Ellen Jacobs Concordia University, Canada

Peer intrusions and self-esteem

Self-esteem has been reported to exert a high level of influence over the social behaviour of individuals. In this article the relation of self- esteem to a particular form of social behaviour - intrusions - is examined. Intrusive behaviour is defined as the encroachment upon another’s territory, invasion of another’s personal space or the disturbance of another’s thoughts or concentration. There are both positive, adaptive, prosocial and negative, unsocial types of intrusions. It is the nature of these forms of intrusions and their relation to self-esteem which is presented here.

Self-esteem is defined as ‘a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds toward himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and overt expressive behavior’ (Coopersmith, 1967: 5 ) .

LaBenne and Greene (1969) accord self-esteem the status of guiding, controlling and regulating performance and actions. What an individual believes and feels about himself is what directs the individual’s behaviour. The set of ideas which one has about oneself moulds and shapes one’s self-esteem which, in turn, influences one’s perception of situations and determines the way in which one will respond. These ideas about the self are derived from an accumulation of previous social interactions and experiences with others.

The initial social interactions in a young child’s life usually occur within the familial setting. Interactions with parents that are marked by warmth, acceptance, encouragement and support tend to produce children with high self-esteem. In contrast, harsh parents who provide no support or guidance and are uncaring in their interactions with their children tend to create individuals with negative feelings about themselves (Coopersmith, 1967). The initial

InternationalReview ofAppliedPsychology (SAGE, London, Beverly Hills and New Delhi), Vol. 34 (1985), 421-431

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interactions with parents as significant, others are instrumental in forming the child’s sense of worth and set the tone for the child’s style of relating to others.

Eventually the child’s world of significant others expands. This frequently occurs when the child leaves the confines of the home and embarks upon the preschool experience. The young child enters this new social situation with a ‘home-grown’ sense of self-competence, belonging and worth (Felker, 1974). Ensuing social encounters with peers and teachers have an effect upon how the child sees himself in relation to others and how valuable he perceives himself to be in the eyes of his peers (Ringness, 1975). This, in turn, has an effect upon the child’s future social interactions.

Empirical and experimental data indicate that there is a direct relationship between self-esteem and type of social behaviour exhibited (LaBenne and Green, 1969). Coopersmith (1967) found significant differences in the social behaviour of pre-adolescent boys who differed in levels of self-esteem. Those with high self- esteem enter social situations with the expectation that they will be well-received. They are more ‘assertive and vigorous’ in their social interactions and are active participants in group situations. The boys with low self-esteem behave in a self-conscious manner. They maintain a low profile in social situations, refrain from active participation in groups and studiously avoid attracting attention.

Similar differences in social behaviour were observed in a study of preschool children in a day care setting (Jacobs, 1977). Preschool children were observed while intruding upon their peers in diverse ways. For example, some marched into the middle of a sequestered group of peers and operated as though they had been part of the original group, while others placed themselves at the edge of the group’s territory and would venture no further. These intriguing differences in intrusive behaviours prompted the presented study.

The present study is an attempt to determine whether there is a relationship between the preschool child’s level of self-esteem and the type of intrusive behaviour displayed. Intrusions and responses to intrusions are examined for their aggressive or non-aggressive quality and their verbal or nonverbal nature.

The hypotheses of this study are (1) that a significant relationship exists between the self-esteem of the child and the display of intrusive behaviour; (2) that there is a positive relationship between self- esteem and response to intrusions; and (3) that low self-esteem children will refrain from intruding upon others.

Peer intrusions and self-esteem 423

Method

Subjects

A total of 100 children, forty-seven boys and fifty-three girls aged between three and five years participated in this study. The sample was drawn from children attending a private nursery school in Montreal, Quebec. The classroom groups were age-graded. The school served a primarily middle class socio-economic population. The children attended classes for two-and-a-half hours per day, five days a week.

Instruments

Measurement of intrusive behaviour In this study the observed social behaviours were rated as being intrusive if a child was seen encroaching upon another’s territory, invading another’s personal space or disturbing another’s thoughts/concentration.

A territorial encroachment was defined as the crossing over of an individual’s or a group’s boundaries and taking over a territory or a possession on a temporary or permanent basis (Altman, 1975). A territorial encroachment could be described operationally as a deft movement by one child to procure the toy which another child was using; or it might involve entering an already occupied block area and sitting precariously close to another child’s block structure.

An invasion of personal space was defined as the individual’s placement of himself so inappropriately close to another person as to cause discomfort. It might include intrusive staring, gazing, strange looks and actual physical contact (Altman, 1975). An invasion of personal space could be described operationally as an attempt by one child to place a hat on the head of another; or it might involve one child running a toy car along another child’s body.

A mental intrusion was defined as the interruption of an individual’s train of thought or concentration. It could be described operationally as one child calling to another who was occupied reading a book; or one child launching into an outrageously loud rendition of a song while his neighbour was working on a puzzle.

The intrusive behaviours and responses were categorized according to (1) the style of intrusion and response - verbal or

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nonverbal and (2) the quality of the intrusion and response - aggressive or non-aggressive. The aggressive or non-aggressive quality of the intrusion was rated in accordance with the definitions provided by the Walters, Pearce and Dahms’ study (1957). Aggression was defined generally as an attack or threatened attack upon another person or his possession either by gesture or provocative language. Non-aggression was defined as all of those interactions which had no inherent attempt to harm and included acts of friendliness, helpfulness and caring. The nine specific behaviours observed were aggressive verbal intrusions, aggressive nonverbal intrusions, non-aggressive verbal intrusions, non- aggressive nonverbal intrusions, aggressive verbal responses, aggressive nonverbal responses, non-aggressive verbal responses, non-aggressive nonverbal responses and no response to the intrusion.

Self-esteem

The preschool form of the Children’s Self Social Constructs Test (CSSCT) designed by Henderson et al., (undated) was used to determine levels of self-esteem. The selection of the CSSCT preschool form over other tests of self-esteem was based on the fact that it is designed for children aged thre.e to eight years and that it deals with how the child views himself in relation to significant others (Goodwin & Driscoll, 1980).

The preschool form of the CSSCT is a twenty-six item, nonverbal measure which is administered on an individual basis. The test is divided into six subscales which measure the following factors: (1) preference for significant others (mother, father, teacher or friends), (2) self-esteem, (3) realism size, (4) identification with significant others, ( 5 ) social interest, and (6) minority identification.

In the procedure for the administration of the CSSCT the child was presented with varied sets of arrangements of circles. The circles were used to represent the child while silhouette drawings represented significant others. The child was required to respond to the questions posed by pointing to the circle which represented where the child would place himself in relation to the significant others. The test required an average of fifteen minutes to administer.

The authors of the CSSCT reported split-half reliability coefficients ranging from 0.48 to 0.85 with amedian of 0.74 among a

Peer intrusions andself-esteem 425

sample of ninety-six beginning first grade children. The reliability coefficient for the self-esteem subscale was 0.77 (Henderson et al., undated).

Procedure

Observations took place during the free play period in the child’s own classroom setting over a four-month period. The focal child sampling method was utilized whereby each child was observed for a five-minute period. In this study twelve five-minute time segments were recorded for each child. An entry was made on the protocol sheet whenever the focal child intruded upon another child or was the target of an intrusion during the five-minute period of observation. A record was kept of the intruder, the target child, the type, quality and style of intrusion, and type, quality and style of response.

Before the actual data collection commenced the two observers participated in training sessions which began with the viewing of video tapes of intrusive behaviours. Once the observers were well- versed in the behaviours to be recorded, they engaged in a training period in a classroom setting. The training period terminated when an inter-rater reliability coefficient of 0.85 was achieved. Monthly reliability checks were conducted during the observation period. Although the inter-rater reliability coefficient dipped as low as 0.77 it also rose as high as 0.90, thus maintaining an acceptable inter-rater reliability coefficient of 0.83. Following the observation study the CSSCT was administered to each child.

A total self-esteem score was calculated for each subject in accordance with the instructions outlined in the test manual (Henderson et al., undated). This self-esteem total score was the measure used to examine the relationship between self-esteem and the nine categories of intrusive behaviours and responses.

Results

For the purpose of analysis the scores of the CSSCT were computed and a median split was used to divide the subjects into two groups, one of low esteem (G86) and one of high esteem (>,87). The mean age of the children in the two groups was 51.3 months and 51.4 months, respectively.

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In order to examine the relationship between self-esteem and intrusions, correlations between total scores on the CSSCT and intrusions were computed. To control for the possibility that boys and girls might display different social behaviours, the correlations were computed separately for each sex group. To control for the effects of differential social responses as a function of age, age was partialled out of the correlations. Correlations were computed for the nine behaviour categories, plus total aggressive behaviour, total response behaviour, total verbal behaviour, total intrusive behaviour and the total CSSCT score as well as the six subscale scores.

TABLE 1 Partial correlations between self-esteem (CSSCT) score and

intrusive behaviours and responses, controlling for age

Intrusions Total CSSCT Score and responses Male (N = 47) Female (N = 53)

Aggressive intrusion verbal .04 .13 nonverbal .29* - .07

Non-aggressive intrusion verbal .01 .08 nonverbal .27* - .26*

Aggressive response verbal .28* - .09 nonverbal .3 1 * - .05

verbal .01 . I 1 Non-aggressive response

nonverbal .I6 Total no response behaviour .33** Total aggressive behaviour .29* Total response behaviour .30** Total intrusive behaviour .24* Total verbal behaviour . I3

- .03 - .03 - .02 - .03 - .10

.08

*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.

As indicated in Table 1, there was a significant relationship between self-esteem and several social behaviours in boys, but not in girls. In boys, high self-esteem was significantly and positively related to the total amount of aggressive behaviour they displayed. This relationship was accounted for by the relationship between high self-esteem and aggressive nonverbal intrusions, aggressive verbal responses and aggressive nonverbal responses.

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TABLE 2 Partial correlations between self-esteem (CSSCT) score and

intrusive behaviours and responses, controlling for sex

Intrusions and responses

Total CSSCT Score Younger Older (N = 53) (N = 47)

Aggressive intrusion verbal .20 - .03 nonverbal .18 . I 8

verbal - .05 . I 1 nonverbal .09 .01

Non-aggressive intrusion

Aggressive response verbal nonverbal

verbal nonverbal

Non-aggressive response

Total no response behaviour Total aggressive behaviour Total response behaviour Total intrusive behaviour Total verbal behavjour

.26*

.26*

.10

.02

.07

.25*

.16

.14

.17

.02

.06

- .02 .17 .30* .08 .20 .08 .04

p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

There was also a general significant, positive relationship between self-esteem and total intrusive behaviour and between self-esteem and the amount of response behaviour shown by boys. Furthermore, there was a positive and significant relationship between self-esteem and the boys’ tendency to ignore (make no response to) intrusions from others.

For preschool girls, self-esteem seemed to be unrelated to patterns of social interaction measured in this study. The only exception to this conclusion was the significant negative correlation between self- esteem and non-agressive, nonverbal intrusions. The data showed that girls with low self-esteem seemed to be more likely to enter groups cautiously and quietly trying to avoid drawing attention to themselves.

In a second set of correlations the relationship between the self- esteem scores and intrusive behaviour of younger (Group 1 < 53 months) and older (Group 2 2 54 months) children were examined. To control for the effects of gender, sex was partialled out of the

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correlations. As indicated in Table 2, for the younger children there was a positive correlation between self-esteem and total aggressive behaviour. In particular, there was a significant relationship between self-esteem and aggressive verbal responses and aggressive nonverbal responses. For the older children there was a significant relationship between self-esteem and the ignoring of intrusions (no response).

Discussion

The results of the present study show that there is a positive relationship between self-esteem and intrusive behaviour for the preschool boys. It seems that the expectation of acceptance and success of the high esteem boys fuels their intrusive behaviour and helps them enter ongoing social situations with ease. This is consistent with Coopersmith’s (1967) findings that preadolescent boys with high self-esteem enter social situations with confidence.

An examination of particular types of intrusions shows that for the boys, there is a positive correlation between high esteem and non- aggressive nonverbal intrusions. The observational records of this study show that displays of non-aggressive nonverbal intrusions include walking over to an occupied peer and tapping the child on the shoulder, patting a peer on the back as agreeting and hugging a peer in a display of emotion; while a less sociable form involves entering a play activity without requesting permission to do so from the original group. It seems that the positive sense of self-worth of these high esteem boys gives them the confidence to operate as they do.

There is a positive correlational relationship between high esteem and aggressive intrusions for the preschool boys. The determination, dominance and assertiveness which are characteristic behavioural manifestations of preadolescent high esteem boys is expressed in an aggressive manner in the preschool boys in this study. The most common forms of aggressive intrusion noted involve the snatching of a possession away from another child, using force to take over the leadership of an activity, and pushing and shoving.

An analysis of responses to intrusions indicates that there is a positive correlation between self-esteem and the amount of responsive behaviour shown by the boys. In particular, aggressive verbal and aggressive nonverbal responses are correlated with the boys’ self-esteem. This correlation may be related to the intensity of the intrusion.

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Observations of intrusions in the present study lead to the clinical impression that intrusions can be either innocuous or terribly disruptive. In a mild intrusion it is possible to acknowledge the intruder without having to shift one’s attention away from an activity, but a disruptive intrusion can change the nature of the activity abruptly or can bring it to a complete halt. As high esteem boys are noted for their assertiveness and dominant behaviour, it is not surprising that in this study, they respond to disruptive responses in an aggressive manner. Their aggressive verbal responses include threats, name-calling and invective, while their aggressive nonverbal responses take the form of hitting, pushing and punching.

There is a significant correlation between high esteem scores and the lack of response to intrusions for the boys and the older children in this study. This finding for the boys might seem to be incongruous with the discussion of aggressive responses and self-esteem. However, the high esteem boys, being confident individuals, do not appear to be threatened by innocuous intrusions, hence they show no visible response to this type of intrusion. Disruptive intrusions seem to bring to the fore their assertive, dominant nature and result in vigorous, aggressive responses.

The positive correlation for the older children may be due to maturation. It seems likely that the older children have developed the ability to moderate and control their responses to intrusions and to handle intrusions in a calm, socially acceptable manner.

A negative correlation between self-esteem and non-aggressive nonverbal intrusions for girh is evident in this study. This is consistent with Coopersmith’s (1967) finding that low esteem individuals behave in a manner which will not draw attention to themselves. Non-aggressive nonverbal intrusions seem to be the least likely to attract another child’s attention. However, this finding does not support the hypothesis that children with low self-esteem would refrain from intruding upon others.

It is interesting to note that a positive correlation exists between self-esteem and non-aggressive nonverbal behaviour for the boys. The difference between the findings for the boys and the girls may be explained by the lack of complexity in the observational recording sheets. Although non-aggressive nonverbal entry behaviours were recorded as they occurred, no provision was made for the recording of the affect associated with the intrusion. Consequently when a subject was seen entering the activity area of others, a non-aggressive nonverbal intrusion was scored. The fact that the child was seated

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quietly beside one child rather than in the middle of the group was embedded in the recorded data and was difficult to retrieve. In a follow-up study the recording process will be redesigned to solve this problem.

There are two apparent trends in this study. One trend is age related. There is a significant positive relationship between level of self-esteem and aggressive behaviour for the younger children, whereas there is a positive relationship between self-esteem and ‘no responses’ for the older children. It would seem that aggressive behaviour gives way to more moderate, socially acceptable behaviour as the children get older. The second trend is related to gender. There is a significant positive relationship between level of self-esteem and aggressive behaviour for the boys, whereas there is no significant relationship of this type for the girls. It would seem that for the boys, level of self-esteem has an effect upon the behaviour examined in this study, whereas it does not appear to have an effect upon the girls.

A number of issues arise from this study, but one of prime importance is whether a child’s ability to respond appropriately to intrusions will have an effect upon the child’s popularity within a peer group. A follow-up study is currently under way to answer this question.

References

Altman, I. (1975). The Environmenf and Social Behavior. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Anfecedents of Self-Esfeem. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

Felker, D.W. (1974). Building Positive SelfConcepts. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing.

Goodwin, W.L. and Driscoll, L.A. (1980). Handbook for Measurement and Evaluation in Early Childhood Educafion. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Henderson, E.H., Long, B.H. and Ziller, R.C. (undated). Manual for the Seu- Social Symbols Tasks and the Children’s Self-Social Construcfs Tests. Charlottes- ville: Virginia Research Associates.

Jacobs, E.G. (1977, November). ‘Privacy Seeking Behavior in the Day Care Environment’. Paper presented at the Conference of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Chicago, Illinois.

LaBenne, W.D. and Greene, B.1. (1969). Educational Implications of Selfconcept Theory. Pacific Palisades: Goodyear Publishing.

Ringness, T.A. (1975). The Affective Domain in Educafion. Boston: Little, Brown.

Peer intrusions andselfesteem 43 I

Walters, J., Pearce, P. and Dahms, L. (1957). ‘Affectional and Aggressive Behavior of Preschool Children’. Child Developinen!, 28 ( I ) : 15-16,

Les manifestations d’ingerence entre les enfants d’age prescolaire et leur estime de soi

Cette recherche relie les comportements importuns d’enfants d’ige prescolaire a leur estime de soi. On a suppose qu’il existait une relation entre l’estime de soi et la manifestation d’ingkrences prosociales et antisociales, qu’il y avait un lien entre l’estime de soi et les reactions aux ingkrences et que les enfants ayant une estime de soi faible s’abstenaient d’importuner les autres. Au total, ce sont 100 enfants (quarante-sept garcons et cinquante-trois filles iiges de trois a cinq ans) qui ont ete observes grace a la methode de l’enfant cible. Douze ptriodes de cinq minutes ont i te enregistrks pour chaque enfant et on a comptabilise les moments oh l’enfant cible importunait les autres et ceux durant lesquels il etait importune. Le Children’s Self-social Constructs Test a ete administre a chaque sujet afin de determiner son score d’estime de soi.

L’analyse des donnees a mis en evidence deux variables pertinentes: l’ige et le sexe. Le score d’estime de soi a ete compare au degrk de maturite et aux types de comportements observes.