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JUL 1966

UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II

The Mediterranean Theater of Operations

SALERNO TO CASSINO

PREFACE - CLEARED

/ fOR OPEN PUBLICATIOIC

2 6 JlJL 1966 6 by OIR CTO!IAI L ' "'' "-"""'.t lifVIEW (OASH.{

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

Martin Blumenson

Draft Manuscript not to be re­produced in any form without permission from the Office of The Chief of Military History

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY

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Department of the Army

Washington 25, D.C.

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.. PREFACE

Salerno to Cassino tells the story of the first eight months of

the Italian campaien, from the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland

in September, 1943, through the battles of the autumn and winter of

1943-44, to the eve oi the Allied spring offensive launched in !1ay,

1944. The period wau grim, not only for the Allies but also for the

Germans, for difficult terrain, bad weather, and chronic shortages of

resources hampered both opponents. What the Allies had hoped would ba

a swift advance fr . Naples to Rome and beyond became a l-lar of posi-

tion, static warfar0 at its lvorst, 'Whic: led directly to the risky

amphibious operation at Anzio and to the climactic struggle :L""J. the

shadow of Monte Cassino.

The focns of the Recount is tactical, specifically on the opera-

tions of the Fifth U.S. Army, though a strategic framework has been

provided to give meaning to the battlefield. The German point of view

has also been presented. For the same reason, the activities of the

Allied ground forces ~""ld of the naval and air forces have been sketched.

Many persons have helped in preparing this book, and my thanks

go to them. I wish I could list them all by name. Those whose assis-

tance 't·Tas vital and transcended the nor:nal bounds of duty include :t-rr.

RalphS. Mavrogord· to, who gave me the benefit of his research in the

German records; ·Miss Hary Ann Bacon, Chief of the Editorial Branch,

who edited the book; Mr. Billy C. Mossman, who drew the maps; Mrs. Lois

Aldridge and Sgt. ___ -----

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of the Federal Records Center,

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who helped provide the do~uments; Mrs. Constance Parham, who typed

the manuscript; and, most of all, Mr. Charles B. MacDonald, Chief of

the General History Branch, whose generous assistance at every stage

of this project has been a major source of inspiration.

For all errors of fact and interpretation, I alone am responsible .

Washingt . ,

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MARTIN BLUHENSON

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Chapter

CONTENTS

PART ONE

Background

I. THE ORIGJNS The Strategic Background Toward a Decision

ll. THE CHOICE The Concept The Decision The Place

III. THE PREPARATIONS Forces Lift

IV. THE START The Plans The Preliminarys

V. THE OPPOSITION: THE GERI·fANS IN ITALY

PART TIJO

Salerno

VI. THE LANDINGS The Last Few Miles of Sea "Zum Heil 11

The Initial American Haves The American Beaches The Results of the First Day SLAPSTICK

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----

Chapter VII: THE BEACHHEAD

Gern.an Build-up The Beachhead Developed The German Attack

VIII: THE BATTLE AT SALERNO Allied Build-up Stand-off The Avellino Mission

IX: THE END OF THE BATTLE The Crisis Resolved The Eighth Army Role Summary

X: BEYOND SALERNO Problems and Plans The Flanking M·arch The Main Effort Naples and Foggia -XI: THE STRATEGY Allied Intentions

.The German Decision Allied Problems

XII: THE VOLTURNO CROSSING The Immediate Situation The Attack Down the Calore Valley The Main Crossings The Crossing on the Right Flank The Crossings on the Left

XIII: INTO THE HINTER LINE Beyond the Volturno

. !(ountain l 1arfare The Second Volturno Crossing The Upper Volturno Valley The Coastal Zone More Mountain Warfare The Third Volturno Crossing The Germans at the BERNHARD Line Into the BERNHARD Line

ii

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Chapter Xrf • THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME

Allied Reappraisal Hitler's Decision The Cairo and Tehran Conferences The Lull

XV. JN THE WINTER LINE The Sangre Front Plans to Breach the Hignano Barrier Camino-Difensa-Maggiore

XVI. SAN PIETRO The Cor>.ditions The First Attack The Second Attack The Aftermath The Other Fronts

PART FOUR

Anzio and Cassino

XVII. THE DECISION FOR ANZIO

XVIII.- THE PRELJMINARIES FOR ANZIO

XIX. T".tiE RAPIDO RIVER CROSSINGS

XX.- THE ANZIO LANDING Preparations The Landing German Reaction

XXI. THE ATTACKS ON CASSINO

XXII. THE OPENING BATTLES AT ANZIO The Allied Attack The Initial German Counterattack

..

XXIII. THE BOMBARDMENT OF THE ABBEY OF MONTE CASSmO

XXIV. THE TEST AT ANZIO The Major German Attack Change of Command The Last German Attack

XXV. THE BOMBING OF CASSINO

XXVI. RESULTS AND PROSPECTS

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APPENDIX B

Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross

All pertinent Army records have baen scrutinized in an effort t o

include in the follouing list the name of ever.r soldier '\-Iho received

the Distinguished Service Cross for his part in the operations

recounted in this volume . Inasmuch as no complete listing of DSC

awards is malllta ined in any single Army file, it is possible that some

names may inadverte nt ly have been omitted.

Note: (P) indicates a posthumous a•:ard; * indicat.es a member of

the French Expeditionary Corps; # indicates a merrtber of the Canadian

Army.

f.1aj. Robert B. Acheson

Capt. Hersel R. Adams (P)

Maj. John E. Adams (Missing)

Capt. Carlos C. Alden, Jr.

Tech . Sgt. Robert 0. Alexander

Tech. Sgt . Rudolph F. Alexander

2d Lt. George A. Allen (P)

Sgt . James H. Archer

PFC Robert L. Arnett (P)

Capt. William P. Athas

1st Lt. Frederick Blake Atto #

Pvt. Masao Awakuni

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Sgt. Hike Bc.ranc k ~

PFC Ed-:.1ard F. Barker (}1issing)

1st Lt. i.lilliaM R. Barker

Capt. Charle3 M. Beacham

Pvt. Niles R. Backstrom

2d Lt. Alf~ed Belander (P)

Capt. Henri de Bel&~nce * Sgt. Jack G. Berry

2d Lt. Thomas F. Berteau

2d Lt. Herbert E. BilJman

S/Sgt. Oliver R. Birkner (Nissing)

2d Lt. Arnold C. Bjorklund

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S/ Sgt . Jack l<l. Bloomer

1st Lt. Wayne E. Boyce (P)

2d Lt. Randolph Bracey (P)

Cpl. Roy A. Braden

PFC Marvin H. Broach

Sgt. Harry L. Bromley

T/Sgt. Charles H. Bussey

Capt. Benjamin J. Butler

Col. Frederick B. Butler

S/Sgt. Robert A. Campagna

Pvt. Arthur C. Cato

Sgt. 'Robert L. Chudej

Tech 5th Gr. Carl R. Clegg

Cpl. Boggs G. Collins

Cpl. Thomas W. Corcoran

Pvt. William J. Crawford

Pvt. Melvin E. Danhaus

1st Lt. Jesse L. Davis

PFC Leslie B. Davis (Missing)

S/Sgt. Royce C. Davis

Lt. Col . Lyle J. Deffenbaugh

Maj. Don B. Dunham (P)

Lt~ Col. Ray J. Ericksen (P)

Capt. James G. Evans

Sgt. Carroll E. Fairclo

Pvt. Richard Ferris (P)

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Sgt. Edgar ~· Fines # (P)

Capt. Ralph c. Fisher (P)

PFC Chester W. Floyd

Sgt. vlilliam J. Fox

PFC Orlin A. Franklin

8

Brig. Gen. Robert T. Frederick

PFC Walter A. Galary

Sgt. Fortunate Garcia (Hissing)

Pvt. Paul C. Gerlich (P)

Pvt. Francis H. Gisborne

PFC Joe P. Gomez

Sgt. Manuel S. Gonzales

2d Lt. David 0. Gorgol

2d Lt. Edlrin F. Gould

Lt. Col. Samuel S. Graham

Sgt. Charles I. Grant

PFC William Green

PFC Lloyd C. Greer (Hissing)

Sgt. Bennie L. Guffey

Pvt. Thomas S. Gugliuzza (P)

Pvt. Fred Guttilla

Sgt. Arlie J. Haines

Pvt. Charles R. Hanes (P)

1st Lt. Roy M. Hanna

2d Lt. Herbert A. Hansen (P)

PFC Harry C. Harpel (P)

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2d Lt. Vernon C. Harris (P)

Capt. Leroy A. Haselwood (P)

Pvt. Mikio Hasemoto (P)

Capt. Richard B. Hawk

Pvt. Shizuya Hayashi

T/Sgt. Robert H. Healer

lst Lt. Paul F. Heath

1st Lt. Robert T. Heflin

Sgt. Robert F. Heiser (P)

2d Lt. Max R. Hendon

Pvt. Edwin C. Hicks

1st Lt. William Hi ggins, Jr.

Sgt. Glen 0 Hiller

Chaplain (Capt.) Albert J. Hoffman

1st Lt. George E. Hodgdon

Cpl. Jesse D. Hollemon, Jr. (P)

Sgt. Burk B. Hunt (P)

1st Lt. Sylvester J. Hunter

Capt. Milton Jarr old

S/Sgt. Charles R. Johnsen

Sgt. Steward R. Johnson

2d Lt. Delmer C. Keck (Missing)

1st Lt. i-Jilliam C. Kellogg

Capt. John T. Kershner (P)

S/Sgt. Charles W. Keyser

Capt. Joe H. Kimble

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1st Lt. Dona~d E. Knowlton

PFC Henry C • Kranz

2d Lt . John T. Lamb

Capt. Alden S. Lance

1st Lt. Will iam J. Langston (P)

1st Lt. Stanley S. Lemon (P)

Sgt . George Lenkalis (P)

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2d Lt. John A. Liebenstein (Mi ssing)

2d Lt . Hot~rd R. Lieurance (P)

2d Lt . Hichael Ligus , Jr . (P)

Tech 5th Gr . Marvin B. Lindley

1st Lt. Hartin Luke

Pvt. Clement S. Mackowiak

Capt. Jack L. l1arinelli

Capt. Carl P. Hatney

S/Sgt. Richard E. McCaffrey

Capt. George N. NcCall

Capt. Clifton A. HcClain, Jr. (P)

Sgt. John H. Mcinnis #

1st Lt. James F. Hc}fahon

S/Sgt. Quillian H. HcMichen (P)

Sgt. Hugh H. Merritt (P)

Pvt. Andrew J. Mileham

Pvt. William F. Hiller

S/Sgt. Daniel W. Minton (P)

Maj. Merle M. Mitchell

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2d Lt. Orva F. Morris

Cpl. Burt G. Moulton

1st Lt. Orville 0. Mun~on

PFC :Hax L. Nebus, Jr. (P)

S/Sgt. Carroll T. 0 1Donald (P)

1st Lt. Howard W. O'Donnell (P)

S/Sgt. Allan M. Ohata

PFC Omar Page (P)

PFC William Page

PFC Howard E. Palmer

S/Sgt. ~oJ'illiam F. Parro t.t

Sgt. George S. Paudel

PFC Dallas D. Prather (P)

Sgt. John A. Rich

S/Sgt. John C. Ritso (P)

2d Lt. George T. Robi~son (P)

Lt. Col. William B. ~osson

1st Lt. Henry F. G. Rouse

T/Sgt. James A. Rutlec ,.e

Tech 5th Gr. Ben Santjer (P)

1st Lt. Bernard T. Schaefer

S/Sgt. Harold L. Schorg

PFC Leonard J. Schneider (P)

Sgt . Martin N. Schreck

Capt. Emile G. Schuster

Col. Harry B. Sherman

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1st Lt. James N. Sherrick (Missing)

T/Sgt. Sylvester D. Singlestad

Maj. James F. Skells

Cpl. James D. Slaton

Sgt. Willie B. Slaughter

T/Sgt. Walter G. Sleezer

Capt. Walker B. Sorrell

T/Sgt. Rolfe A. Spahr

2d Lt. William o. Sporbert

Capt. Harry J. Stons

Capt. Richard M. Strong

Cpl. Masaru Suehiro

PFC Richard M. Slvanson

Sgt. Ralph W. Suisher

Sgt-Chef Dominique Taddei * Sgt. Shigeo J. Takata (P)

2d Lt. Harry M. Thames

Pvt. Merwin A. Tobias

Capt. Charles D. Tool

Sgt. Fred Trotter (P)

Sgt. Anthony D. Trumpaitis

Col. Reuben H. Tucker

Sgt. Leslie Van Dine

Pvt. Carson L. Varner

Sgt. Gaither w. Vaughn

2d Lt. Thomas E. Vierheller (P)

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Sgt. Fred Vincent (P)

PFC John A. vlakefield

PFC Robert E. Watson

PFC Charles E. Wheeler (P)

2d Lt. Melvin F. Wiggins

S/Sgt. Harold D. Wilson (Missing)

Capt. James W. Wilson

PFC Thow.as I. Yamanaga ( P)

PFC Theodore Yuhasz

1st Lt. Thomas Zabski

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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

I JUL 1966

15

The main source of documentation for Salerno to Cassino is the

body of official records of the U.S. Army in the Mediterranean

theater, the files of reports, letters, and messages contained for

the most part in the Federal Records Center, Alexandria, Va., and

also in the Kansas City Records Center. Incidental files maintained

by the Gemral Reference Branch of OCHH were also helpful. Because

the bulk and extent of the official records impose the problem of

selection on the historian, it is necessary to add that the major

research was carried out in the files of the Operations (G-3) Sections

of the pertinent headquarters.

Compared to the records maintained later in the war and particu-

larly by those engaged in the European theater, the official records

of the Nediterranean theater are impersonal even though they are

copious. Telephone journals, which reveal not only the personalities

of commanders but their methods of operation, for example, are entirely

lacking. In their place are found occasional memorandums of record,

lmich may or may not disclose the significant details that permit

human characterization to be added to a narrative. All the major head-

quarters and units in the theater prepared monthly after action reports

supported by journals and journal files, in which are found directives,

operations instructions, periodic reports, messages, and the like.

The narrative reports vary in quality, that is, in the perception they

offer. The after action reports of the 3d, 34th, and 45th Divisions

concentrate on the movements of regiments and battalions and are

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deficient in exposing commanders' observations, estimates of the situ-

ation, and reasons for decisions made; the monthly reports of the 36th

Division are somewhat better, but not as good as the best ones pre-

pared by units later in the war. It would seem that as the war con-

tinued, the participants improved their reporting techniques and

learned increasingly how to present significant accounts of their

experience.

The best secondary source on the American operations in the Italian

campaign is the Fifth Army History, written by members of the Fifth

Army Historical Section and published shortly after the war in Ita~y.

An after action report in concept, the History gives a straightforward

account of operations, including material not only on the command

problems but also on the tactical details of the subordinate units.

The appendices contain personnel and ammunition figures and lists,

operations orders and directives, and other useful information; maps,

charts, and statistics are included. Volumes I through IV are rele-

vant for the period under consideration.

Unit histories are few in number. Excellent for local color and

tactical detail are Donald G. Taggart, ed., The History of the Third

Infantry Division in 't-lorld l,lar II (Washington: Infantry Journal Press,

1947); James J. Altieri, Darby's Rangers (Durham, N.C.: Seaman

Printery, 1945); Robert D. Burhans, The First Special Service Force

(V.lashington: Infantry Journal Press, 1947); and George F. Howe,

The Battle History of the 1st Annored Division (Washington: Combat

Forces Press, 1954). Unfortunately, published histories of the 34th,

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36th, and 45th Infantry Divisions do not seem to exist; nor are there

published accounts of the II and VI Corps operations.

Four pamphlets -- Salerno, The Volturno, The Winter Line, and

Anzio -- published by OGrlli in the American Forces in Action Series

give excellent accounts of particular segments of the Italian campaign.

They emphasize small unit action. Their clear maps and vivid illus-

trations make them particularly valuable. No similar study was made

of the fighting around Cassino.

For operations of the British Eighth A~ in Italy, I have relied

largely on Field Marshal Sir Bernard L. Montgomery's El Alamein to the

River Sangro (Germany: British Army of the Rhine, 1946), on the more

personal account of his chief of staff, Major-General Sir Francis de

Guingand, Operation Victory (New York: Scribner's, 1947), and on

Lt.-Col. G. W. L. Nicholson's The Canadians in Italy, 1943 - 1945

(vol. II of the OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE CANADIAN ARl·1Y IN THE SECOND

WORLD WAR, Ottawa, 1956). The operations of the French Expeditionary

Corps have been ably presented by General Marcel Carpentier, who was

General Juin's chief of staff, in his Les Forces Alliees en Italie

(Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1949).

The memoir literature for the period is extensive. Particularly

important are: Mark W. Clark, Calculated Risk (New York: Harper's,

1950); Lucian K. Truscott, Jr., Command Missions (New York: Dutton,

1954); Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton,

Mifflin, 1951); Albert Kesselring, A Soldier's Record (New York:

Morrow, 1954); and Siegfried Westphal, The German Army in the West

(London: Cassell, 1951).

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Not quite in the category of memoir literature because they are

less personal in their views are the published dispatches of Generals

Wilson and Alexander and Admiral Cunningham and the unpublished

dispatch of General Eisenhower on Mediterranean operations. All are

interesting for the analyses of the operations that these commanders

directed.

Official histories r elevant for the period include: Maurice

Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1943-1944, UNITED

STATES ARi'1Y IN 1ilORLD vlAR II (Washington, 1959); "Hesley F. Craven and

James L. Cate, eds., ~oue : TORCH to f()INTBLANK (vol. II, THE Aill-fY

AIR FORCES IN \'IORLD W.1'.R :c, Chicago, 1949), and Argument to V -E Day

(vol. III, THE ARI1Y AIR FORCES IN WORLD WAR II, Chicago, 1951); The

Tiger Triumphs: the Sto:~- of Three Great Divisions in Italy (His

Majesty's Stationery Offi•~e for the Government of India, 1946); John

Erhman, Grand Strategy (vol. V, August 1943 - September 1944, HISTORY

OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR, London, 1956); and Robert W. Coakley and

Richard M. Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy: 1943 - 1945,

UNITED STATES RMY IN WORLD WAR II, which I was privileged to see in

manuscript.

The General Reference Branch of OCMH has collected personal

accounts written shortly after the war as studen theses by officers

attending the Advanced Courses at Fort Benning, Ga., and Fort Knox,

Ky. These studies detail the experience of junior officers in the

combat arms during the Italian campaign and give valuable impressions

of men urrler fire.

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.. The Mathews file in OCHH consists of miscellaneous materials

gathered by Dr. Mathews during the war, when he was a combat historian ~

in Italy, and afterwa::-ds. The Salmon file, also in OCHH, consists of

documents and records collected by Dr. Dvnght Salmon during the course

of his service as a ~~nior historian in the Mediterranean theater.

I have had the ~rivilege of consulting the wartime diaries of

General Jacob Devers, General Mark W. Clark, Major General John Lucas,

and Major General Fi~--d L. vJalker. I have also had access to notes made

by Dr. Howard MeG. S~yth from General Eisenhower's office diary.

Generals Clark and \· c1lker have been most gracious in their help not

only by giving me the i r personal impressions of incidents and events

but also by an~rering questions on the conduct of operations. In

Dr. Smyth, Dr. Philip A. Crowl, and others with some of the principal

commanders in the campaign.

The best short account of the Italian campaign is Chester G.

Starr, From Saler .o to the Alps (lvashington: Infantry Journal Press,

1948). Jacques Mordal 1 s Cassino (Paris: Amiot-D~ont, 1952) i s a

superb rendering of t he battles in that area. Fred Majdalany's

Cassino (Boston: !io .. 1ghton, Mifflin, ) is a beautifully written

account of the sam0 vubject, though somewhat unfair to certain American

commanders and unit.,; . 'VJynford Vaughan-Thomas ·gives a British point

of view in his Anz i o (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961).

My version, Anzio : the Gamble that Failed (Philadelphia: Lippincott,

1963), might be saiJ to have an American viewpoint. Two essays in

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Kent Roberts Greenfield, ed., Command Decisions (New York: Harcourt,

Brace, 1959) are relevant: Ralph S. Mavrogordato 1 s brilliant account

of 11Hi tler1 s Decision on the Defense of Italy, 11 and rrry study of

"General Lucas at Anzio .n

The German side of the story has been drawn largely from seven

manuscripts prepared by Mr. Mavrogordato for this volume, manuscripts

that are filed in OCMH. The docunentary basis of Mr. Mavrogordato's

l-lOrk is the body of official German records. He made particular use

of the diary and diary appendices of the Tenth Army, uhich reflect

events occurring belm~, at the corps level, and above, at army group

level. He found corps documents generally too detailed and somewhat

unbalanced. Host records of the army group have been lost. The

journal of telephone conversations between commanders and between

chiefs of staff on army group and army echelons -- not kept until the

middle of October, 1943 -- reveals personal attitudes and reactions,

as well as facts.

The war diary of the OKW Army Forces Operations Staff is the most

valuable source for strategic background and high-level policy. It

shol>TS how decisions "~o.>ere reached and details the differences of opinion

between Hitler and his Operations Staff (in particular Jodl and vlarli-

mont). Comments on the diary, written by Warlimont after the l-rar (in

OCMH files), form an important supplement that cannot be separated

from the diary itself.

Among the postwar narratives written by German officers, the best

ones for the period under study are Kesselring's (less an apology than

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his published book) and Westphal's (less tendentious than his book);

1 JUL 1966 21

these accounts in "Der Feldzug in Italian," a manuscript collection in

OCMH f i les, are interesting for their revelations of attitudes and

opinions rather than benefic~l for accuracy and completeness. Viet-

inghoff•s and Senger's comments, in the same manuscript collection,

are also useful for insights into German operations, though the former

is r ather concerned with defending the honor of the German soldier and

the latter turns strongly around critical evaluations of commanders

holding Nazi political beliefs. Hauser's manuscript and Mackensen's

comments are important for the period of the Anzio beachhead.

The Steiger manuscript, written by a member of the Canadian Arrrry

Historical Section, has been most helpful.

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