Pedro Albizu Campos 1

Pedro Albizu Campos

Pedro Albizu Campos

Pedro Albizu Campos

Born June 29, 1893 orSeptember 12, 1891Ponce, Puerto Rico

Died April 21, 1965 (aged 71 or 73)San Juan, Puerto Rico

Nationality Puerto Rican

Alma mater Harvard University

Organization Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

Religion Roman Catholic (after Harvard)[1][2][3]

Spouse Laura Meneses

Don Pedro Albizu Campos[4] (June 29, 1893 (real date) or September 12, 1891 – April 21, 1965) was the firstPuerto Rican to graduate from Harvard Law School, a Puerto Rican patriot, and the leading figure in the PuertoRican independence movement.Albizu Campos was the president and spokesperson of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from 1930 until his death.He was imprisoned for many years, on multiple occasions, in both the United States and Puerto Rico, on charges thatincluded seditious conspiracy.He died shortly after his release from federal prison, from medical conditions created by the imprisonment itself.Because of his profound patriotism and oratorical skill, he was hailed asEl Maestro (The Teacher).

Pedro Albizu Campos 2

Biography

Early yearsAlbizu Campos was born in the Tenerías sector of Barrio Machuelo Abajo in Ponce, Puerto Rico to AlejandroAlbizu and Juana Campos. He was the nephew of danza composer Juan Morel Campos, and cousin of Puerto Ricaneducator Dr. Carlos Albizu Miranda.

EducationAlbizu Campos graduated from Ponce High School.[5] In 1912, Albizu was awarded a scholarship to studyEngineering, specializing in Chemistry at the University of Vermont. In 1913 he continued his studies at HarvardUniversity.At the outbreak of World War I, he volunteered in the United States Infantry. Albizu was commissioned a SecondLieutenant in the Army Reserves and sent to the City of Ponce where he organized the town's Home Guard. He wascalled to serve in the regular Army and sent to Camp Las Casas for further training. Upon completing the training, hewas assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment. Puerto Ricans of African descent were assigned to the all black unitssuch as the 375th Regiment, in accordance with U.S. military segregation policies.

Lieutenant Pedro Albizu Campos (U.S.Army)

Albizu was honorably discharged from the Army in 1919, with the rank ofFirst Lieutenant. During his military service he was exposed to the racism ofthe day. This deepened his perspective on U.S.- Puerto Rican relations, andled him toward becoming the leading advocate for Puerto Ricanindependence.[6]

In 1919, Albizu returned to Harvard University and was elected president ofthe Harvard Cosmopolitan Club. He met with foreign students and worldleaders, such as Subhas Chandra Bose (Indian Nationalist leader withMahatma Gandhi) and the Hindu poet Rabindranath Tagore. He becameinterested in the cause of Indian independence, and also helped to establishseveral centers in Boston for Irish independence. Through this work, Albizumet Éamon de Valera and later became a consultant in the drafting of theconstitution of the Irish Free State.

Albizu Campos graduated from Harvard Law School while simultaneouslystudying Literature, Philosophy, Chemical Engineering and Military Science at Harvard College. He was fluent insix modern and two classical languages: English, Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Italian, Latin and Greek.

Upon graduation from law school, Albizu was heavily recruited - with a law clerkship to the U.S. Supreme Court, adiplomatic post with the U.S. State Department, the regional vice-presidency (Caribbean region) of a U.S.agricultural syndicate, and a tenured faculty appointment to the University of Puerto Rico. He rejected all theseoffers and returned to his hometown of Ponce, where he opened a one-man law office. It was located in a particularlyunderprivileged neighborhood called La Cantera, and he accepted payment in-kind (food, water, clothing) if theclient did not have any money.[7]

Harvard ValedictorianOn June 23, 1921, after graduating from Harvard Law School, Albizu returned to Puerto Rico - but without his lawdiploma. He had been the victim of racial discrimination by one of his professors, who delayed his third-year finalexams for courses in Evidence and Corporations. The reason for this "delay" was openly racist. Albizu was about tograduate with the highest grade-point average in his entire law school class. As such, he was scheduled to give theValedictory speech during the graduation ceremonies. This was deemed to be an "embarrassment," and so his exams

Pedro Albizu Campos 3

were delayed.Albizu left the U.S., took and passed the two exams in Puerto Rico, and in June 1922, his law degree was mailed tohim. 'Meanwhile, also in 1922, Albizu married Dr. Laura Meneses, a Peruvian whom he had met at HarvardUniversity. Albizu presented his credentials before the U.S. Federal Court in Puerto Rico for admission to the bar,and was approved to practice law in Puerto Rico on February 11, 1924.[8][9]

Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

Don Pedro Albizu Campos, 1936

In 1924, Albizu Campos joined the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party andwas elected vice president. In 1927, Albizu traveled to Santo Domingo,Haiti, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela, seeking solidarityfor the Puerto Rican Independence movement.

In 1930, there were some disagreements between Albizu and José Colly Cuchí, president of the Party, as to how it should be run. As a resultColl y Cuchí abandoned the party and some of his followers returnedto the Union Party. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was electedpresident of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and formed the firstWomen's Nationalist Committee, in the island municipality of Vieques,Puerto Rico.

The election of Pedro Albizu Campos as president of the NationalistParty radically changed the organization and tactics of the party. Afterbeing elected party president he declared: "I never believed innumbers. Independence will instead be achieved by the intensity ofthose that devote themselves totally to the Nationalist ideal."[10] Underthe slogan "la patria es valor y sacrificio" (the motherland is valor and sacrifice) a new campaign of nationalaffirmation was carried out. This idea of self-sacrifice co-existed with Albizu's Catholic faith.[11]

"Cancer research" by Dr. Rhoads

In 1932, Albizu published a manuscript accusing Dr. Cornelius P. Rhoads ofkilling Puerto Rican patients in San Juan's Presbyterian Hospital, as part of hismedical experiments for the Rockefeller Institute. Albizu quoted as his source aletter, received from a third party, in which Dr. Rhoads admitted to injectingPuerto Rican patients with live cancer cells:

"The PortoRicans(sic) arethe dirtiest,laziest,mostdegenerateand

thievish race of men ever to inhabit thissphere...I have done my best to further the process of extermination by killing

Pedro Albizu Campos 4

off eight and transplanting cancer into several more...All physicians takedelight in the abuse and torture of the unfortunate subjects." [12]

The letter contained profoundly racist statements. It dehumanized Puerto Ricans completely, boasted of"killing off eight" of them, and "transplanting cancer into several more." [13]

An investigation into this letter was conducted, which found "no evidence of malicious activity" by Dr. Rhoads, anddiscredited Albizu Campos for "misinterpreting" letter. Apparently the investigators found some ambiguity in thewords "extermination, killing off eight,"and "transplanting cancer into several more."

With his reputation intact, Dr. Rhoads went on to head two large chemical warfare projects in the 1940s, assisted theUnited States Atomic Energy Commission,[14] and was awarded the U.S. Legion of Merit. He was lionized in theU.S. press as a trail-blazing "cancer fighter," and even placed on the cover of Time Magazine.Years later, in 2003, an independent investigation into Dr. Rhoads's "cancer research" in Puerto Rico was led by theeminent bioethicist Dr. Jay Katz of Yale University. Their findings confirmed Albizu Campos' original concerns,that Puerto Rican patients were being used as "cancer guinea pigs." The American Association for Cancer Researchthen removed Dr. Rhoads' name from their annual award intended for an "individual on the basis of meritoriousachievement in cancer research."

Early Nationalist effortsThe Nationalist Party obtained poor results in the 1932 election, but continued with their campaign to unite the islandbehind an independent Puerto Rico. At the same time, continued repression from the United States against PuertoRican independence was now met with armed resistance.In 1933, Albizu led a strike against the Puerto Rico Railway and Light and Power Company for alleged monopoly onthe island.The following year, he represented sugar cane workers as a lawyer against the U.S. sugar industry.

First ArrestIn 1935, four Nationalists were killed by the police under the command of Colonel E. Francis Riggs. The incidentbecame known as theRio Piedras massacre. The following year in 1936, Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp assassinatedColonel Riggs. They were arrested and executed, without a trial, at police headquarters in San Juan.After these events, the U.S Federal Court in San Juan ordered the arrest of Albizu Campos and several otherNationalists for "seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. Government in Puerto Rico." A jury of seven PuertoRicans and five Americans voted 7-to-5 not guilty. However, Judge Cooper called for a new jury, this timecomposed of ten Americans and two Puerto Ricans, and a guilty verdict was achieved.[15]

In 1937 a group of lawyers, including a young Gilberto Concepción de Gracia, tried in vain to defend theNationalists, but the Boston Court of Appeals, which holds appellate jurisdiction over federal matters in Puerto Rico,upheld the verdict. Albizu Campos and the other Nationalist leaders were sent to the Federal penitentiary in Atlanta,Georgia.In his 1939 speech Five Years of Tyranny, U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio called the trial a "frame-up," and "one of the blackest pages in the history of American jurisprudence." [16] Congressman Marcantonio provided evidence that Albizu Campos' jury had been profoundly prejudiced, since it had been hand-picked by the prosecuting attorney Mr. Cecil Snyder. The jury, as picked by Snyder, consisted of people "who had expressed publicly bias and hatred for the defendants." In addition, Snyder had been assured via a dispatch from Washington that "the

Pedro Albizu Campos 5

Department of Justice would back him until he did get a conviction." Marcantonio added:"The continuance of this [Albizu Campos] incarceration is repugnant to our democratic form ofgovernment; it is repugnant to our Bill of Rights and out of harmony with our good neighbor policy.There is no place in America for political prisoners. As long as Puerto Rico remains part of the UnitedStates, Puerto Rico must have the same freedom, the same civil liberties, and the same justice which ourforefathers laid down for us. Only a complete and immediate unconditional pardon will, in a very smallmeasure, right this historical wrong." [17]

Congressman Marcantonio then concluded, "When we ask ourselves, 'Can it happen here?' the Puerto Rican peoplecan answer, 'It has happened in Puerto Rico.'" [18]

In 1943, Albizu became seriously ill and had to be interned at the Columbus Hospital of New York. He stayed thereuntil nearly the end of his sentence.In 1947, after ten years of imprisonment, Albizu returned to Puerto Rico. Within a short period of time, he beganpreparing for an armed struggle against the United States' plan to turn Puerto Rico into a "commonwealth" of theU.S.

Passage of Law 53In 1948, a bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which authorized the repeated arrest of AlbizuCampos, and a round-the-clock surveillance of every Nationalist in Puerto Rico. The Senate at the time wascontrolled by the PPD and presided by Luis Muñoz Marín.[19]

The 1947 House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) hearings in session. Anumber of Hollywood filmmakers were summoned, blacklisted, and their careers

were destroyed as a consequence of the Smith Act.[20]

The bill, known as Law 53 and the Ley dela Mordaza (Gag Law), passed thelegislature on May 21, 1948 and wassigned into law on June 10, 1948, by theU.S.-appointed governor of Puerto RicoJesús T. Piñero. It closely resembled theanti-communist Smith Law passed in theUnited States - and it created as muchchaos on the island, as Senator JosephMcCarthy and the House Un-AmericanActivities Committee did, on the mainlandU.S.[21]

Under this law it became a crime to ownor display a Puerto Rican flag anywhere,even in one's own home. It also became acrime to speak against the U.S.government; to speak in favor of PuertoRican independence; to print, publish, sellor exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group orassembly of people with a similar destructive intent.Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years imprisonment, a fine of$10,000 dollars (US), or both.According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, member of the Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican StatehoodParty) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who did not belong to the PPD, the lawwas repressive and in direct violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees Freedom ofSpeech.[22]

Pedro Albizu Campos 6

Figueroa pointed out that every living Puerto Rican had been "granted" irrevocable U.S. citizenship, so that theycould fight in World War I and other American armed conflicts. As such, from 1917 onward, every Puerto Ricanwas born with full citizenship, and full U.S. constitutional protections. Therefore Law 53 was unconstitutional, sinceit violated the First Amendment rights of every Puerto Rican.[23]

Second ArrestPedro Albizu Campos was jailed again after the October 30 Nationalist revolts in various Puerto Rican cities andtowns against United States rule in 1950. Among the more notable of the revolts was the Jayuya Uprising, when agroup of Puerto Rican Nationalists, under the leadership of Blanca Canales, held the town of Jayuya for three days,the Utuado Uprising which culminated in what is known as the "Utuado Massacre," and the attack on La Fortaleza(the Puerto Rican governor's mansion).On October 31, police officers and National Guardsmen surrounded Salón Boricua, a barbershop in Santurce.Believing that a group of Nationalists were inside the shop, they opened fire. The only person in the shop was AlbizuCampos' personal barber, Vidal Santiago Díaz. Santiago Díaz fought alone against the attackers for three hours andreceived five bullet wounds, including one in the head. The entire gunfight was transmitted "live" via the radioairwaves, and was heard all over the island.Overnight Santiago Díaz, the courageous barber who survived an armed attack by forty police and NationalGuardsmen, became a legend throughout Puerto Rico.[24]

On November 1, 1950, Nationalists Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola attacked the Blair House in Washington,D.C. where president Harry S. Truman was staying while the White House was being renovated. During the attackon the president, Torresola and a policeman, Private Leslie Coffelt, were killed.Because of this assassination attempt, Albizu Campos was immediately attacked at his home. After a shootout withthe police, Campos was arrested and sentenced to 80 years in prison. Over the next few days, 3,000 independencesupporters were arrested, all over the island.Albizu was pardoned in 1953 by then governor Luis Muñoz Marín but the pardon was revoked the following yearafter the 1954 nationalist attack of the United States House of Representatives, when four Puerto Rican Nationalists,led by Lolita Lebrón opened fire from the gallery of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C..

Later years and deathThe FBI files show that during his imprisonment, Albizu Campos' health deteriorated severely.[25] In 1956, hesuffered a stroke in prison and was transferred to San Juan's Presbyterian Hospital under police guard. He allegedthat he was the subject of human radiation experiments in prison and stated that he could see colored raysbombarding him. When he wrapped wet towels around his head in order to shield himself from the radiation, theprison guards ridiculed him as El Rey de las Toallas (The King of the Towels).Officials suggested that Albizu was insane - but many doctors were able to examine Albizu, and test him for signs ofradiation. The President of the Cuban Cancer Association, Dr. Orlando Damuy, traveled to Puerto Rico to examinehim. Dr. Damuy concluded, from his direct physical examination of Albizu, that the burns on Albizu's body werecaused by intense radiation. It is said when they placed a metal paper clip with a film on Albizu's skin, the clip wasradiated into the film. It is also said he did not receive any medical attention for five days and instead suffered.On November 15, 1964, on the brink of death, Albizu was finally pardoned by Governor Muñoz Marin. He died onApril 21, 1965. More than 75,000 Puerto Ricans carried the remains of his body to the Old San Juan Cemetery.[26]

In 1994, under the administration of President Bill Clinton, the United States Department of Energy disclosed thathuman radiation "experiments" had in fact been conducted without consent on prisoners during the 1950s and 1970s.It has been alleged that Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos was among the subjects of such experimentation.[27]

Pedro Albizu Campos 7

The FBI files on Albizu CamposIn the 2000s (decade), it was revealed that the San Juan FBI office had coordinated with FBI offices in New York,Chicago and other cities, in a decades-long surveillance of Albizu Campos and any Puerto Rican who had contact orcommunication with him. Through the Freedom of Information Act, these documents were released to the public andthey are now viewable online, including documents as recent as 1965.[28][29]

Legacy

The Pedro Albizu Campos statue and monument at the Pedro AlbizuCampos Park in his birthplace of Ponce, Puerto Rico.

External audioYou may listen to one of the speeches made in Spanish by Albizu Campos here [30]

and view a portion of the Albizu Documentary Trailer made in English here [31].

Albizu's legacy is the subject of passionate discussion by both followers and detractors. His followers state thatAlbizu's political and military actions served (even unintentionally) as a primer for positive change in Puerto Rico,these being:•• the improvement of labor conditions for peasants and workers•• a belated yet more accurate assessment of the colonial relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States•• an awareness of this colonial relationship, by the political establishment in Washington, D.C.Albizu can definitely be credited with preserving and promoting Puerto Rican Nationalism and national symbols, at atime where they were virtually a taboo in the country - and even actively outlawed by Law 53, known as La Ley dela Mordaza (the Gag Law). The formal adoption of the Puerto Rican flag as a national emblem by the Puerto Ricangovernment can be traced to Albizu (even while he denounced this adoption as the "watering-down" of an otherwisesacred symbol into a "colonial flag"); the revival of public observance of the Grito de Lares and its significant iconswas a direct mandate from him as leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.Albizu was the most vocal and visible Puerto Rican of African descent of his generation. Afro-Puerto Rican leadersof other political extractions (such as Ernesto Ramos Antonini and Jose Celso Barbosa) attained similar status onlyafter facing (and enduring) considerable bouts with racism. Albizu, while not exempt from it, confronted it anddenounced it publicly.In Chicago, an alternative high school named the Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos Puerto Rican High School, is located in the city's Puerto Rican Cultural Center. There, students learn about Puerto Rican history and culture, in the context of

Pedro Albizu Campos 8

local community development. Archives there include original letters, representations of Albizu Campos in sculptureand art, as well as other material related to his life.In New York City, Public School 161 in Harlem, was named after him in 1976.In Puerto Rico, five public schools are named after him, as well as numerous streets in most of Puerto Rico'smunicipalities.In his birthplace of Ponce, there is a Pedro Albizu Campos park dedicated to his memory, which includes a full-bodystatue of the Nationalist leader.

Notes[1] The Albizu End of Summer Update. Albizu: The Documentary. (http:/ / www. whoisalbizu. com/ ?cat=1)[2] American Gunfight: The Plot to Kill Harry Truman--and the Shoot-out that Stopped it. By Stephen Hunter and John Bainbridge, Jr. (New

York: Simon & Schuster. 2007.) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5b2dnzu54ZEC& pg=PA27#v=onepage& q& f=false)[3] La Nación Puertorriqueña: ensayos en torno a Pedro Albizu Campos. By Juan Manuel Carrión, Teresa C. Gracia Ruiz. Page 145. (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?id=WYFLDhPN4xQC& pg=PA145& lpg=PA145)[5] Puerto Rico's Secret Police/FBI Files on Suspect #4232070, Pedro Albizu Campos. (http:/ / www. pr-secretfiles. net/ binders/

HQ-105-11898_13_13_45. pdf) Federal Bureau of Investigation. In, "Freedom of Information - Privacy Acts Section. Office of Public andCongressional Affairs. Subject: Pedro Albizu Campos. File Number 105-11898, Section XIII." Page 38. Retrieved 31 December 2011.

[6] Negroni, Héctor Andrés (1992) (in Spanish). Historia militar de Puerto Rico. Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario. ISBN 8478441387.[7] American Gunfight (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5b2dnzu54ZEC& pg=PA27& dq="pedro+ abizu+ campos"+ catholic&

as_brr=3#PPA28,M1). Simon and Schuster. 2005. ISBN 0743281950. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.[8] Juramentacion de Pedro Albizu Campos como Abogado: Regreso de Harvard a Puerto Rico. Periodico "La Voz de la Playa de Ponce",

November 2010. (http:/ / entraysale. com/ noticias. php?id_noticia=83)[9] Juramentacion de Pedro Albizu Campos como Abogado: Regreso de Harvard a Puerto Rico. Periodico "La Voz de la Playa de Ponce",

Edicion 132, November 2010. Page 7. A reproduction of a segment from the book "Las Llamas de la Aurora: Pedro Albizu Campos, unacercamiento a su biografia" by Marisa Rosado (San Juan, Puerto Rico: Ediciones Puerto. 1991.)

[10] Maldonado, A. W. (2004). LMM: Puerto Rico's democratic revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aP2rD2wtmVMC&pg=PA87). La Editorial, UPR. ISBN 0847701581. .

[11] Bridging the Atlantic (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4KBKj7f9E7EC& pg=PA129& dq=pedro+ albizu+ campos&as_brr=3#PPA145,M1). SUNY Press. 1996. ISBN 0791429172. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.

[12][12] Packard, Gabriel. RIGHTS:Group Strips Racist Scientist's Name from Award. IPS.org 29 April 2003 21:45:36 GMT[13][13] Packard, Gabriel. RIGHTS:Group Strips Racist Scientist's Name from Award. IPS.org 29 April 2003 21:45:36 GMT[14] Brief History of Secret Human Experimentations on Involuntary or Uninformed Subjects (https:/ / targetedindividualscanada. wordpress.

com/ tag/ dr-cornelius-rhoads/ )[15] The Imprisionement of Men and Women Fighting Colonialism, 1930 - 1940 (http:/ / www. prdream. com/ patria/ timelines/ timeline1-1930.

html) Retrieved December 9, 2009.[16] Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st Sess.,81:10780 Appendix[17] Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st Sess., 81:10780, (Appendix)[18] Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st Sess.,81:10780 (Appendix)[19] "La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948-2008)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón (http:/ / academiajurisprudenciapr. org/ en/

revistas/ volumen-vii/ )[20] See, e.g., Schwartz, Richard A. (1999). "How the Film and Television Blacklists Worked" (http:/ / comptalk. fiu. edu/ blacklist. htm).

Florida International University. . Retrieved 2010-03-03.[21] "Puerto Rican History" (http:/ / www. topuertorico. org/ history5. shtml). Topuertorico.org. January 13, 1941. . Retrieved November 20,

2011.[22] Ley Núm. 282 del año 2006 (http:/ / www. lexjuris. com/ lexlex/ leyes2006/ lexl2006282. htm)[23] La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría (http:/ / issuu. com/ jaimepartsch/ docs/ jes_s_t. _pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p)[24] Premio a Jesús Vera Irizarry (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ jvi_vera/ PremioNFCB. html&

date=2009-10-26+ 01:06:46)[25] FBI File on Albizu Campos while Albizu Campos was in the hospital. (http:/ / www. pr-secretfiles. net/ binders/ SJ-100-3_64_064_207. pdf)

Retrieved December 9, 2009.[26] "Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos" (http:/ / albizu. 8m. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-05-03.[27] Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments. National Security Archives. George Washington University. (http:/ / www. gwu.

edu/ ~nsarchiv/ radiation/ ) Retrieved July 26, 2010.[28] FBI Files on Pedro Albizu Campos (http:/ / www. pr-secretfiles. net/ thematic_view. html?cat=18& item=199)[29] FBI Files on Surveillance of Puerto Ricans in general (http:/ / www. pr-secretfiles. net/ thematic_category. html?cat=12)[30] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=4tbp8bI7Nl0& NR=1

Pedro Albizu Campos 9

[31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=WUL6zWJy79Y& feature=related

References• Acosta, Ivonne, La Mordaza/Puerto Rico 1948-1957. Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1987• Connerly, Charles, ed. Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos, Vieques Times, Puerto Rico, 1995• Corretjer, Juan Antonio, El Lider De La Desesperación, Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, 1978• Davila, Arlene M., Sponsored Identities, Cultural Politics in Puerto Rico, Temple University Press, Philadelphia,

1997• Garcia, Marvin, Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos (http:/ / www. nl. edu/ academics/ cas/ ace/ resources/ campos. cfm),

National Louis University• Torres Santiago, Jose M., 100 Years of Don Pedro Albizu Campos (http:/ / www. hunter. cuny. edu/ blpr/ albizu.

html)

External links• Portraits of Notable Individuals in the Struggle for Puerto Rican Independence (http:/ / www. peacehost. net/

WhiteStar/ Voices/ )• FBI Files on Puerto Rico (http:/ / www. pr-secretfiles. net/ )• DOE Openness: Human Radiation Experiments (http:/ / tis. eh. doe. gov/ ohre/ )• Profile of Don Pedro Albizu Campos High School (http:/ / www. methodsreporter. com/ 2006/ 11/ 16/

humboldt-park-high-school-educates-and-liberates/ )• Albizu Biography on Biografias y Vidas (http:/ / www. biografiasyvidas. com/ biografia/ a/ albizu. htm)• Habla Albizu Campus on Paredon Records (http:/ / www. folkways. si. edu/ albumdetails. aspx?itemid=2268/ )• Albizu Campos Documentary: "¿Quien Es Albizu Campos? (http:/ / whoisalbizu. com/ HOME. html)• AACR Cornelius P. Rhoads Memorial Award name change (http:/ / www. oncology-times. com/ pt/ re/

oncotimes/ fulltext. 00130989-200307250-00016.htm;jsessionid=LGFRJsVJ01ycGJ6d6Df9ZWb5r2QKK0pnn1wmyNhm2JrRsv2v15Qz!1629792715!181195629!8091!-1#P26)

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsPedro Albizu Campos  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478895747  Contributors: 4everPR, Academic Challenger, Alifont, Andrevan, Bearcat, Cafeirlandais, CallmeDrNo,CanisRufus, Caribbean H.Q., Cburnett, Certes, Cesars, Chris the speller, Closereach, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Cuajonpr, D6, Dariusofthedark, David Sher, Demf, Deville, Diodecimus,Drbreznjev, Edwinvazquez, Excirial, FrancesCampos, GDonato, Gadfium, Good Olfactory, Ground Zero, Haize hegoa, emazteen gogoa, Hmains, Hu12, Huangdi, Ibagli, J JMesserly, JDPhD,JaGa, Jeff3000, Jlr2007, Jmoliver, Jmundo, Joelr31, Jsantanasu, JustSomeRandomGuy32, KnightRider, Kumioko, Larc85, Lawrlafo, Lightana, MSchnitzler2000, Marine 69-71, Maximus Rex,Medtopic, Mercy11, Mister Jinxy, Mrblondnyc, Mtmelendez, Nelsondenis248, Neutrality, Nobunaga24, Noopinonada, North Pole meets Southern Clause, Ohnoitsjamie, Ormewood, PoliticalGuru, Postcard Cathy, Pr4ever, Prpolicy, Quazgaa, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, Rjwilmsi, Rob99324, SDC, Sam Hocevar, Sean D Martin, Secretlondon, Sesel, Tad Lincoln, Tedernst,Terry J. Carter, Thief12, Timrollpickering, Towel401, Uiki En Uiki, Ujorge, Vertical123, Viajero, WhisperToMe, Whitejay251, Who, WikHead, WikOutWikIni, Wine Guy, Wmahan,Woohookitty, Ww2censor, Xezbeth, Zenitram82, 123 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Albizu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albizu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 119, AntonioMartin, Damiens.rf, Graeme Bartlett, Jmoliver, Jmundo,Kelly, Marine 69-71, QuadellFile:Pedro Albizu Campos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedro_Albizu_Campos.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Marine_69-71File:Albizu 1936.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albizu_1936.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Photograph Collection (Library of Congress)File:Cornelius P. Rhoades on the cover of TIME Magazine, June 27, 1949.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cornelius_P._Rhoades_on_the_cover_of_TIME_Magazine,_June_27,_1949.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: MaGioZal, 1 anonymous editsFile:Huac.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Huac.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:DCGeistFile:IMG 3480 - Pedro Albizu Campos statue at PAC Park in Ponce, PR.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_3480_-_Pedro_Albizu_Campos_statue_at_PAC_Park_in_Ponce,_PR.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Roca RuizImage:Nuvola apps arts.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_arts.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Manco Capac

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/