UNIT 10Parts of Speech

Nouns

A noun is a word that names: Persons Places Things Ideas

Nouns Types

A sentence may contain a noun of any particular type:

Singular or PluralPossessive ConcreteAbstractProperCommonCollective

Singular and Plural Nouns 402

Nouns can be singular or plural, depending upon whether they name one person, place, thing, or idea or more than one.To make most nouns take the plural form, add “s.”Other plural nouns are formed in different ways. For nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x or zz, add “es” to form the plural. For nouns ending “y” change the “y” to “I” and add “es.”For most nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, change f to “v” and add “es.”

Singular and Plural Nouns

Other nouns have irregular plurals (eg. Woman/women). Examples of singular and plural nouns:

Singular: boy, body, watch wife, oxPlural: boys, bodies, watches, wives,

oxen

Possessive Nouns 403

The possessive form of a noun can show possession, ownership, or the general relationship between two nouns.

Add a apostrophe and “s” to form the possessive of a singular noun, even one that already ends with “s.”

Use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in “s.”

Possessive Nouns 403

Singular possessive Plural possessive

The car’s hood. A baby’s bottle. The dish’s pattern. A valley’s towns. The calf’s mother. The business’s

payroll.

The cars’ hoods. The babies’ bottles. The dishes’ patterns. The valleys’ towns. The calves’ mother. The businesses’

payrolls.

Concrete and Abstract Nouns 404

A Concrete noun names an object that occupies space or that can be known by the senses.

Petal Smoke Cough Orange Nook

An Abstract noun names an idea, a quality, or a characteristic.

Motion Humor Quantity Tact Rudeness

Proper and Common Nouns 405

Common: A general noun-not particular-name of a person

Proper: the name of a particular person, place, thing or idea.

Person: actor, uncle, poet

Place: country, lake, canyon, store

Thing: statue, book, holiday

Idea: movement, era, religion

Person: Sean Connery, Uncle Peter

Place: Mexico, Holston River, Grand Canyon

Thing: Statue of Liberty, Great Expectations, Christmas

Judaism, Romanticism

Collective Nouns 406

A collective noun names a group Family (the) Public Team (the) Press Audience Senate Choir

Pronouns 408

A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of:

a noun a group of words acting as a noun or another pronoun. The word or group of words that to

which a pronoun refers is called its Antecedent.

Pronouns Types

Personal Possessive Reflexive Intensive Demonstrative Interrogative Relative Indefinite

Personal Pronouns 408

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing by indicating the following:

The person speaking (1st person). The person being addressed (2nd

person). Any other person or thing being

discussed (3rd person). Personal pronouns also express

number, they are either singular or plural.

Personal Pronouns408

Singular Plural

First Person I, Me We, Us

Second Person You You

Third Person He, She, It-Him, Her They, Them

Third Person Pronouns also express Gender.

Possessive Pronouns 409

A possessive pronoun shows ownership

Singular Plural

First Person My, mine Our, Ours

Second Person Your, yours Your, Yours

Third Person His, her, hers, its

Their, theirs

Reflexive and Intensive 410

Reflexive and Intensive pronouns are formed by adding-self or –selves to certain personal and possessive pronouns.

Singular Plural

First Person Myself Ourselves

Second Person Yourself Yourselves

Third Person Himself, herself, itself

Themselves

Reflexive PronounsA reflexive pronoun refers, or reflects back, to a noun or pronoun earlier in the sentence. It always adds information to a sentence.

You out did yourself when you wrote that song.

Cathy always timed herself when jogging.

In dancing class we watch ourselves in the mirror.

The basketball players prepared themselves for the game.

Intensive Pronouns An intensive pronoun adds emphasis

to another noun or pronoun in the same sentence. If it is left out of the sentence, the sentence will still have the same meaning.

I myself ate the pizza. The team itself chose the captain. Maria herself opened the door. George and Pedro planned the party

themselves. What pattern do you recognize?

Demonstrative Pronouns 411

A demonstrative points out specific persons, places, things or ideas.

Singular This That

Plural These Those

•This is your homework.•These are your textbooks.•That will be your seat.•Carla’s desk is cleaner than those.

Interrogative Pronouns412

Interrogatives are used to form questions!

Who? What? Whose? Whom? Which? Whoever, whomever? Whichever, whatever?

•Who will lead the way?•What makes a good leader?•Whom would you choose?•Which of these paths is easiest?•Whose is the lightest pack?•Whoever could have broke the window?

Relative Pronouns412

A relative pronoun is used to begin a subordinate clause.

The people who invented Monopoly were surprised by its success.

Dominoes is a game that many Texans play.

Mary, whose maiden name is Smith, married a Greene.

They collected a large amount of money, which helped to find a cure.

Indefinite Pronouns413

Indefinites refers to persons, places, or things in a more general way than a noun does.

Exp: Everyone needs food. (Ind. Pronoun refers to people in general.)

Exp: Did you get enough to eat? ( Ind. Pronoun refers to a general, non specific, amount.)

Exp: After two hamburgers he did not want another. (Ind. Pronoun refers to hamburgers.)

Indefinite Pronouns

AllAnotherAny AnybodyAnyoneAnythingBoth

EachEitherEnoughEverybodyEveryoneEverythingFew

Many MostMuchNeitherNobodyNoneNo one

NothingOneOtherOthers PlentySeveralSome

SomebodySomeoneSomething

These pronouns are the most commonly used.

Verbs 414

A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being and is necessary to make a statement.

The violinists begin. Rehearsals are important. A flutist entered late. The conductor seems enthusiastic.

Verbs 414

The primary characteristic of a verb is its ability to express time- past, present, and future. Verbs express time by means of tense forms.

Present Tense They walk home together.

Past Tense They walked home together.

Future Tense They will walk home together.

Action Verbs 415

Transitive Intransitive

An action verb that is followed by a word or words that answer the question what and whom?

It must transmit information to the direct object.

It can not stand alone!

An action verb that is not followed by a word that answers what or whom?

The verb does not need to transmit information for the sentence to be understood.

It can stand alone!

Action verbs tells what someone or something does, hence “action.”

Transitive Verbs

Cats see their prey in the dark. (what)

Tom left Mike a PC. (whom) Jerry went to the store for milk. Hope has a cold. Mary runs track for the school. Notice how the sentences depend

upon words following the verbs for clarity.

Intransitive Verbs

Cats see well in the dark (how/where). Jesus wept. Some soldiers returned. He gave (Tran) Lewis and Clark the

horses they needed. After roll call, Samuel left. Notice that the subject and verb

contain enough information to make a sensible sentence.

Linking verbs417 Linking verbs link, or join, the subject

of a sentence with a word or expression that identifies or describes the subject.

They can be identified as “be” in its forms:

Am, is, are, was, and were are the most common linking verbs.

Several other forms other than “be” can act as linking verbs.Look Stay Taste Remain

Grow Smell Seem appear

Feel Become Sound

Verb Phrases 419

A verb phrase consists of a main verb and its auxiliary or helping verbs.

The most common auxiliary verbs are the forms of be and have. They help the main verb express the various tenses.

We are working in the yard. We have worked for the past two

weeks. We had been working for an hour

before the storm.

Verb Phrases 419

The other auxliary verbs are not used primarily to express time. They are often used to emphasize meaning.

I should be leaving. Could he have finished? Luisa may already be waiting.

Verb Phrases 419

Below is a table of commonly used auxiliary verbs.

Forms of Be Am, is, are, was, were, being, been

Forms of Have Has, have, had

Other auxiliaries

Can, could, may, might, must, do, does, did, shall, should, will, would

Adjectives423

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun by answering the questions of what kind, which one, how many, or how much.

Nouns can also be used as adjectives. They tell what kind or which one.

Exp: afternoon class, music lesson football practice

Possessive pronouns such as, our, his, her, their, my can be adjectives too.

Exp: our house, his car, their toys, my hands

Adjectives423

Many adjectives have different forms to indicate degree of comparison.

Positive Comparative Superlative

LightHeavyFunnySadPracticalGood MuchBad

LighterHeavierFunnierSadderMore practicalBetter MoreWorse

LightestHeaviestFunniestSaddestMost practicalBest Mostworst

Articles 426

A and An The “A” and “An” are

indefinite articles. They can refer to

any one of a kind of person, place or thing.

“The” is a definite article.

It refers to a specific person, place, or thing.

INDEFINITE She found a ring.I bought a used mask.

They spotted an iceberg.He was an honorable choice.

DEFINITE She found the ring.I bought the used mask.

They spotted the iceberg.He was the best choice.

Proper Adjectives427

A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun with a capital letter.

Rembrandt was a Dutch painter. Arthur was an English king. The president must be an American

citizen. Mom makes wonderful Russian tea.

Adverbs 429

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs by making their meaning more specific.

Adverbs answer the questions of: when?, where?, how?, to what degree?

An easy clue to identify an adverb is that most of them end with “ly.”

Adverbs 429

I will call tomorrow. When? His phone rings often. To what

degree? The speaker will stand here. Where? Kim carefully polished the car.

How/degree? We were truly sorry. What degree?

Negative words as Adverbs 430

The word not and its contraction (n’t) are considered adverbs. Other negative words can function as adverbs of time and place.

The plane has not landed. The plane is nowhere in sight. They have hardly boarded. I have never flown.

Adverbs that compare431

Like some adjectives, some adverbs have different forms to indicate degree of comparison.

Positive Comparative superlative

Runs fastArrived lateWorks hardWalks quicklyReads carefullyCalls oftenFeels wellBehaves badlyCares littleThrows far

Runs fasterArrived laterWorks harderWalks more quicklyReads more carefullyCalls more oftenFeels betterBehaves worseCares lessThrows farther

Runs fastestArrived latestWorks hardestWalks most quicklyReads most quicklyCalls most oftenFeels bestBehaves worstCares leastThrows farthest

Prepositions 435

Prepositions are words that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in a sentence.

Prepositions begin phrases that must end with a noun or pronoun that is called the object of the preposition.

Just remember the rabbit and log theory to remember prepositions.

The Rabbit can do anything with the log, he can:

Go in

Go over

Go under

Go around

Go through

Go above

Be from

beside

against

with

on

behind

PrepositionsCommonly Used

Aboard Beneath In Regarding

About Beside Inside Since

Above Besides Into Through

Across Between Like Throughout

After Beyond Near To

Against But (except)

Of Toward

Along By Off Under

Amid Concerning On Underneath

Among Despite Onto Until

Around Down Opposite Unto

As During Out Up

At Except Outside Upon

Before Excepting Over With

Behind For Past Within

Below From Pending without

Prepositions

A compound preposition is made up of more than one word.

According toAhead of Along withApart fromAside fromAs to

Because of By means ofIn addition toIn front ofIn spite ofInstead of

Next toOn account ofOn top ofOut ofOwing to

Conjunctions 437

A conjunction is a word that joins single words or groups of words.

A coordinating conjunction joins words or groups of words that have equal grammatical weight in a sentence. Think of them as the “FANBOYS.”F A N B O Y S

For And Nor But Or Yet So

Conjunctions 437

Two and two are four. She is good at algebra but not at English. We must leave now, or we will be late. The bell rang, yet everyone remained

seated. He could not sleep, nor would he eat. When used as a coordinating conjunction, for

means “for the reason that” or “because.” The children were tired, for they had run a

long distance.

Correlative conjunctions 438

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

Both she and I were there. Either she or I can go. Neither she nor I can go. I met not only Jean but also Ed.

Both….andEither….or

Just as…..soNeither….nor

Not only….but (also)Whether….or

Subordinating Conjunctions 439

A subordinating conjunction joins two clauses, or ideas, in such a way as to make one grammatically dependent upon the other.

The idea, or clause, that a subordinating conjunction introduces is “dependent” because it can not stand alone as a sentence.

Subordinating Conjunctions 439

We rake the leaves because so many had fallen.

We raked the leaves before we had lunch.

When more leaves fall, we will rake again.

We will go to the store after we finish.

If you get a new car, we will go to the beach.

Until the roof is repaired, we will have to use another location.

Subordinating Conjunctions 439

The following table has commonly used Subordinating Conjunctions.

AfterAlthoughAs as far asAs if As long as As soon as

As thoughBecauseBeforeConsidering thatIfInasmuchIn order that

Provided thatSinceSo long asSo that ThanThroughUnless

UntilWhen WheneverWhereWhere asWhereverwhile

Conjunctive Adverbs441

Conjunctive adverbs join two independent sentences together.

The adverb must be used in coordination with a comma and a semicolon.

Exp: Most people think of deserts as very hot places; however, desert nights can be quite cool.

Mark can cook well; moreover, his campfire cooking skills are excellent.

Interjections443

An interjection is a word or phrase that express emotion or exclamation. An interjection has no grammatical connection to other words.

Oh, I didn’t know that. Whew, it’s hot.

Ouch, That hurts! Hey, look out!