate 7) Illiterate
9. Living Place – 1) Land Lord 2) Rented house 3) Slum 4) Foot Path 5)Hostel 6) Mess 7)
Sublet 8)Others
10. Monthly House rent -1) up to 2000; 2) 2001-6000; 3)6001-9000; 4)9001-15000;
5)15001-20,000; 6) 20,000 plus; 7) Not applicable
2. (Kha) Self-Perception of respondents
1. Are you satisfied with your work/work place? – 1) Fully 2) Approximately 3) if not,
why: 1. People do not appreciate in this work; 2. Income is not much in this work 3.
Life risk is higher 4. Remuneration does not pay in time 5. This work does not go with
my efficiency 6. Work place is not suitable 7. Others. 4) Not Applicable
2. Social Status – 1) extreme poor 2. Poor 3. Lower class 4. Lower middle class 5.
Middle class 6. Upper middle class 7. Upper class 8. Rich, 9. Others
3. (Ga) Perception of development
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1. What do you mean by development? – 1) Hunger free 2) Poverty alleviation 3)Increase
income 4) Health development 5) Political Stability 6) Environmental development 7)
Employment opportunity 8) Work opportunity 9) Life security 10) Able to write and read 11)
others
2. What do you mean by development? Explain in your own language
3. Why have you seen development like this?