“Pendulum” of Indian policy
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““Pendulum” of Indian policyPendulum” of Indian policy
• Cycles of binary thinking Cycles of binary thinking
(“good” or “bad” Indian)(“good” or “bad” Indian)
• Policy swings betweenPolicy swings between
Autonomy and AssimilationAutonomy and Assimilation
• Policies intended to assimilate Policies intended to assimilate
often backfired on gov’toften backfired on gov’t
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Early Indian Policies Early Indian Policies • Treaties, 1770s-1871
– Took land but
recognized nationhood
• Removal, 1820s-50s– Moved tribes but
sparked resistance
• Reservations, 1830s-80s– Isolated tribes but
retained land base/self-rule
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Recent Indian Policies Recent Indian Policies • Allotment / boarding schools, 1880s-1920s
• Indian New Deal / Reorganization, 1930s-40s
• Termination/ Urban Relocation, 1950s-60s
• Political Self-Determination, 1970s-80s
• Economic/Cultural Self-Determination 1990s?
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ALLOTMENT ERA, 1880s-1920s ALLOTMENT ERA, 1880s-1920s
• General Allotment
Act, 1887 (Dawes Act)
• Privatized Indian lands
to create farmers
• Non-Indians
“checkerboarded”
most reservations
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Allotment, 1887-1934 Allotment, 1887-1934 Each tribal member
received allotment
(in trust 25 years)
Surplus land sold to
white settlers
Many allotted lands
taken through fraud(via language, kids, etc.)
Gov’ts foreclosed lands
for unpaid taxes
160
80
40
020406080
100120140160
Head ofhousehold
Singleadults
Kids
Alloted acreage
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Effects of Allotment Effects of Allotment Half of reservation lands lostHalf of reservation lands lost
Notion of individual
private property
(“break up tribal mass”)
Farming failed in
some regions.
BIA undermined
tribal governments
Split tribal membership
156
78
020
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1881 1900
Millions of acres
18 million acres allotted;
49 million acres surplus
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VulnerableVulnerablelands lands
Rich farmland
Forests (timber)
Lakefront
Minerals/oil
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Tribal18%
Alloted82%
OneidaOneida (1838) (1838)
2,581 acres2,581 acres
(1978 figures)
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Tribal13%
Alloted87%
Lac CourteLac CourteOreillesOreilles (1854) (1854)
30,529 acres30,529 acres
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Tribal20%
Alloted80%
Bad River (1854)Bad River (1854)41,802 acres41,802 acres
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Tribal62%
Alloted38%
Lac du Flambeau Lac du Flambeau (1854)(1854)
40,479 acres40,479 acres
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Tribal70%
Alloted30%
Red Cliff (1854)Red Cliff (1854)7,267 acres7,267 acres
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Tribal70%
Alloted30%
St. Croix (1934)St. Croix (1934)1,715 acres1,715 acres
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Federal attacks on sovereigntyFederal attacks on sovereignty
1885: Major Crimes Act creates federal jurisdiction over 7 crimes between Indians on Indian land:
(Murder, Manslaughter, Rape, Assault w/ intent to kill, Arson, Burglary, Larceny)
1886: Kagama decision extends federal “plenary power” over Indians to an “incontrovertible right.”
Congress passes ~ 5,000 laws regulating Indians--most without their consent or input.
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Boarding SchoolsBoarding Schools
• Removal of kids from family, landRemoval of kids from family, land
• Cultural assimilation/ChristianizingCultural assimilation/Christianizing
• Economic trainingEconomic training
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BIA and Mission School policiesBIA and Mission School policies
• Forced attendance
• Native name replaced
• Languages forbidden
• Hair, clothing changed
• Practicing traditions taboo
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St. Joseph’sSt. Joseph’sCatholic School,Catholic School,Menominee Res.Menominee Res.
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• Students learned toStudents learned to work the white systemwork the white system
• Students met other Students met other tribal memberstribal members
• Turned negative into Turned negative into “ “pan-Indian” (supratribal) pan-Indian” (supratribal) national movementnational movement
Unintended effectsUnintended effects
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Tribal backlashTribal backlashto allotmentto allotment
• 1894 Hopi petition
• Allotment ended in Southwest, 1911
• Merriam Report blamed allotment for poverty, 1928
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xxxxxxxxxx Early ProtestsEarly Protests
• Opposed allotment
• Christian churches against poverty • Lone Wolf decision kept Indians as
federal “wards”, 1903
• Nice decision: wards even if citizens,
1916
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Society of American IndiansSociety of American Indians
Favored“progressive”(assimilation)solutions Not “traditional”(tribal) solutions
But raisedpublic awareness
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Some veterans, allottees already citizens
Rest of Indians became dual citizens of U.S. & own nation
Kept “right of any Indian to tribal or other property”
Some traditionalists opposed U.S. citizenship
Indian Citizenship Act, 1924Indian Citizenship Act, 1924
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INDIAN NEW DEAL ERAINDIAN NEW DEAL ERA1930s-1940s1930s-1940s
• Indian Reorganization
Act (IRA), 1934
(Wheeler-Howard Act)
• Identified with FDR
& BIA’s John Collier
• Intended to end
allotment, start
autonomy
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Autonomy Effects of IRAAutonomy Effects of IRA
• (Altered) self-rule restored on some rezes
• Resisted by some tribes - Hopi, Pueblos
• Tensions between
traditional Chiefs &
IRA “tribal councils”
on some reservations
- Lakota, Iroquois
ak
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Assimilationist Effects of IRAAssimilationist Effects of IRA• Replaced traditional governance with U.S. model like corporate boards
• Companies had picked Tribal Council to sign mineral leases (Standard Oil on Navajo)
• Tribes to develop constitutions, hold elections, use foreign parliamentary procedures
• Interior/BIA controlled funds, could veto tribal decisions
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Settled (extinguished) tribal land claims until 1978
Tribe paid estmated “price per acre” of the land at time it was illegally taken ($1200 each to Potawatomi)
ICC did not return land; some tribes turned down $$
Indian Claims Commission, 1946Indian Claims Commission, 1946
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Cultural Survival through “Dark Ages”Cultural Survival through “Dark Ages”
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Termination Resolution (1953) to “free” successful tribes fromfederal gov’t, communal lands
Ended 109 tribes, subjected to state/local control
Federal services lost; privatelands lost via tax foreclosure
Major cause stimulating Indian rights movement;13 tribes restored
TERMINATIONTERMINATIONERA, 1950s-60s ERA, 1950s-60s
Menominee terminated, 1961-73
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NW Shoshone decision, 1942
(treaty rights only for “temporary occupancy”)
Public Law 280, 1953
(state law enforcement on rezes in 5 states, include. WI)
Tee-Hit-Ton decision, 1955
(Alaskan tribe has no pre-Conquest “aboriginal rights”)
Federal moves Federal moves vsvs. sovereignty . sovereignty
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Returning WWII, Korean war veterans fight for rights
National Congress of American Indians, 1944
American Indian Chicago Conference, 1961; NIYC 1963
Activism in 1950s-early 1960s Activism in 1950s-early 1960s
Iroquois protest at U.S.-Canada border for Jay Treaty
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Force Indians off reservation
by offering job training
opportunities in urban areas.
Individuals made to sign
agreements that they would
not return to their reservations.
Urban populations grew in LA,
NY, Chicago, Mpls, Denver,
Albuquerque, OKC, etc.
Relocation Act, 1956 Relocation Act, 1956
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Loss of Native culture &
languages, yet kept touch
with rural reservation
Increased contact among
different tribes; growth of
pan-Indian identity
Common experience of
urban poverty & struggle
Exposure to civil rights
activism, successes
Effects of Urban Effects of Urban Relocation, 1960s Relocation, 1960s
Chicago American
Indian Center
powwow
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POLITICAL SELF-DETERMINATION POLITICAL SELF-DETERMINATION ERA, 1970s-1980s ERA, 1970s-1980s
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American Indian Movement, 1968American Indian Movement, 1968
Founded at Stillwater Prison;
inspired by Black Panthers
Urban Indians monitored
Minneapolis police brutality
on Franklin Avenue
Made contact with traditional
chiefs on reservations; fused
urban and rural activism
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Alcatraz 1969Alcatraz 1969
Indians of All Tribes
occupies abandoned
San Francisco Bay prison
Cites law that unused
federal property
reverts to tribes
First major national
pan-Indian action
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Trail of Broken Treaties 1972Trail of Broken Treaties 1972
Caravan to Washington,
DC for self-determination
Unplanned occupation of
BIA headquarters before
1972 election
Nixon White House
embarrassed by clashes
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AIM 1972-73AIM 1972-73 AIM protests beating
death of Lakota elder
in Gordon, Nebraska
Police attack on
courthouse protesters in
leads to Custer, SD riot
AIM backs Lakota traditionalists
vs. corrupt Pine Ridge Chairman
Dick Wilson, and his Guardians
Of the Oglala Nation (GOON)
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AIM 1972-73AIM 1972-73 AIM protests beating
death of Lakota elder
in Gordon, Nebraska
Police attack on
courthouse protesters in
leads to Custer, SD riot
AIM backs Lakota traditionalists
vs. corrupt Pine Ridge Chairman
Dick Wilson, and his Guardians
Of the Oglala Nation (GOON)
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Wounded Knee 1973Wounded Knee 1973Taking a stand at the site of 1890 massacre on Pine
Ridge
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Wilson’s tribal governmentbacked by BIA, FBI,
U.S. Marshalls, military
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AIM and Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization in W.K.
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TraditionalLakota Chiefsredeclared anIndependent
Oglala Nation
Drew Indians from around
North America
Example oftraditionalself-rule?
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2 AIM killed; many injured; surrendered after 71 days
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AIM leaders tried, but few convicted ( FBI misconduct &COINTELPRO files)
After W.K.: 3 years of violence on Pine Ridge; up to 80 Lakota died
Oglala, June 26, 1975: 2 FBI , 1 AIM die; Day after land transfer.Peltier later convicted.
Aftermath of Aftermath of Wounded Knee SiegeWounded Knee Siege
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1960s-1970s romanticism1960s-1970s romanticism• Support for Native environmentalism
• Rebirth of “Noble Savage” images
• Chief Seattle speech rewritten to
emphasize ecological themes
Iron EyesCody ad
vs. pollution
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Pendulum swings to autonomyPendulum swings to autonomy
1975: Indian Self-determination and Educational Assistance Act lets tribes manage own housing, law-enforcement, health, social service, development.
1978: Indian Child Welfare Act gives tribes authority over most Indian adoption and child custody
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Menominee still poor after 1973restoration; needed hospital
Menominee Warrior Societyoccupies Alexian Novitiatenear Gresham
Battles with white vigilantes;National Guard separates sides
Milwaukee Coast Guard Stationoccupied, 1971 (used as school)
Wisconsin occupations, 1970sWisconsin occupations, 1970s
GreshamGresham
MilwaukeeMilwaukee
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International IndianTreaty Council, 1974;hemispheric networks
United Nations Indigenous PeoplesConference,Geneva, 1977
Longest Walk (SF to DC) opposeslegislation, 1978
1970s Activism1970s Activism
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Treaty rights backlash, 1980sTreaty rights backlash, 1980s
• Began in Northwest fishing conflicts, 1960s
• Sportsmen & reservation whites oppose tribal land use
• “Wise Use” resource & corporate interests
• WI, MN groups part of national movement
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Self-Determination Self-Determination extends to economy extends to economy
& culture,early 1990s& culture,early 1990s
• Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 1988
• Tribes allowed same level of games as their states
• Casinos give tribes new jobs, influence
• Public awareness of Columbus, mascots, sacred sites, etc.
Columbus Day Reburial ceremony
Seminole casino
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Big Foot Memorial RideBig Foot Memorial Ride
Commemorating
journey leading up to
1890 Wounded Knee
massacre
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Oka 1990Oka 1990Armed standoff betweenMohawk Warrior Society &Canadian Army over burialsite threatened by golf course
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Early 1990s romanticismEarly 1990s romanticism
• “Noble savages” in Dances with Wolves
• New Age groups exploit spirituality
• But growing support for Native environmental movement
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2000s backlash? 2000s backlash?
• Gaming revenue conflicts– “Rich Indians” message
(like Termination, anti-Semitism?)
• Reservation jurisdiction
conflicts– More conservative judges
• Tribes now have means
to fight back in this cycle? Schwarzenegger ads against tribal campaign donations :
The New “Terminator”?
WI Republican video oftribes “scalping” taxpayer
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Era Policy trend Global trend
1880s-1920s: Assimilation Imperialism/racism
1930s-1940s: Autonomy Economic reform
1950s-early 60s: Assimilation Cold War/individualism
1970s-early 90s: Autonomy Civil rights/liberation
Late 1990s-2000s: Assimilation? Anti-multiculturalism
Pendulum of Federal Indian PolicyPendulum of Federal Indian Policy