ThisdocumentismadepossiblebythegeneroussupportoftheAmericanpeoplethroughtheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID).ThecontentsaretheresponsibilityoftheGSLEPSecretariat,WWFandSLT,anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofUSAIDortheUnitedStatesGovernment.

ParticipationinConservation

AdviceDocumentAddendumtotheGeneralGuidelinesforClimateSmartSnowLeopardLandscapeManagementPlanningLeadAuthor:YashVeerBhatnagar,PhD,(yash@ncf-india.org),NatureConservationFoundation/SnowLeopardTrust,WWF,3076/5IVCross,GokulamPark,Mysuru,570020,IndiaContributingEditors:NilangaJayasinghe(nilanga.jayasinghe@wwfus.org),ChrisCzarnecki(chris@snowleopard.org)

1. Background…………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………….2

2. PrinciplesofParticipation……………………………..…………………………………………………………………………..4

3. StakeholderAnalysis……………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..5

4. TypesofParticipation….……………………………….……………………………………………………………..…………….5

4.1. PassiveParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….5

4.2. ConsultativeParticipation…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………5

4.3. BoughtParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….……6

4.4. FunctionalParticipation…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….………….6

4.5. InteractiveParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………6

4.6. Self-Mobilization……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….……7

5. ToolsforAssessments…………….……………………………..……………………………………………………….……….…8

6. StepsinParticipatoryEngagement…………….………………………………………………………………….……….….9

6.1. Pre-planning…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………9

6.2. Strategicplanning……………………………………………………………………………..………………….…………………...9

6.3. Actionplanning………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….…………10

6.4. Implementation……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………….……....…10

7. LimitationsofParticipatoryEngagement…………….……………………………………………………….……….…11

8. KeyResources……………………………………….…………….……………………………………………………….……….…11

8.1. Participatoryapproachesandphilosophy………………….…………………………………………………….……….11

8.2. Toolsandtechniques………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………11

2

1.Background

InthisAdviceDocument,wehopetohighlighttheimportanceofusingparticipatoryapproachesforsnowleopardconservation,particularlyforlandscapelevelmanagementplanning.Weintroducesomeoftheprinciplesandtoolsforenablingsuchplanning,stepsforstakeholderengagement,andprovidesuitablelinksandresourcesforexploringtheseapproaches.Thisdocumentisnotpreparedasamanualforparticipatoryconservation,forwhichsomesuitablereferencesareprovidedattheend.

Participationistheactoftakingpartinanactivityofevent(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sDictionary2000).Aparticipatoryapproachtoconservation,isthus‘…aprocessthroughwhichstakeholdersinfluenceandsharecontrolover…initiativesandthedecisionsandresourceswhichaffectthem”(TheWorldBank1996)’,Untilafewdecadesago,theconservationmovementfollowedhighlyprotectionistandtop-downmodelsofconservationbasedonexclusionaryProtectedAreas(PA).Whilethesemodelsdidworkinsomeplaces,theyoftenservedtofurthermarginalizelow-incomecommunitiesthatdependonnaturalresourcesindevelopingcountries.Thus,conservationanddevelopmentagenciestookinitiativesinthelate1980stounderstandstakeholderdependenciesandpromotesustainabledevelopmentmodelswithlocalparticipationinconservationanddevelopment(Chambers2007).Thismodelhasalsoreceivedsubstantialmomentumwithdevelopmentalagenciesofteninsistingonparticipationwhenfundingprojects.

Photo1.AsnowleopardlooksintoacameratrapinChina'sSanjiangyuanNationalNatureReserveinQinghaiprovince.PhotoCredit:ShanShui/Panthera/SnowLeopardTrust

Recognizingtheimportanceofparticipatoryapproachesthe‘BishkekDeclaration’[http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/eca/Bishkek-Declaration-on-the-Conservation-of-Snow-Leopards.pdf]signedbytheleadersofthetwelvesnowleopardrangecountriesundertheGlobalSnowLeopardEcosystemProtectionprogramstatesthatallcountries:

3

“Understandthattheconservationofthesnowleopardmustbeachievedbysecuringtheinvolvement,livelihoods,andbalanceddevelopmentofhumancommunitieswhosharethehabitat,strivingtoreconciletheconflictbetweeneconomicgrowthandenvironmentalsustainability”

Itfurtherresolvestoworktogetherto:

“Enhancetheroleoflocalcommunitiesinsnowleopardconservationeffortsbyadoptingandimplementingpoliciesandlawsthatfavourtheinvolvementofsuchcommunitiesasstewardsofbiodiversityandchampionsofconservation.

and,

Ensurethatindustry,mining,infrastructure,andruraldevelopmentprogramsandprojectsarefullysensitivetotheconservationneedsofsnowleopardsandtheirecosystems,donotadverselyaffectorfragmentkeypopulationsorcriticalhabitats,andemploywildlife-friendlydesign,offsets,andothermitigationtools….”

Thesnowleopardisaspeciesthatisspreadoverlargelandscapes,oftenoccurringfarbeyondPAs,inareasmanagedbycommunities,companiesorGovernmentagencies.Thereare,thus,numerousstakeholdersinanysnowleopardlandscapewithtraditionalorlegalrights.Withdifferentstakeholders,theperceptions,interests,needsandexpectationstowardsconservationanddevelopmentcandiffersubstantially.

Example:Avalleyadjacenttoaprotectedarea,hasgoodsnowleopardandpreypopulation,andhashighvaluesforecosystemservices.Itmayhaveafewvillageswithagriculture,somepasturesandareasforfuelcollection.Avillagefromanadjacentvalleyclaimsmostofthepastures.Further,thereistheanimalhusbandrydepartmentthatcomeswithamandatefortriplingsheepproductioninafewyears;ahorticulturedepartmentthatwantstoconvertalargepatchofmoistmeadowbythestreamintoanappleplantation;atourismdepartmentthatwishestocreatealargecampingsitenearthepastures,andsoon.

Photo2.TheUkokPlateaunaturalpark,RepublicofAltai,providescriticalhabitatforthesnowleopardandmanyotherendangeredspecies.©DenisBogomolov/WWF-Russia

4

Itmaybeclearthatwithalltheseactivitiesorsomesuchasintensetourismthevalley’s,valueforsnowleopardmaydiminish.Conservation,livelihoodandhumanwelfareconcernsareoftenintertwinedclosely.Therefore,conservationandmanagementinitiativeswillneedtoincludeallperspectivesandplansthataresensitivetootherconcerns,yetaremanagedtosecurewildlifeinthearea.Thiswillrequiresustaineddialoguewithstakeholderswithdisparateinterestsinordertocomeupwithsolutions.

Participatoryconservationis,thus,ameansofusinglocalinsightsandinputsanddevelopingconsensustotakeupactivitieswithlocalpeopleandagenciestosustainconservationinterventionsovertime.

2.PrinciplesofParticipationSomekeyprinciplesforthisprocess(excerptedandmodifiedfromPrettyetal.(1995)andTMI(2000))are:

• Multipleperspectives:Likementionedabove,atypicallandscapehasstakeholderssuchaslocalcommunities,governmentdepartments,NGOs,communitybasedorganizationsforprofitcompanies,allofwhomarelikelytoseethelandanditsresourceswithdifferingviewsandexpectations.Further,thecommunity,too,isnotamonolith,butmayhavedifferingwaysofusingthelandscape.Thisprinciplerecognizesthefactthatdifferentstakeholdergroupsmakedifferentassessmentsofsituationsleadingtodifferentexpectationsandactionsregardingconservationanddevelopment.

• Adefinedsetofmethodsandsystematiclearningprocess:Thefocusisoncumulativelearningbyallparticipants,includingfacilitators,traineesandlocalpeople.Allparticipantshavesomethingtoofferandlearnbasedontheirownknowledge,beliefsandperceptions.ParticipatoryLearningandAction(PLA)toolsoftenhelpintheseassessments(seebelow).

• Facilitatorattitudesandskill:Thisiscritical,asthefacilitatorshouldtrytomaintainanunbiasedandappreciativesenseofenquiry.Thefacilitatorshouldideallyensureequity,fairnessandtransparencyinthediscussionsandagreedactions.Thefacilitatorshouldhelppeoplecarryouttheirownlearningtoachievegoalsandobjectives.

• Consensusonissuesandactions:Actionablepointsneedtoemergefromdiscussionanddebatethathelpinresolvingtheconservationissue(s)underconsideration.Actionplansneedtobepreparedthathelpclarifytheissue,theactivitytoaddressit,whowilldowhatandwhen.Howpartnerswillpooltheresourcesisanimportantstep.Incorporateco-financingincashorkindbypartnersforimplementationoftheplans.Thiscanoftenenhancesenseofownershipandhelpsinmakingtheimplementationofworksmorecosteffective.

• Localinstitutionbuildingandcapacitybuilding:Activitiesshouldbetakenupthatleadtoleadership,enhancedlocalcapacityandstructurestosustaintheseactivities(seeAddendum4.IntegratedManagementandGovernance).

Further,itshouldbenotedthatwhensustainablemanagementofthelandscapeistheprimarygoal,facilitatorsshouldbeawareofthatfromtheonsetoftheprocess.Communitydevelopmentcanbeaddressed,butensurethatconservationandecosystemmanagementlinkagesarecloselyintegratedandmaintainedforaholistic,sustainableapproach.Insomecases,strategicinterventionsintheareasofhealth,education,livelihoodsandlocalinfrastructuremayneedtobemadeinitiallytoaddressurgentneedsofcommunities,aswellasbuildtrustengagement.Thesearesometimesreferredtoas‘entrypointactivities’thatcan,atalaterstage,evencontinuealongwithconservationactivities.Forexample,ifacommunityisseasonallycutoffforwantofasmallbridge,itisdifficulttoengagewiththemstraight

5

awayonaconservationissue.Itmaybegoodtoconsideraparticipatoryprocess,tofirstjointlybuildthisbridgeandthenbeginengagementontheconservationissue.

3.StakeholderAnalysis

Beforedetermininghowthevariousstakeholdersinasnowleopardlandscapewillparticipateinconservationandthelandscapemanagementplanningefforts,theymustfirstbeidentified,andaninitialanalysisshouldtakeplacetodetermineareasofconvergenceanddivergencewithsnowleopardconservationgoals.Astakeholderisanindividual,grouporinstitutionthathasaninterestinorisimpactedbyaproject.Stakeholders,particularlyinfluentialonessuchasgovernmentdepartmentsorindustries,canplayadecisiveroleinhowalandscapeismanaged.Mostoftheseagenciesareactiveinthelandscapeduetolong-standingandlegitimatemandates.Theirrolemaycomplementconservation(e.g.protectedareas,fulfillingsustainablelivelihoodrequirements),orconflictwithit(e.g.largeinfrastructureorunsustainableresourceextractionprojects),butineithercasecanbeseenascrucialforlocalornationalinterestbylocalpeopleand/orpolicymakers.Forthelandscapemanagementplanningprocesstobesuccessful,itiscrucialnotonlytoworkcloselyinaparticipativemannerwithlocalcommunities,butalsotoidentifyandengagewiththeotherstakeholdersinthelandscape.DetailedinformationonhowtoconductaStakeholderAnalysiscanbefoundinAddendum3:StakeholderAnalysis.

4.TypesofParticipation

Therearevariouswaysoflookingatparticipation.PrettyandSmith(2004)provideausefuldescriptionofthetypologyofparticipation.Simpleexamplesusingpeople-wildlifeconflictmitigationareprovidedforsometypesofparticipation:

4.1PassiveParticipation

Peopleparticipatebybeingtoldwhathasbeendecidedorhasalreadyhappened,andprojectimplementersproceedwithoutseekingtheirinputsortakingtheirneedsintoconsideration.Thisapproachmayoftennotleadtodesirableactionbasedontherealneedsofbothmanagementandpeople.

Example:Livestockislosttosnowleopardsinavillagewithjustfivehouseholds,butthesearespreadoutwidelyonamountainslope.Damageprimarilyoccursintheage-oldcorralsplacednearthehousesandfieldsbasedonsomeseasonalcriteriaofusingthem.Aconservationagencywithfundsforcorralimprovementdecidestohelpinconstructingonesinglelargecorralnearthecenterofthevillagetohelpreducelossesandgoesaheadwiththeimplementationusinghiredlaboranddiscussionswithjustthevillagehead.Unfortunately,peoplerefusetousethiscentralizedcorral,asitisinefficientforfeeding,milking,takinganimalsoutforherdingeverymorningandreturningthembacktothecorralintheevening.Thecorral,thus,remainsunusedand,induecourse,thevillagersdismantleusablepartslikemeshfenceandironrodsforotheruses.

4.2ConsultativeParticipation

6

Peopleparticipatebyansweringquestions,withnoshareindecision-making,buttheirviewsmaybeincorporated.Thevarietyofquestionsaskedbytheofficialteamduringtheconsultationcanraiseexpectations,butcanbedisappointingifsubsequentactionsarenotbasedontheresponses.

Example:Aconservationagencyarrivesinavillageandholdsalargemeetingtohelpreduceconflicts.Aftertheinteraction,however,theyimplementacentralcorralbasedontheirdonorfunding,somethingthatwasclearlynotthepreferredsolutioninthemeeting.Inaddition,theyuseoutsidelaborformoreefficientandcheaperconstruction.Theexpectationswereraisedduetothesizeofthemeetingandthepotentialinvestment,buttheconservationbenefitintheendwasnegligibleorevennegative.

4.3BoughtParticipation

Peopleparticipateinreturnforfood,cashorothermaterialincentives,butwithouttheirdecisions.Thisisequivalenttopaidlaborandwouldn’tqualifyasparticipation.Thisshouldbedistinguishedfromanycasewhereacommunityispaidbasedonitsroleindecision-makingandawork-planwheretheywereinvolvedalongwithotherstakeholders(seebelow).

Example:Intheaboveexamplefor‘consultativeparticipation’,iftheconservationagencypayscommunitymembersforbuildingthecentralizedcorral,itcanbecalled‘boughtparticipation’.Here,thecommunitystilldon’thaveanydecisionmakingroleorconservationbenefitsbutcanearnsomemoney.

4.4FunctionalParticipation

Participationisseenbyexternalagenciesasameanstoachievetheirgoals,andpeoplemayformgroupstomeetpredeterminedobjectives.

Example:Anagencyarrivesinavillagewiththeintentionofsettingupaninsuranceprogramforhighvaluehorses.However,onarrivaltheyrealizethattherecentlossesaremoreincorralsandthatsincethepasttwoyears,thevillagershavemovedmoretowardsstall-fedcattlethanhorses.Theagencyis,however,boundbytheirfundingtosetupaninsuranceprogramandtheysomehowmanagetosetoneupwithafewvillagers.Theprogramisn’tsustainedsinceitwasnotviablewithonlyfewparticipantsandaproblemthatwasn’tsignificant.

4.5InteractiveParticipation

Peopleparticipateinjointanalysis,developmentofactionplansandformorstrengthenlocalgroupsandinstitutions.

Example:Agencyknowsthatthereisanissuewithsnowleoparddepredationinavillage.Theyarrivewithanopenmindandafewoptionsformanagingtheconflicts.Theyusetheirpriorinteractionswithkeyinformantsandmultiplediscussionsonrecentpatternsofconflictstoworkonthesolutionswiththecommunity.Itemergesthatsincetheimportanceofhorseshasreducedduetoroadaccess,thethreatislimitedtocattleandasmallstockiskeptinunprotectedcorralswithafewhorsesandyakslostduringtwomonthsofspringinacertainpasture.Theteamandlocalcommunityidentifythetwoprioritycorralstobeimprovedandworkonclearresponsibilitiesandtimelinesfortheworktobedone.Thecommunityalsotakesontheroleofdeputingtwoherderstotakecareoftheyaksandhorsesduringthetwovulnerablemonthsofspringbasedonanequalcontributionfromallhouseholds.Theconservationagency,too,contributes5%ofthetotalcostofhiringtheherdersforthefirstthreeyears.Thisprogram

7

sustainsoveralongperiod.Thecommunityhasalsodevelopedthecapacityforadaptingtheprogramandruleswithchangingherdingpatterns.

Photo3.Wirefencingisusedtoimproveacorralandpreventhuman-wildlifecontactinIndia.PhotoCredit:NatureConservationFoundation/SnowLeopardTrust

4.6Self-Mobilization

Peopleparticipatebytakinginitiativeindependentlyandretaincontroloverhowresourcesareused.

Example:Basedontheaboveexample(InteractiveParticipation)–ontheirown,thecommunityidentifiesanothertwocorralsupinthepastureswithincreaseddepredation.Theyrealizethatinsteadoflosingtensoflivestock,theentirecostofexternalgoodsneededforthecorralimprovementwasequivalenttothecostof5sheep.Theydecidetopoolthiscash,alongwiththeirlaborandcompleteimprovingthecorralontheirown,ataskthatisultimatelyusefulfortheirlivelihood.

Positiveoutcomesareassociatedprimarilywiththelastthreetypes,i.e.,Functional,InteractiveandSelf-Mobilizedparticipationsoitisbesttousethesemethodsinthedevelopmentoflandscapemanagementplans.ItisimportanttonotethatthePassive,ConsultativeorBoughtparticipationdoesn’tgetintotheGSLEPmanagementplanningprocessasthiscanbedamagingtothecauseofconservationaswellasrelationshipswiththecommunity.

8

Photo4.StakeholdermeetinginPakistan.Photo:SnowLeopardTrust/SLF-Pakistan.

5.ToolsforAssessments

Themethodstounderstandlocaldependenciesinspaceandtime,understandingtheirconcerns,livelihoodthreats,etc.canoftenbelearntthroughtheParticipatoryLearningandAction(PLA)tools,whichcanbebroadlyclassedinthesefourcategories(seeresourcesgivenbelowunderToolsandTechniquesformoredetailsregardingthemethods):

1. InterviewsandDiscussions:e.g.Semistructuredinterviews,key-informantdiscussions,brainstormingsessions

2. MappingandDiagrammaticrepresentation:e.g.Resourcemapping,trendlines,Venndiagrams,mobilitymaps

3. Directobservations:e.g.Transectwalks,participantobservations4. Rankingandclassification:e.g.Matrixranking,pair-wiseranking

Thesetoolsareveryhandyandoftenleadtoinformationusableforlandscapelevelplanning.Whiletheneedformoreaccurateandacademicstudiesonaspectsofecologyandhumansocietyareusefulforplanning,often,thesearenotavailable,especiallyovervastareas.Well-designedPLAtoolsare,thus,helpfulfordataandinformationthatmaynotbetotallyrobust,butisusuallyconsideredenoughforplanningpurposes.Literaturereferstoitwithtermssuchas‘optimalignorance’and‘appropriateimprecision’(Chambers1981).

9

6.StepsinParticipatoryEngagement

Asstatedabove,andintheAddendumXXX(StrategicPlanning),weproposeaddressingcommunitylevelthreatstogetherwiththecommunitytounderstandthethreat,workonpossiblesolutionsthroughplanningandthenimplementtheaction.Thefourphasesofparticipatoryengagementforthefacilitatorsoftenare1)pre-planning,2)strategicplanning,3)action-planningand4)implementation.Furtherdetailsonthesethreephasesareprovidedbelow:

6.1Pre-planning

Thisisforthefacilitatorstounderstandthebroadcontextoftheareaanddeveloptheirownteam.

1. Preparation:Collateandreviewavailableliterature,statisticandmaps.Trytounderstandthreatstowildlife,aswellaslocallivelihoods.

2. Vision:Basedontheavailableinformation,thefacilitatorsdeveloptheirtentativevisionofchangeforthecommunityandotherstakeholders.

3. Approachandprocessdetermination:Compositionoftheteam,giventhenatureofthecommunity,expectationsoflevelofparticipation,timingofworkshops,durationofinvolvementoftheagency(shortorlongterm).Identifyoneortwowell-informedlocalpersonswhocancomplementtheteam.Willbeusefultoincludealocalladywhocanbringinwomen’sviewsmoreeffectively.

4. StakeholderSensitization:Sensitizethestakeholdersabouttheparticipatorymeetingandthegeneralthrustofthemeeting(naturalresourcemanagementissuesinourcase)sothatdiscussionscanbekeptmorefocused.

Informaldiscussionsandtimespentsocializingwiththecommunity(aswellasotherstakeholders)isastrongmeanstodevelopamorenuancedunderstandingoftheirissuesandconcerns.However,suchtimeismostoftennotavailableforthemanagementplanningteam.Itis,thus,valuabletoincludeanyfacilitatorswithlong-terminsightsfromthearea.Itisimportanttoinvestinthecapacityofthefacilitatorssothattheygetprofessionalandonthejobtrainingformoreeffectiveassessmentsandengagement.

AusefulcommentbyChambersmadeearlyonin1997warnsoftheimportanceoffacilitatorattitudes.Quotingfromhisbook:“AsPRAapproachesandmethodsspread,theprimeimportanceoffacilitators’behaviourandattitudesbecameclear.Againandagain,outsiderswaggedtheirfingers,criticized,lectured,interrupted,suggestedwhatshouldbedone,putforwardtheirownideas,andcontradictedandputdownlocalpeople.Allthesewereinhibiting.Allmadelocalpeopleappear,tooutsidersandthemselves,incapable.Sothenewimperativesbecametoestablishrapport,tositdown,listenandlearn,tobepatient,torespect,tofacilitate,tobenicetopeople,tolearnnottointerview,toknowwhennottospeakandwhennottobepresent.Thetaskforoutsidersbecametohandoverthestick,toempowerlocalpeople,toenhancetheirconfidence,toenablethemtodefine,expressandanalysetheirreality,andnottoreflectthatoftheoutsider.”

6.2Strategicplanning

Thisisforthefacilitatorstorevisetheirunderstandingifneeded,throughstructuredengagementswiththestakeholders.

10

1. Stakeholders’Vision:Understandinganddocumentingthecommunity’svisionofchange.Aseparate‘institutionalanalysis’willhelpinunderstandingthemandatesoftheotherstakeholders(seeAddendum3.StakeholderAnalysis).Thisengagementwillalsotrytoinformthemaboutthemanagementplanningprocessandunderstandtheirexpectationsfromtheprocess.

2. Situationanalysis:Gainanoverviewofsocio-ecologicalstateofthecommunityusingvarioustools,forexample:

a. Mappingofspaceandtime(resourcemapping,trendlines),oralhistories,calendarsb. Diagrammaticrepresentationofrelationships(Venndiagrams,flowcharts)c. Representationofpreferences(rankingexercises)andrelativeproblems(Pairwise

rankingisausefultoolhere)3. Problemidentification:Thesituationanalysisleadstoidentificationofproblems.Thiscan

includealistofissuesandtheirlinkages.A‘ProblemTree’isusefulinlookingattheproblems,theircausesandconsequencestoconservation(seeSutherland2000).

4. Prioritizeproblems:Prioritizeproblemsintermsoftheneedtotacklethem,anddefinetheobjectivesoftheplan(Consideringtheinternalheterogeneityofcommunities,differentsegmentsmayhavedifferentpriorities.).TheProblemTreecanbeusedtopreparean‘ObjectiveTree’.Theobjectiveswithinthescopeofthemanagementplanningexercisecanbeselectedforthenextsteps.

5. Solutions:a. Communityprovidesitsownsolutionsandmayneedassistanceinimplementation.

Alternatively,facilitatorsmaysuggestsolutionsbasedonknow-hownotpresentinthecommunityorbasedontheirexperiencesfromothersimilarsituations.

b. Identifyactivitiesfromallpossibleoptions.6. Prioritizeactivities:Prioritizetheactivitiesidentifiedforsolvingproblem.Differencesregarding

rankingofactivitiesmayarisewithinthecommunityandwillrequireresolution.7. Spatialplan:LocationofeachoftheactivitiesareputonaresourcemaporGISmap,ifavailable.

6.3Actionplanning

1. Allocationofactivities:Activitiesareassignedtodifferentstakeholders.Thereisclarityontheroles,responsibilitiesandprivileges.

2. Timeline:Timelinesforeachactivityisdeterminedandagreed3. Resources/Budget:availabilityofresources(skilledhumanresource,labor,rawmaterial.etc.)

andfundsaredeterminedandallocated.Itisidealthatallinvolvedstakeholdersco-financeincashorkindasthatbuildsgreaterownership

4. Evaluatesuitabilityformarginalgroups:Theeffectoftheplanonmarginalgroupsandweakersectionsaredeterminedandifnecessary,stepsaremodified

5. Monitoringandevaluation:Asystemofmonitoringandevaluationisputinplace

6.4Implementation

Implementandevaluatetheactivity(s)aspertheactionplan.Thisisakeystepwherethedeliveryoftheprocesstakesplace.Properandtransparentimplementationandevaluationhelpsgenerategoodwillandbettertrust.Ifplanningisnotfollowedbyactionattheagreedtime,itcanleadtomistrusttowardstheprocess.

11

7.LimitationsofParticipatoryEngagement

In1996,theInternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED),London,issuedalistofpotentialproblemsfacingtheincreaseduseofparticipatorytoolsathugescales.TheywelcomedtheeffortstomainstreamparticipationindonoragenciessuchastheWorldBank,andtheincreasingstressonparticipationbyGovernmentsandGovernmentdepartmentsbutpointedtothefactthatthequalityofparticipatoryworkwasimpededbythesheerscale,poorcapacityoffacilitators,donordrivenprogramsandshorttimeforassessments(FromPLANotes27[http://pubs.iied.org/G01664/],fromaworkshopinBangalorein1996).Itisstressedherethatlikeanyotherideaandtool,participationhasitsmeritsbutneedstobecarriedoutbymotivatedfacilitatorswithgoodunderstandingoftheprocesses,andwithenoughtimeandresources.Theaimofthisdocumentistoprovidesomehelpfulguidance.

8.KeyResources

Therearenumerouscredibleresourcesavailableonline(seeforexamplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research),onthephilosophy,approachesandtoolsforensuringgoodparticipationofstakeholders.Mostdevelopmentfunders,too,oftenpropagateacertaintypeofwell-researchedandusedparticipatoryapproach.Usersofthisdocumentareadvisedtosearchfortheseresources.Here,averybriefselectionhasbeenprovided,whichisbynomeanscomprehensive.

8.1Participatoryapproachesandphilosophy

• Chambers,R.(1997).WhoseRealityCounts?PuttingtheFirstLast.IntermediateTechnologyPublications,Bradford,UK.

• Chambers,R.(1981).Rapidruralappraisal:rationaleandrepertoire.PublicAdministrationandDevelopment.Vol.1(95-106).

• Chambers,R.(1994).Participatoryruralappraisal(PRA):Analysisofexperience.WorldDevelopment22:1253–1268.

• Chambers,R.(2006).Participatorymappingandgeographicinformationsystems:whosemap?Whoisempoweredandwhodisempowered?Whogainsandwholoses?TheElectronicJournalonInformationSystemsinDevelopingCountries25:1–11.

• Chambers,R.(2007).FromPRAtoPLAandPluralism:PracticeandTheory,IDSWorkingPaper286.

• Sutherland,W.(2000).ConservationHandbook:Research,ManagementandPolicy.BlackwellPublishing.Oxford,UK.(seeChapter7:ConservationPlanningandChapter14:IntegratingConservationandDevelopment)

• Pretty,J.N.,Gujit,I.,Scoones,I.,Thompson,J.,(1995).ATrainer’sGuideforParticipatoryLearningandAction.SustainableAgricultureProgramme.InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,3EndsleighStreet.LondonWCIHODD,UK

8.2Toolsandtechniques• Anonymous(2009).ParticipatoryToolsHandbook,HKKHPartnershipforEcosystem

Management,CESVI,ProjectActivityCode(s):A.1.5.4,June2009,EvK2CNR,ICIMOD,CESVI,IUCN.

12

• TheMountainInstitute(2000)Community-BasedTourismforConservationandDevelopment:AResourceKit,TheMountainInstitute[http://mountain.org/sites/default/files/attachments/community_based_tourism_for_conservation_and_development.pdf]

• ParticipatoryMethods,InstituteofDevelopmentalStudies,UniversityofSussex,UK[http://www.participatorymethods.org]