PC2-CushenWhite-handout.Accommodations.Dyslexia Testing ...

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#DyslexiaCon18

October 26, 2018 Mashantucket, CT

Disclosure: Nancy Cushen White has no relevant financial or nonfinancial relationships to disclose.

Reading, Literacy, and Learning Conference The International Dyslexia Association

SESSION PC2 Dyslexia Testing for Teaching & Beyond:

Identification of Dyslexia K–12, College, University-Workplace

Accommodation, Remediation-Intervention, Modifications for Students with Dyslexia:

What Are They? How Do They Differ?

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A Good Diagnosis Informs Instructional Planning

 A good diagnosis is essential for a child with dyslexia or any other kind of learning disability.

 By its definition a diagnosis leads to a treatment plan or an evaluation leads to recommendations for teaching interventions and accommodations.

 Whether or not diagnosticians use the term dyslexia is not the purpose of this discussion.

 The children exist. Their problems exist. Whatever we call the problems, the children need our help.

èfrom “Diagnosis of Dyslexia” by Regina Cicci, Ph.D.ç

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Main Functions of Assessment

 Screening  Diagnosis  Instructional planning

² Remediation-Intervention ² Accommodations ² Compensatory Strategies

 Measurement of progress

Analysis of Results of Diagnostic Evaluation-Assessment

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¤ Counting errors is necessary but not sufficient. ¤ Analysis of errors to determine patterns of

strengths and weaknesses is essential. ¤ Use errors to inform educational planning:

Ø Which skills have been mastered? Ø Which skills and strategies need to be taught? Ø What strategies did S use to accomplish task?

§ Subvocalization-verbal mediation-reading aloud? § Writing in air to augment short-term auditory memory? § Over-reliance on memorization (i.e., orthographic memory)? § Guessing identity of unfamiliar word from context?

Factors to Consider for Instructional Decision-Making

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u HOW the test is administered Ø Type of input stimulus Ø Degree of integration required Ø Type of response

u WHAT the test measures u Subtest Scatter: the spread or variability between

subtest scores Ø If significant subtest scatter exists, there may be areas of strength and weakness that need to be analyzed:

§  Nature of the weak areas §  Skills needed to strengthen weaker areas §  How strong areas can be used to help remediate

the weaknesses.

Advantages of Diagnosis

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u The goal of an evaluation is to figure out how a student learns most efficiently.

u A good diagnosis leads to an action plan—recommendations for study strategies, interventions, remediation, accommodations, and compensatory strategies.

u At the very least, a student is given the opportunity to learn more about HOW he or she learns … and the teacher can use the information about patterns of learning strengths and weaknesses to inform the planning of instruction.

�

RECOMMENDATIONS

u REMEDIATION-INTERVENTION Ø Direct instruction to teach skills and application of

skills with the goal of independent functional use (e.g., decoding strategies; strategies for chunking words into meaningful phrases; spelling strategies)

u ACCOMMODATIONS (rationaleèevidence) Ø Service provided by another person to enable S to perform independently (e.g.,extended timeèamount of time and tasks needing extra time based on assessment evidence; separate room for tests so S can read aloud)

u COMPENSATORY STRATEGIES-TOOLS Ø Developed independently—or directly taught—to offset

weaknesses (e.g.,subvocalization/verbal mediation; keyboarding; audio books*)

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ACCOMMODATIONS

 Tools and procedures necessary for equal access to instruction and assessment for students with disabilities

 Provided to “level the playing field” ² Maintain level of learning or performance expectations ² Do NOT change target skill or testing construct

ª Example: reading history test questions to student with dyslexia (reading disability) who would not be able to demonstrate his knowledge of history if required to read the test questions himself.

ª Example: student with ADHD who is highly distractible allowed to take test in separate room

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Remediation AND Accommodation NOT an Either—Or Alternative

 REMEDIATION-instruction in basic skills and their application not acquired earlier in the educational process Ø Example: spelling skills

 ACCOMMODATION-provision of services that ensure equal access to a student with a learning disability Ø Example: extended exam time for a student who processes information more slowly than non-LD students

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Accommodation OR Modification decision is critical for future educational choices

§  ACCOMMODATIONS-adjustments that enable a student to demonstrate knowledge-skills-abilities without lowering learning or performance expectations and without changing the complexity of the target skill being taught or test construct being measured. Ø Example: extended exam time for a student who processes information more slowly than non-LD students

§  MODIFICATION-provision of services that change the nature of a task Ø Example: use of a calculator on a test of math facts accuracy

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Accommodation OR Modification

ACCOMMODATIONS § Allowed for both testing and instruction § Do not change skills being tested

Ø Reading test aloud to student when CONTENT KNOWLEDGE is target skill being measured

MODIFICATIONS § Allowed for both testing and instruction § Change nature of task or target skill

Ø Reading test aloud to student when READING COMPREHENSION is target skill being measured

MODIFICATIONS Categories and Examples

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Assignment Modifications

  Complete different homework problems requiring lower level of math knowledge-skill than peers

  Write shorter essays/papers

  Answer different/simpler test questions.

Curriculum Modifications

  Learn different information (continuing to work on multiplication while class moves on to fractions)

  Use of lower standard of assessment

 Use of content vocabulary at lower level than age/grade peers

www.understood.org

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Accommodations at the university level

Each accommodation is based on functional limitations as identified in the documentation and is designed to meet a student's needs without fundamentally altering the nature of the student's instructional program(s) or altering any directly related licensing requirement.

University of California-Berkeley (UC-B) Disabled Student Services (DSS)

REMEDIATION-INTERVENTION

u Direct instruction to teach skills and application of skills with goal of independent functional use

u Another way to teach a skill that a student lacks or has experienced difficulty with learning Examplesè

§  Teaching systematic decoding strategies §  Teaching strategies for chunking words into meaningful

phrases (based on syntax and grammar) §  Teaching spelling strategies §  Teaching academic vocabulary using morphology and

etymology 14

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Remediation-Intervention�Independent Word Identification�

Word Recognition OR Pattern Recognition

u The ability to apply knowledge of letter-sound correspondences to identify words is fundamental to independent word recognition.

u Good readers rely on the graphemes and morphemes in a word-NOT context or pictures.

Automatic Word Recognition… OR

Automatic Pattern Recognition

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¥  Automatic word recognition is the result of familiarity with letter-sound correspondences and spelling patterns (Adams & Bruck, 1995).

¥  … so is it automatic word recognition OR automatic recognition of orthographic patterns (graphemes and morphemes)?

Remediation-Intervention Automatic Word Recognition…

What Does It Take?

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n Ability to break longer, multi-syllable words into smaller, more manageable chunks (syllables) to facilitate identification of vowel grapheme and associated phoneme for each syllable.

n Ability to divide and read longer words accurately. n  Knowledge of spelling patterns [orthography], syllable division generalizations [phonics], and meaningful units [morphology-etymology].

n Teacher’s use of explicit, systematic instruction involving teacher modeling and extensive guided practice leading to students’ independent application and functional use.

ExamplesèAreas for Remediation

 Decoding strategies  Spelling strategies  Handwriting—manuscript and/or cursive  Keyboarding  Writing sentences, paragraphs, essays  Grammar  Punctuation and capitalization  Proofreading—Editing  Math facts  Vocabulary  Reading comprehension strategies  Test-taking strategies

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COMPENSATION Compensatory Strategies

u Compensatory strategies are developed independently or directly taught to offset weaknesses. (example: subvocalization/verbal mediation)

u By-Pass Strategies enable students to access content and demonstrate knowledge while avoiding the tasks of reading and writing. (example: subvocalization/verbal mediation)

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ExamplesèCompensatory Strategies

 Subvocalization or verbal mediation  Reading aloud  Studying aloud  Verbalizing steps of math problems  Graphic organizers  Visualization  Study groups  Calculator*  Computer spell check*  Electronic speller/thesaurus*  Text-to-Speech Software  Speech-to-Text Software

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*Depending on the setting, some of these would be considered to be accommodations.

Compensation Setting-Dependent Compensatory Strategies

 Computer spell check  Alpha-smart or lap top computer  Text in audio-format  Distraction-free setting  Electronic thesaurus*  Text-to-Speech Software  Speech-to-Text Software

21 Depending on the setting, some of these would be considered to be accommodations.

Compensation Bypass Strategies*

 Audio-recorded lectures  Note-taker  Text in audio format  Peer-teacher-parent reader  Audio-recorded tests or test responses*  Oral exams  Peer-aide to record (write) answers  Foreign language alternative

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Depending on the setting, some of these would be considered to be accommodations.

All Compensatory Strategies Are NOT Created Equal!

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u Guessing from context for identification of unfamiliar words when reading text… Ø When does it work? Ø What makes it seem to work? Ø Why do students (and too often parents and teachers) believe it is an effective strategy?

Ø When does it usually cease to be helpful? Why?

ACCOMMODATIONS

u Adjustment made to ensure that students with special needs can participate fully in school and demonstrate their learning without being impeded by their disability.

u Alternative way of teaching and/or measuring knowledge-skills-abilities. Ø Classroom Accommodations make it possible for students to

learn, help them to participate fully in classroom instruction, and enable them to demonstrate their learning.

Ø Assessment Accommodations make it possible for students to demonstrate what they have learned in ways that bypass or circumvent the features of their disability. (example—extended time)

è Appropriate accommodations should be viewed as part of the normal

cycle of teaching and testing—never reserved ONLY for periods of assessment.ç 24

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Assessment vs. Instruction

 Formal decisions about accommodations should be made by the student’s IEP team.

 Accommodations should be the same or similar for classroom instruction, classroom tests, and state/district tests.

 However, some accommodations are only permitted during instruction and cannot be used on state/district assessments.

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Policies Vary by State

All IEP/504 Team Members need to be familiar with state policies and guidelines regarding the use of assessment accommodations. Making sound decisions about testing accommodations requires all team members to know the following:  The test

²  Content, types of questions, testing conditions  The state’s testing guidelines  The state’s accommodations guidelines  Accommodations that invalidate test scores.

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Policies Vary by State  Testing accommodations are changes in assessment

materials or procedures that enable students to participate so that their abilities—not their disabilities—are being tested.

 Without accommodations, the assessment may not accurately measure the knowledge and skills of an LD student.

 An accommodation does NOT change item or test validity.*

 Under the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA, states must have accommodation guidelines for assessments and report the number of students using accommodations during state and district assessments.

*If validity is affected, the change is a modification—not an accommodation.

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Policies Vary by State

 All 50 states have written guidelines to indicate which assessment accommodations are allowed on state tests.

 Some states’ policies also address instructional accommodations.

 States develop these guidelines to ensure that test scores appropriately reflect what students know and are able to do.

 Research on accommodations is growing rapidly.

 The research includes policy studies, evaluation studies, and experimental comparisons.

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Morphology of <accommodations>

ac + com + mode + ate +ion + s prefix adèac + prefix conècom + base element mode + suffix ate* + suffix ion* + suffix s*

[drop silent e] [drop silent e] *<ate> and <ion> are derivational suffixes *<s> is an inflectional suffix

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Types of Accommodations

§  Presentation Accommodations allow students to access information in ways that do not require them to visually read standard print. These alternate modes of access are auditory, multi-sensory, tactile, and visual.

§  Response Accommodations allow students to complete activities, assignments and tests in different ways to solve or organize problems using some type of assistive device or organizer.

§  Timing/Scheduling Accommodations increase the allowable length of time to complete a test or assignment and may also change the way the time is organized.

§  Setting Accommodations change the location in which a test or assignment is given or the conditions of the assessment setting.

ACCOMMODATIONS Categories and Examples

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Presentation—Teaching Accommodations

  Repetition of Directions   Reading Aloud   Revised Answer Sheet   Text/Instructions in Audio-

Format   Larger Print   Fewer Items on a Page   Visual Prompts or Cues (e.g., arrow pointing on page)   Highlighted Text

Equipment—Material Accommodations

  Calculator   Speech-to-Text Software   Text-to-Speech Software   Electronic dictionary   Spelling-Grammar Check

www.understood.org


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Response Accommodations

  Mark answers in a book instead of on separate answer sheet

  Answer questions orally instead of in writing ² Dictate to scribe ² Capture oral responses on audio-recorder

  Point to response choices   Type response

Setting Accommodations

  Individual or small group   Separate desk or location

within the classroom (office space)

  Distraction-free setting (separate room)

  Improved lighting   Improved acoustics   Reduce both visual and

auditory distractions

www.understood.org


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Organizational Skills Accommodations

  Timer to help with time management

  Mark texts with highlighter

  Teach S to use planner to coordinate assignments

  Study skills instruction

Timing—Scheduling Accommodations

  Flexible scheduling (e.g., several sessions vs one sitting   Extended time

  Allowing for frequent breaks (as appropriate)

  Changing order of tasks

www.understood.org

Choosing Accommodations Wisely

 Match the accommodation with the student’s need.  Decide what needs to happen to ensure that S is on equal footing

with those who do not have a disability? ª Provide evidence to support accommodation choices. ª Are the accommodations linked directly to the S’s learning needs?

 Not every student needs, or benefits from, extended time. ª Extended time gives students time to use learned strategies. ª Extra time alone rarely improves performance for students with LD—

the same as for students without LD.*   Practice is the key to mastery.

ª  Accommodations are only helpful if the student has had sufficient practice and KNOWS HOW to use them effectively.

ª  Accommodations should be integrated into classroom practice before use is expected in assessment situations.

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Answers may not be the same for instruction and assessment.

Extended Time for All???

u  Why not give extended time to everyone? u  What would happen if time constraints were

removed and every student was given “more” time? Ø  Standardized Tests Ø  School Exams-Quizzes

u Questions to Ponder u  How much time will everyone be given? u  What about the students who need more than that?

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Alternatives within the Classroom Environment

  Use flexible grouping.

  Change seating arrangements.

  Reduce both visual and auditory distractions.

  Use a timer.

  Alter class schedule to enhance learning.

  Provide “office” space for easily-distracted students*.

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A Few Alternatives for Increasing Accessibility within the Classroom…

  Vary modality of presentation.   Enunciate clearly.   Speak at a slower pace, emphasizing key components of

content.   Break task down into smaller chunks or more steps.  MODEL steps of a process or assignment.   Shorten instructions and/or assignments.   Reduce the length of an exam.   Present instructions in clearly defined steps.   Repeat instructions more than one time.   Provide oral instructions in written form or on website.

² Assignments, schedules, rules/guidelines, lecture outlines   Use visuals to reinforce auditory presentations whenever

possible.   Allow use of manipulatives. 37

A Few Alternatives for Increasing Accessibility of Classroom Instruction…

  Provide extra time for oral, as well as written responses. ² Allow time for slow processors to formulate/express verbal responses.

  Allow use of videotapes or books in audio-format.   Allow oral responses to complex essay questions instead of, or in

addition to, written responses.  When appropriate, give open book exams.   Provide systematic, sequential study guides for test prep.   Provide immediate positive reinforcement for appropriate response

—as well as constructive correction to incorrect response.   Return corrected written assignments as soon as possible to

ensure that feedback is of value to students.   Take time to explicitly connect new concepts to previously learned

information and concepts.   Follow initial presentation of new concepts with carefully guided

practice.   Provide SUFFICIENT repetition and guided practice. 38

�

Stress PointsèèèèTransitions Jane Holmes Bernstein, PhD

Ø Kindergarten è learning to learn

Ø Grade 1 è learning to read (decoding) Ø Grade 4 è learning to read to learn Ø Jr. High School è learning to organize learning Middle School Ø High School è learning to organize and learn

with increasing independence

Ø College è learning to learn independently

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Sample Recommendations Accommodations within the School Setting

 Subvocalization, reading aloud, and use of verbal mediation/rehearsal of new

information, while reading, studying, and taking tests, are strategies that facilitate auditory-visual and visual-auditory associations deepening XXX’s processing of information. Use of these strategies take time, but extra time required for verbalization strategies makes it possible for XXX to compensate for her relative weaknesses in long-term retrieval, slow processing speed, and deficits in cognitive fluency. These are strategies that XXX used spontaneously throughout the evaluation. Examples of XXX’s use of verbal mediation and subvocalization follow:

§ Reading—and sometimes rereading complex text aloud § Attempting to associate concepts to aid word retrieval § Repeating questions before attempting to formulate responses § Subvocalizing steps of her process for solving a variety of problems § XXX needs to use these strategies whenever an assignment or test requires

reading, mathematics problem-solving, or memorization of facts/details. 40


 XXX needs to take tests (school tests, quizzes and exams; standardized

tests) in a distraction-free setting where she is able to read aloud. Observation of XXX during this assessment confirms her need for a setting in which she can subvocalize and read aloud when taking tests and studying. Subvocalization, reading aloud, and verbal rehearsal strengthen her reading comprehension and support her efforts to retrieve specific academic vocabulary; facts (e.g., math facts, dates, names, etc.); general information; a process for solving problems (i.e., a formula). In addition, synthesizing information in her own words strengthens XXX’s comprehension as well as her memory for what she is learning.

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 This psycho-educational evaluation provides evidence of XXX’s need for

the accommodation of extended time when taking standardized tests as well as school tests, quizzes, and exams. She should be given time + 50% (total of 150%). XXX needs this extra time when performing exams requiring reading of complex passages, written expression, and mathematics problem solving. §  XXX needs extended time even when reading simple passages and

responding to straightforward simple questions. §  She also needs extended time to read and write text with age-level

vocabulary and syntax/grammar. §  Likewise, despite her very strong performance on measures of

quantitative reasoning and problem-solving, she needed more time than average to attain those scores. Her ability to write answers to simple addition, subtraction, and multiplication facts earned a score in the middle average range as compared to age peers (Math Fluency SS 101)—with very significant discrepancies between her math fluency and her quantitative reasoning ability.

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 XXX needs to comprehend information in order to be able to store it for

later retrieval. Therefore, she needs to put new learning (concepts and vocabulary) into her own words to ensure that she does comprehend it before moving forward. If XXX does not comprehend what she memorizes by rote, this information will not be available in the future when she needs to use previous learning as a foundation for comprehension of new material.

 Under timed conditions, XXX frequently works much too fast for efficiency. In order for her to benefit from extended time, she must learn to monitor the speed of her performance so that she is working “as fast as she can but as slowly as she needs to work.” She will need help with discovering and maintaining her own personal “ideal speed” (or optimum speed) for various academic tasks she is required to perform.

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 Problems that weaknesses in long-term retrieval, cognitive fluency, and

slow processing speed cause with reading, spelling, and grammar in a native language may be compounded when the student is faced with the challenge of learning a foreign language—especially the reading and writing components of the foreign language. The following factors should be in balance: § Amount of time and effort needed to focus on foreign language

study in order to succeed § Amount of information she is retaining § Amount of time and energy available, after foreign language study,

to focus on other subjects §  If the balance becomes skewed, a waiver or exemption from foreign

language should be considered. 44

Paths to Success for LD Students

 Specialized instruction is the path to academic achievement—not a crutch.

 Accommodations level the playing field for students with dyslexia and other learning disabilities; they do not give an unfair advantage.

 As either a parent or a teacher, do NOT assume a student learns the same way you do.

 Always keep the goal in mind—and plan both instruction, assessment, and accommodations accordingly. 45

Successful LD College Students Harriet Sheridan-Dean of School of Education-Brown University

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“Students who have come to terms with their own learning styles are among the finest candidates for higher education because they know themselves well, they know their own interests, and they can predict what kinds of help they will need.  May need to allow twice as much time for reading assignments as other classmates.

 May need to study in the library, away from the social temptations of dormitory life.

 May need to prepare and polish three or four drafts of any written assignment.

 May need to have extra time allowed for tests and exams.”

Some Helpful Resources

§ Accommodations, Modifications, and Alternate Assessments: How They Affect Instruction and Assessment [http://www.greatschools.net/cgi-bin/showarticle/2306] § https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/treatments-approaches/educational-strategies/accommodations-what-they-are-and-how-they-work § Accommodations for Students with Disabilities [http://www.cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/TopicAreas/Accommodations/Accomtopic.htm] § Alert 4: High-Stakes Assessment (Teaching LD) [http://www.dldcec.org/ld_resources/alerts/4.htm] § A Summary of Research on the Effects of Test Accommodations: 1999 through 2001 [http://www.ecs.org/html/offsite.asp?document=http://education.umn.edu/nceo/OnlinePubs/Technical34.htm] 47

More Helpful Resources

§  Gregg, N. & Nelson, J.M. (2012). Meta-Analysis on the effectiveness of extra time as a test accommodation for transitioning adolescents with learning disabilities: more questions than answers. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45(2), 128-138. DOI: 10.1177/00222|9409355484

§  Lazarus, S. S., & Thurlow, M. L. (2016). 2015-16 high school

assessment accommodations policies: An analysis of ACT, SAT, PARCC, and Smarter Balanced (NCEO Report 403). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes.

§  Sireci, S.G., Scarpati, S.E., & Li, Shuhong. (Winter, 2005). Test accommodations for students with disabilities: an analysis of the interaction hypothesis. Review of Educational Research. 75 (4), 457-490.

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