PART PART 22 The Civil War: A Nation Divided

Rick Reeves/National Guard

The Civil War: A Nation Divided

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The Old Flag Never Touched The Ground. Rick Reeves.

“Many are the hearts that are weary tonight, Wishing for the war to cease . . . ”

— Walter C. Kittredge, “Tenting on the Old Campground”

The Civil War: A Nation Divided

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BEFORE YOU READ

MEET MARY CHESNUT

Mary Boykin Chesnut’s life was one of opposites. Before the Civil War, she was the privileged daughter of Stephen

Miller, a wealthy plantation owner in South Carolina. When the war ended, however, she and her husband were financially ruined. Although she abhorred slavery, her family owned hundreds of slaves, and her father was a pro-slavery congress-man, senator, and governor. Chesnut’s observant nature, education, and social position made her an excellent chronicler of the South during the Civil War.

Education Unlike many women of her era, Chesnut received a formal education. She attended Madame Talvande’s French School for Young Ladies in Charleston, South Carolina, where she was an excellent student. During her time at Madame Talvande’s, she met James Chesnut Jr., a lawyer from a neighboring plantation. The couple mar-ried just after Chesnut turned seventeen years old. When James was elected to the Senate in 1858, the Chesnuts moved to Washington, D.C., where they entertained politicians who would become the leading figures of the Confederacy, such as Jefferson Davis, the future president of the Confederacy. When she was not charming her friends with her sharp wit, Chesnut immersed herself in reading history books and English and French novels.

When the war broke out, Chesnut remained loyal to the South despite her opposition to slavery. Her husband had relinquished his seat in the U.S. Senate in 1860 after the ideological differences between the North and South became too extreme. Afterward, he was a prominent figure in the Confederacy, and as a result the Chesnuts traveled throughout the South. Throughout the Civil War, Chesnut lamented the cruelties and evils of war in detailed journals that reflected what people of the time believed, thought, and said.

Publication After the war ended, Chesnut and her family came upon difficult times. They lost their plantation due to debt, and James died in 1884. After his death, Chesnut was left alone to oversee their struggling dairy farm. Despite these hardships, she still worked to publish her memoirs. Similar to many other works of the Civil War era, Chesnut’s “diary” is actually a compilation of jour-nal entries recorded during the war and recollec-tions written after it ended. Chesnut wrote her memoirs between 1881 and 1884. Unfortunately, she died of a heart attack before it could reach publication. The first public version of her jour-nals, A Diary from Dixie, was published almost twenty years later. Today it is lauded for its vivid descriptions and details of a life in the Confederacy.

Mary Chesnut was born in 1823 and died in 1886.

from Mary Chesnut’s Civil War

360 UNIT 3 THE CIVIL WAR ERA

Author Search For more about Mary Chesnut, go to www.glencoe.com.

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LITERATURE PREVIEW READING PREVIEW

Connecting to the JournalHave you ever kept a journal or a diary? If so, what kinds of events and opinions did you document? If not, what might you choose to write about? As you read the journal entries, ask yourself the follow-ing questions:

• Why might someone choose to write a journal?

• What might you choose to write about in a journal?

Building BackgroundThe passage you are about to read from Chesnut’s journal describes the outbreak of the Civil War. By early 1861, South Carolina had seceded from the Union and claimed ownership of all federal property within the state. Only Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor, remained under federal control. Confederate authorities demanded the removal of U.S. troops from the fort. President Lincoln refused their request, and on April 12, 1861, Confederate cannons opened fire on the fort. The Civil War had begun.

Setting Purposes for Reading Big Idea A Nation DividedAs you read Chesnut’s journal entries, think about the conflicting feelings she and other Southerners may have had about supporting the rebellion.

Literary Element JournalA journal is a daily record of events by a participant in those events or a witness to them. Journals are subjec-tive, which means that they reflect the writer’s personal perspective. As you read these entries, think about what Chesnut’s journal reveals about her personality and character.

• See Literary Terms Handbook, p. R10.

Reading Strategy Distinguishing Fact and Opinion

A fact is a statement that can be validated with proof, while an opinion offers a personal point of view or feeling. As you read Chesnut’s journal, note where she offers an opinion rather than presenting the facts.

Reading Tip: Identifying Opinion Statements Adverbs and adjectives, such as delightfully, silly, and horrible, are often indicators of opinion statements.

Vocabulary

allusion (ə l¯¯¯oo� zhən) n. an indirect or casual reference; an incidental mention; p. 363 To avoid trouble, he only made a brief allusion to his overdue assignment.

audaciously (�o da� shəs le) adv. boldly; arro-gantly; p. 363 The bold woman stepped auda-ciously to the front of the line.

prostrate (pros� trat) adj. stretched out with face to the ground in humility, adoration, or submission; p. 363 The priest was prostrate before the altar.

delusion (di l¯¯¯oo� zhen) n. a false impression or belief; p. 364 Behind in the polls, the candidate still had the delusion that he could win.

pervade (pər vad�) v. to spread through every part; p. 364 After a week of rain, dampness per-vaded the house.

Vocabulary Tip: Context Clues You can often determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word by examining the sentence in which the word appears. Often, the tone of the sentence and the words pre-ceding or following the unfamiliar word—called con-text clues—will help you define that word. For example, in the passage “Sound and fury, signifying nothing. A delusion and a snare . . . ,” the phrase “signifying nothing” and the word snare can help you define delusion as “a false impression or belief.”

MARY CHESNUT 361

Interactive Literary Elements Handbook To review or learn more about the literary elements, go to www.glencoe.com.

In studying this selection, you will focus on the following:

• analyzing historical context• responding to journal entries

• distinguishing fact and opinion

OBJECTIVES

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A pril 7, 1861. . . . Today things seem to have settled down a little. One can but hope still. Lincoln or Seward1 have made such silly advances and then far sillier drawings back. There may be a chance for peace, after all.

Things are happening so fast. My husband has been made an aide-de-camp2

of General Beauregard.3 Three hours ago we were quietly packing to go home. The conven-tion has adjourned.

Now he tells me the attack upon Fort Sumter may begin tonight. Depends upon Anderson and the fleet outside. The Herald says that this show of war outside of the bar4 is intended for Texas.5

John Manning came in with his sword and red sash. Pleased as a boy to be on Beauregard’s staff while the row goes on. He has gone with Wigfall to Captain Hartstene with instructions.

Mr. Chesnut6 is finishing a report he had to make to the convention.

Mrs. Hayne called. She had, she said, “but one feeling, pity for those who are not here.”

Jack Preston, Willie Alston—“the take-life-easys,” as they are called—with John Green, “the


1. William Henry Seward was U.S. Secretary of State from 1861 to 1869.

2. An officer who serves as an assistant to a superior officer is an aide-de-camp.

3. General Beauregard commanded the Confederate forces surrounding Fort Sumter.

Mary Chesnut

4. Bar refers to a sand bar.5. Texas, a pro-slavery state, had recently voted to secede from

the Union.6. Mr. Chesnut (also called Colonel Chesnut) refers to Mary’s

husband James, who served as the liaison between Confederate President Jefferson Davis and Colonel Anderson.

A Nation Divided How does this statement show the conflicting feelings of Southerners during the Civil War?

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big brave,” have gone down to the island—vol-unteered as privates.

Seven hundred men were sent over. Ammunition wagons rumbling along the streets all night. Anderson burning blue lights—signs and signals for the fleet outside, I suppose.

Today at dinner there was no allusion to things as they stand in Charleston Harbor. There was an undercurrent of intense excitement. There could not have been a more brilliant cir-cle. In addition to our usual quartet (Judge Withers, Langdon Cheves, and Trescot) our two governors dined with us, Means and Manning.

These men all talked so delightfully. For once in my life I listened.

That over, business began. In earnest, Governor Means rummaged a sword and red sash from some-where and brought it for Colonel Chesnut, who has gone to demand the surrender of Fort Sumter.

— S

—

And now, patience—we must wait.

— S

—

Why did that green goose Anderson go into Fort Sumter? Then everything began to go wrong.

Now they have intercepted a letter from him, urging them to let him surrender. He paints the horrors likely to ensue if they will not.

He ought to have thought of all that before he put his head in the hole.

April 12, 1861 . . . Anderson will not capitulate.

— S

—

Yesterday was the merriest, maddest dinner we have had yet. Men were more audaciously wise and witty. We had an unspoken foreboding it was to be our last pleasant meeting. Mr. Miles dined with us today. Mrs. Henry King rushed in:

“The news, I come for the latest news—all of the men of the King family are on the island”—of which fact she seemed proud.

While she was here, our peace negotiator— or envoy—came in. That is, Mr. Chesnut returned—his interview with Colonel Anderson had been deeply interesting—but was not inclined to be communicative, wanted his din-ner. Felt for Anderson. Had telegraphed to President Davis for instructions.

What answer to give Anderson, &c&c.7 He has gone back to Fort Sumter, with additional instructions.

When they were about to leave the wharf, A. H. Boykin sprang into the boat, in great excite-ment; thought himself ill-used. A likelihood of fighting—and he to be left behind!

— S

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I do not pretend to go to sleep. How can I? If Anderson does not accept terms—at four—the orders are—he shall be fired upon.

I count four—St. Michael chimes. I begin to hope. At half-past four, the heavy booming of a cannon.

I sprang out of bed. And on my knees— prostrate—I prayed as I never prayed before.

There was a sound of stir all over the house—pattering of feet in the corridor—all seemed hurrying one way. I put on my double gown and a shawl and went, too. It was to the housetop.

The shells were bursting. In the dark I heard a man say “waste of ammunition.”

I knew my husband was rowing about in a boat somewhere in that dark bay. And that the shells were roofing it over—bursting toward the fort. If Anderson was obstinate—he was to order the forts on our side to open fire. Certainly fire had begun. The regular roar of the cannon—there it was. And who could tell what each vol-ley accomplished of death and destruction.

MARY CHESNUT 363

7. &c&c means “et cetera” or “and others.”

allusion (ə l¯¯¯oozhən) n. an indirect or casual refer-ence; an incidental mentionaudaciously (o dashəs le) adv. boldly; arrogantly

Vocabulary

Distinguishing Fact and Opinion Is Chesnut presenting here a fact or an opinion?

Reading Strategy

Journal How might a soldier describe this situation differently?

Literary Element

prostrate (prostrat) adj. stretched out with face to the ground in humility, adoration, or submission

Vocabulary

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The women were wild, there on the housetop. Prayers from the women and imprecations8 from

the men, and then a shell would light up the scene. Tonight, they say, the forces are to attempt to land.

The Harriet Lane9 had her wheelhouse smashed and put back to sea.

— S

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We watched up there—everybody wondered. Fort Sumter did not fire a shot.

— S

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Today Miles and Manning, colonels now—aides to Beauregard—dined with us. The latter hoped I would keep the peace. I give him only good words, for he was to be under fire all day and night, in the bay carrying orders, &c.

— S

—

Last night—or this morning truly—up on the housetop I was so weak and weary I sat down on something that looked like a black stool.

“Get up, you foolish woman—your dress is on fire,” cried a man. And he put me out. It was a chimney, and the sparks caught my clothes. Susan Preston and Mr. Venable then came up. But my fire had been extinguished before it broke out into a regular blaze.

— S

—

Do you know, after all that noise and our tears and prayers, nobody has been hurt. Sound and fury, sig-nifying nothing.10 A delusion and a snare....

— S

—

Somebody came in just now and reported Colonel Chesnut asleep on the sofa in General Beauregard’s room. After two such nights he must be so tired as to be able to sleep anywhere. . . .APRIL 13, 1861. . . . Nobody hurt, after all. How gay we were last night.

Reaction after the dread of all the slaughter we thought those dreadful cannons were making such a noise in doing.

Not even a battery11 the worse for wear.Fort Sumter has been on fire. He has not yet

silenced any of our guns. So the aides—still with swords and red sashes by way of uniform—tell us.

But the sound of those guns makes regular meals impossible. None of us go to table. But tea trays pervade the corridors, going everywhere.

Some of the anxious hearts lie on their beds and moan in solitary misery. Mrs. Wigfall and I solace ourselves with tea in my room.

These women have all a satisfying faith. . . .

APRIL 15, 1861. . . . I did not know that one could live such days of excitement.

They called, “Come out—there is a crowd coming.”

A mob indeed, but it was headed by Colonels Chesnut and Manning.

The crowd was shouting and showing these two as messengers of good news. They were escorted to Beauregard’s headquarters. Fort Sumter had surrendered.

Those up on the housetop shouted to us, “The fort is on fire.” That had been the story once or twice before.

— S

—

When we had calmed down, Colonel Chesnut, who had taken it all quietly enough—if any-thing, more unruffled than usual in his serenity—told us how the surrender came about.

Wigfall was with them on Morris Island when he saw the fire in the fort, jumped in a little boat


11. A battery is an artillery unit.

8. Imprecations are curses. 9. The Harriet Lane was a federal ship that brought provisions

to the troops at Fort Sumter. 10. “Sound and fury, signifying nothing” is taken from Macbeth

(act 5, scene 5, lines 27–28), a play by Shakespeare.

Distinguishing Fact and Opinion Do you think that this statement is based on factual informa-tion, or is it Chesnut’s opinion?

Reading Strategy

pervade (pər vad) v. to spread through every part

Vocabulary

Visual Vocabulary The wheelhouse is the enclosed area on the deck of a ship that shelters the steering equip-ment and the pilot.

delusion (di l¯ ¯oozhen) n. a false impression or belief

Vocabulary

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and, with his handkerchief as a white flag, rowed over to Fort Sumter. Wigfall went in through a porthole.

When Colonel Chesnut arrived shortly after and was received by the regular entrance, Colonel Anderson told him he had need to pick his way warily, for it was all mined.

As far as I can make out, the fort surrendered to Wigfall.

But it is all confusion. Our flag is flying there. Fire engines have been sent to put out the fire.

Everybody tells you half of something and then rushes off to tell something else or to hear the last news. . . .

Journal Would a member of the Confederate army or a Confederate official agree that “it is all confusion”?

Literary Element

MARY CHESNUT 365

Sunset at Fort Sumter, 1863. Conrad Wise Chapman. Viewing the Art: What do the details of this painting reveal about the situation at Fort Sumter at this time?

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AFTER YOU READ

Respond1. What insights about the Civil War did these journal

entries give you?

Recall and Interpret2. (a)What activities in Chesnut’s entry for April 7 sug-

gest that war is about to begin? (b)What attitude does Chesnut express toward these activities?

3. (a)What major event takes place on April 12? (b)What hopes and fears does Chesnut convey in the entry for that day?

4. (a)What bit of good news does Chesnut report in her entry for April 13? (b)What does this entry reveal about her attitude toward the war?

Analyze and Evaluate5. (a)Describe the tone, the writer’s feelings about

the topic and characters, in the first journal entry. (b)Is this what you might expect under the circum-stances? Explain your response.

6. Many of Chesnut’s entries document meals and the people who were present at them. (a)Why might she have documented these meals? (b)In what ways do they contribute to the impact of her journal?

7. (a)How would you describe Chesnut’s state of mind at the end of this excerpt? (b)Given what you know about the Civil War, in what ways do her feelings foreshadow the events to come?

Connect8. Although Chesnut did not approve of slavery, she

believed in the Confederate cause. What factors might have motivated her to support the Confederacy?

9. Big Idea A Nation Divided Chesnut writes, “There may be a chance for peace, after all.” From your reading here, do you think the events that took place at Fort Sumter could have been avoided? Explain your response.

RESPONDING AND THINKING CRITICALLY

Literary Element JournalAlong with recording daily events, a journal writer includes thoughts, observations, and personal feelings. Chesnut captures the impact of the war on the every-day lives of Southerners and shares her reflections on what is happening around her.

1. How is Chesnut’s journal different from a history or memoir that a politician or military officer of the time might have written?

2. How would you describe Chesnut’s writing style?

Literature GroupsUnderstanding the Past What can Chesnut’s journal entries teach you about this time period? What are the strengths and limitations of these entries? Discuss these questions in your group, using details from the selection to support your opinions.

Reading Strategy Distinguishing Fact and Opinion

A personal diary account of a historic event, such as this one by Mary Chesnut, is likely to contain both fact and opinion. Review the excerpt and identify at least three statements of fact and three opinions.

Vocabulary PracticePractice with Context Clues You can often deter-mine the meaning of an unfamiliar word by examin-ing the sentence in which the word appears. Often, the tone of the sentence and the words preceding or following the unfamiliar word—called context clues—will help you to define that word. Locate the context clues for the italicized words in these sentences.

1. “And on my knees—prostrate—I prayed as I had never prayed before.”

2. “But tea trays pervade the corridors, going everywhere.”

Web Activities For eFlashcards, Selection Quick Checks, and other Web activities, go to www.glencoe.com.

LITERARY ANALYSIS READING AND VOCABULARY


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Grammar Workshop

Using Transitional Expressions“My husband has been made an aide-de-camp of General Beauregard. Three hours ago we were quietly packing to go home. The convention has adjourned. “Now he tells me the attack upon Fort Sumter may begin tonight.”

—Mary Chesnut, from “Mary Chesnut’s Civil War”

Connecting to Literature In the quotation above there are transitions—words and phrases that help show the relationships between ideas—to show time relationships. The transitional phrase three hours ago tells when Mrs. Chesnut and her husband were packing. The transitional word now tells when she hears that the attack may begin soon.

Transitional words and phrases can clarify not only time order but other relation-ships as well. Each of those relationships uses particular transitions.

Relationship Transitional Words and Phrases

Time first, next, now, today, yesterday, meanwhile

Importance especially, above all, in fact, primarily, more importantly

Cause and Effect because, as a result, consequently

Contrast but, yet, now, on the other hand, however, nevertheless

Example namely, for instance, that is, for example

Examples• Because Anderson refused to surrender Fort Sumter, the battle began. [Because shows a cause/effect relationship.]

• The cannon fire was intense; however, no one was hurt. [However shows a contrast relationship.]

ExerciseRevise for Clarity Add a transitional word or phrase to show a relationship between each pair of sentences. Underline the transition and tell what rela-tionship it shows.

1. Many Charleston men were exhausted during the battle. Colonel Chesnut fell asleep on a sofa in the commanding general’s quarters.

2. Mrs. Auld began to teach Frederick Douglass to read. She became angry when she saw him reading.

3. “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” was sung in worship. It carried a coded meaning.

Sentence Coherence

º Test-Taking Tip

To identify transitions in a test-taking situation, skim the text for key terms shown in the chart.

º Language Handbook

For more about transitions, see Writing Handbook, p. R34.

eWorkbooks To link to the Grammar and Language eWorkbook, go to www.glencoe.com.

GRAMMAR WORKSHOP 367

OBJECT IVES

• Analyze and evaluate transitions.

• Use transitions to clarify text.

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Corbis

BEFORE YOU READ

Letter to His Son

MEET ROBERT E . LEE

Adored by his troops and respected by his enemies, Robert E. Lee remains a symbol of Southern and American dignity. He was

born into the famous Lee family of Virginia, who, according to President John Adams, had “more men of merit in it than any other family.” His father was a cavalry commander during the Revolutionary War, a governor of Virginia, and a friend to George Washington. As a student at West Point, Lee earned many honors, including a commission to the elite Army Corps of Engineers. During the Mexican War (1846–1848), he rose to the rank of captain. General Winfield Scott said that Lee was “the very best soldier I ever saw in the field.”

A Difficult Decision In 1861 Lee faced an ago-nizing decision. President Lincoln asked him to command the Union forces in the Civil War. Unwilling to fight against his state, Lee declined and resigned his position in the United States Army. He had been in the army for thirty-six years. Lee then joined the Confederate forces and took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in 1862.

Within three weeks of taking command, Lee had organized his troops, improved discipline and morale, and convinced his soldiers of his authority. Nevertheless, he knew that the powerful Union forces far outnumbered his own and had no doubt that his regiment would be crushed in the open battlefield.

“There was not a man in the Confederacy whose influence with the whole people was as great as his.”

—Ulysses S. Grant

Victory and Defeat Lee achieved brilliant victories at the battles of Second Manassas, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Then, in order to keep fighting off of Virginia soil, Lee pushed north into Maryland and Pennsylvania, engaging the U.S. Army at Antietam and Gettysburg in June and July of 1863. However, after Gettysburg, the Union forces began to prevail. Lee’s forces were malnourished and undersupplied, while those of Union General Grant had a fresh batch of recruits, superior armaments, and an impressive cavalry. Grant’s troops progressed far-ther and farther into Virginia. On April 9, 1865, see-ing that the end had come, Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox. After the war Lee urged his fellow Southerners to put their bitterness behind them. An enduring U.S. hero, Lee was a bril-liant soldier with a noble spirit and a chivalric manner.

Robert E. Lee was born in 1807 and died in 1870.

Author Search For more about Robert E. Lee, go to www.glencoe.com.


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Connecting to the LetterWhat do you do when you are caught in a dilemma and are forced to make a painful choice? In this letter, Robert E. Lee tells his son of the inner conflict that arises when his dedication to the United States is pitted against his loyalty to and love for his home state of Virginia. As you read the letter, think about the following questions:

• Whom would you contact if you needed to talk about two conflicting loyalties or a tough decision? How would you expect this person to respond?

• Imagine that you are Robert E. Lee’s son or daughter. How would you respond to this letter?

Building BackgroundIn the days before telephones and e-mail, letters were the most common way to communicate at a distance. Robert E. Lee’s letters are of interest because they throw light on historic events and reveal the mind and heart of a great leader. Lee wrote this letter on January 23, 1861. South Carolina had seceded from the Union in December 1860, followed quickly by Mississippi, Florida, and Alabama. Lee’s home state of Virginia would secede approximately three months later, on April 17, 1861.

Setting Purposes for Reading Big Idea A Nation DividedAs you read, consider how Lee’s personal conflict reflects the sharp divide between the North and South.

Literary Element DictionDiction is a writer’s choice of words, an important ele-ment in the writer’s “voice” or style. As you read, con-sider how Lee’s choice of words expresses his concerns shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War.


Reading Strategy Determining Main Idea and Supporting Details

The main idea in a paragraph is the guiding thought that all of the sentences in the paragraph support. As you read, identify Lee’s main ideas and the details that support them.

Reading Tip: Taking Notes Use a chart to record Lee’s main ideas and the details that support them.

Vocabulary

perusal (pə roo� zəl) n. the process of examining carefully; p. 371 Her perusal of the latest Harry Potter book totally engrossed her.

anarchy (an� ər ke) n. the absence of govern-ment; p. 371 Lawmen were few in the frontier com-munities, and anarchy was frequently the rule.

array (ə r a�) v. to place in proper or methodical order; p. 371 The chess pieces were arrayed against each other.

redress (re� dress´) n. compensation, as for wrong done; p. 371 Our neighbor demanded redress for the damage to his house caused by a bro-ken water main.

contend (kən tend�) v. to argue; dispute; p. 371 I contend that every citizen should be informed about current issues.

Vocabulary Tip: Antonyms Antonyms are words that have opposite or nearly opposite meanings. Antonyms are always the same part of speech. Interactive Literary Elements

Handbook To review or learn more about the literary elements, go to www.glencoe.com.

ROBERT E . LEE 369

Supporting DetailsMain Idea


• relating literature to historical period• understanding diction

• determining the main idea

OBJECTIVES

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Ireceived Everett’s1 Life of Washington which you sent me, and enjoyed its perusal. How his spirit would be grieved could he see the wreck of his mighty labors! I will not, however, permit myself to believe, until all ground of hope is gone, that the fruit of his noble deeds will be destroyed, and that his precious advice and virtuous example will so soon be forgotten by his countrymen. As far as I can judge by the papers, we are between a state of anarchy and civil war. May God avert2 both of these evils from us! I fear that mankind will not for years be sufficiently Christianized to bear the absence of restraint and force. I see that four states3 have declared themselves out of the Union; four more will apparently follow their example.

Then, if the border states are brought into the gulf of revolution, one half of the country will be arrayed against the other. I must try and be patient and await the end, for I can do nothing to hasten or retard it.

The South, in my opinion, has been aggrieved by the acts of the North, as you say. I feel the aggression and am willing to take every proper step for redress. It is the principle I contend for, not

individual or private benefit. As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and institutions, and would defend any state if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union. It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution. The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom, and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securi-ties, if it was intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will. It was intended for “perpetual union,” so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government, not a compact, which can only be dissolved by revolution or the consent of all the people in convention assembled. It is idle to talk of secession. Anarchy would have been established, and not a government, by Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, and the other patriots of the Revolution. . . . Still, a Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets,4 and in which strife and civil war are to take the place of brotherly love and kindness, has no charm for me. I shall mourn for my country and for the welfare and progress of mankind. If the Union is dissolved, and the government disrupted, I shall return to my native state and share the miseries of my people; and, save in defense, will draw my sword on none.

A Nation Divided What does this statement reveal about Lee’s personal response to the imminent war?

Big Idea

ROBERT E. LEE 371

Vocabulary

perusal (pə r¯¯¯oo zəl) n. the process of examining carefullyanarchy (an ər ke) n. the absence of governmentarray (ə ra) v. to place in proper or methodical orderredress (re dress ) n. compensation, as for wrong donecontend (kən tend) v. to argue; dispute

1. Edward Everett was a noted American politician and orator.2. Here, avert means “to ward off.”3. The first four states to secede from the Union were South

Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, and Alabama. With Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, these states would make up the Confederate States of America.

4. A bayonet is a large knife or dagger that can be attached to the muzzle of a rifle.

Diction What does Lee’s choice of adjectives indicate about his feelings toward George Washington?

Literary Element

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Respond1. What questions would you like to ask Robert E. Lee

after reading his letter?

Recall and Interpret2. (a)How does Lee describe George Washington?

(b)What do you learn about Lee’s character from his description of Washington?

3. (a)What two evils does Lee say the country is between? (b)What do you think Lee means when he says, “I fear that mankind will not for years be sufficiently Christianized to bear the absence of restraint and force”?

4. (a)What decision does Lee announce at the end of the letter? (b)What kind of person does this letter reveal Lee to be?

Analyze and Evaluate5. (a)How does Lee support his opinions about

secession? (b)What can you infer from this about Lee’s attitude toward his country?

6. (a)Why does Lee say that he will mourn for his country and “for the welfare and progress of mankind”? (b)How do you think Lee might react to events taking place today? Explain.

Connect7. Big Idea A Nation Divided Mary Custis Lee

wrote to a friend, “My husband has wept tears of blood over this terrible war, but as a man of honor and a Virginian, he must follow the destiny of his state.” How was Lee’s dilemma comparable to the one facing the country as a whole?


Literary Element DictionDiction is a writer’s choice of words, one of the tools used to convey the desired tone and meaning. Lee’s diction, which reflects the language that was used in the nineteenth-century, may seem formal and stilted to us. For example, Lee wrote, “But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union.”

1. Restate the above sentence using contemporary, informal diction.

2. What does Lee’s diction contribute to the impact of his letter?

Writing About LiteratureRespond to Theme Write a letter to Robert E. Lee in which you agree or disagree with his opinions about secession. Give reasons to support your position. If you wish, you may write as if you were his son or another member of his family.

Reading Strategy Determining Main Idea and Supporting Details

Determining the main idea helps you discover an author’s purpose for writing. Sometimes, the main idea is stated in a topic sentence; often, it is implied, rather than stated. To find the main idea, look for the one idea that the sentences in the paragraph or para-graphs in the selection seem to support.

1. What is Lee’s main idea in the passage beginning “But I can anticipate. . . “ and concluding “. . . and the other patriots of the Revolution”?

2. What details support the main idea?

Vocabulary PracticePractice with Antonyms Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning. For example, the words virtue and vice are antonyms. For each of the following words, choose the vocabulary word that is an antonym.

Practice and Apply1. agree 3. scatter2. order 4. skimming

AFTER YOU READ




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AMBROSE BIERCE 373

BEFORE YOU READ

MEET AMBROSE BIERCE

Ambrose Bierce did not trust people. Nor did he trust governments, businesses, or churches. Most of all, “Bitter Bierce,” as

he was known, did not trust easy answers or senti-mentality. As his biographer Carey McWilliams wrote, Bierce was “idealistic, cynical, morose . . . a realist who wrote romances, a fine satirist and something of a charlatan.”

“Nothing is so improbable as what is true. It is the unexpected that occurs; but that is not saying enough; it is also the unlikely—one might almost say the impossible.”

—Ambrose Bierce, “The Short Story”

Soldier and Civilian Ambrose Bierce was born into an impoverished Ohio farm family. He was the tenth of thirteen children. After one year of high school at the Kentucky Military Institute, Bierce became a printer’s apprentice for a news-paper in Indiana.

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Bierce enlisted in the Ninth Indiana Volunteers. He fought in several important battles, including Shiloh and Chickamauga. At the battle of Kennesaw Mountain in 1864, Bierce suffered a severe head wound. He would later say that the bullet “crushed my skull like a broken walnut.” Bierce recovered and continued to serve in the army, eventually being promoted to major.

After the war, Bierce settled in San Francisco, California. For the next two years, he worked as a guard at the mint and studied for long periods of time at the public library. In 1868 Bierce landed a position at the San Francisco News Letter and

Commercial Advertiser, a financial weekly. He was put in charge of the paper’s humor section, “The Town Crier.” Bierce’s columns often consisted of satirical attacks against politicians and business leaders, attracting great notoriety for himself and the News Letter.

Nuggets and Dust In 1872 Bierce and his wife Mary Ellen traveled to England. While overseas, he published three books of fiction, The Fiend’s Delight, Nuggets and Dust Panned Out in California, and Cobwebs from an Empty Skull. In 1875 Bierce returned to San Francisco, but his life continued to be marked by a pattern of restlessness and dissatisfac-tion. He quit his job as an editor for the Argonaut and traveled to the Dakota Territory, hoping to leave journalism behind. There Bierce worked as a man-ager for a mining firm that was losing money. The firm collapsed and he returned to San Francisco. From 1881 to 1886, Bierce wrote for Wasp, a humor magazine. From 1887 to 1908, Bierce worked as a columnist for the San Francisco Examiner.

In 1914 Bierce disappeared in Mexico, which was then in the midst of a revolution. In a letter to a friend, he wrote, “Goodbye, if you hear of my being stood up against a Mexican stone wall and shot to rags please know that I think it a pretty good way to depart this life. It beats old age, dis-ease, or falling down the cellar stairs.” His disap-pearance and death remain a mystery.

Ambrose Bierce was born in 1842 and disappeared in 1914.

An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge

Author Search For more about Ambrose Bierce, go to www.glencoe.com.

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Connecting to the StoryHow much of reality is constructed by our own minds? As you read Bierce’s short story, think about the follow-ing questions:

• Have you ever used your imagination to protect yourself in an unpleasant situation?

• What thoughts flash through your mind during peri-ods of heightened awareness, such as a crisis or an intense emotional experience?

Building Background“An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” set during the Civil War in rural Alabama, was inspired by events that Bierce witnessed at the Battle of Shiloh in 1862. Union troops, encamped at Pittsburg Landing in south-western Tennessee, were planning a southward offen-sive, when Confederate troops unexpectedly attacked. In two days, 20,000 Union and Confederate soldiers were killed. This battle shocked both sides and was an indication of the enormous loss of life that was still to come. Bierce’s grim depiction of war in his fiction was a direct result of the bloodshed he witnessed.

Setting Purposes for Reading Big Idea A Nation DividedAs you read, notice how Bierce’s attitudes toward the Civil War are reflected in this story.

Literary Element Point of ViewPoint of view is the relationship of the narrator, or story-teller, to the story. In a story with a first-person point of view, the story is told by one of the characters in the story. In a story with third-person limited point of view, the narrator is outside the story and reveals the thoughts, feel-ings, and observations of only one character in the story. In a story with an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view, the narrator is outside the story and knows every-thing about all of the characters and events in the story. As you read the story, examine Bierce’s use of point of view.


Reading Strategy Making and Verifying Predictions

To predict means to make an educated guess about what will happen based on the clues that a writer pro-vides. As you read, verify, adjust, or change your pre-dictions as you get new information.

Reading Tip: Taking Notes Use a chart to record your predictions and the evidence on which you base those predictions.

Evidence

“great golden stars looking unfamiliar and grouped in strange constellations”

Prediction

Things are not what they seem. Something is wrong with the character’s perceptions.

Vocabulary

protrude (pro tr¯¯¯ood�) v. to stick out; to project; p. 376 After the accident, the victim had a large bump protruding from his forehead.

adorn (ə d�orn�) v. to make beautiful; to decorate; p. 376 The vain man adorned himself with jewelry and expensive clothes.

ardently (�ard�ent le) adv. passionately; enthusiastically; p. 377 The man ardently pursued the woman he loved.

assent (ə sent�) v. to express agreement; p. 378 After meeting for three hours, the committee finally assented to the chairman’s proposal.

poignant (poin� yənt) adj. sharp; severe; causing emotional or physical anguish; p. 378 Dan experienced a poignant loss when his grand-mother died.





• making and verifying predictions

• analyzing point of view

• evaluating an author’s technique

• analyzing an author’s use of language

• practicing literary criticism

OBJECTIVES

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AMBROSE BIERCE 375

IA man stood upon a railroad bridge in northern Alabama, looking down into the swift water twenty feet below. The man’s hands were behind his back, the wrists bound with a cord. A rope closely encircled his neck. It was attached to a stout cross-timber above his head and the slack fell to the level of his knees. Some loose boards laid upon the sleepers supporting the metals of the railway supplied a footing for him and his executioners—two private soldiers of the Federal army, directed by a sergeant who in civil life may have been a deputy sheriff. At a short remove upon the same temporary platform was an officer in the uniform of his rank, armed. He was a cap-

tain. A sentinel1 at each end of the bridge stood with his rifle in the position known as “support,” that is to say, vertical in front of the left shoul-der, the hammer2 resting on the forearm thrown straight across the chest—a formal and unnatural position, enforcing an erect carriage of the body. It did not appear to be the duty of these two men to know what was occurring at the center of the

1. A sentinel is a soldier who guards a point of passage.2. A hammer is the part of a gun that helps to ignite the

cartridge.

Point of View What does this detail tell the reader about the narrative point of view at this point in the story?

Literary Element

Ambrose Bierce

Lindy Powers/IndexStock Imagery

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bridge; they merely blockaded the two ends of the foot planking that traversed it.

Beyond one of the sentinels nobody was in sight; the railroad ran straight away into a forest for a hundred yards, then, curving, was lost to view. Doubtless there was an outpost farther along. The other bank of the stream was open ground—a gentle acclivity3 topped with a stock-ade of vertical tree trunks, loop-holed for rifles, with a single embrasure through which protruded the muzzle of a brass cannon com-manding the bridge. Midway of the slope between bridge and fort were the spectators—a single company of infantry in line, at “parade rest,” the butts of the rifles on the ground, the barrels inclining slightly backward against the right shoulder, the hands crossed upon the stock. A lieutenant stood at the right of the line, the point of his sword upon the ground, his left hand resting upon his right. Excepting the group of four at the center of the bridge, not a man moved. The company faced the bridge, staring stonily, motionless. The sentinels, facing the banks of the stream, might have been statues to adorn the bridge. The captain stood with folded arms, silent, observing the work of his subordi-nates, but making no sign. Death is a dignitary who when he comes announced is to be received with formal manifestations of respect, even by those most familiar with him. In the code of mil-itary etiquette silence and fixity4 are forms of deference.

The man who was engaged in being hanged was apparently about thirty-five years of age. He was a civilian, if one might judge from his habit,5 which was that of a planter. His features were good—a straight nose, firm mouth, broad forehead, from which his long, dark hair was combed straight

back, falling behind his ears to the collar of his well-fitting frock-coat. He wore a mustache and pointed beard, but no whis-kers; his eyes were large and dark gray, and had a kindly expression which one would hardly have expected in one whose neck was in the hemp. Evidently this was no vulgar assassin. The liberal military code makes provision for hanging many kinds of per-sons, and gentlemen are not excluded.

The preparations being complete, the two private sol-diers stepped aside and each drew away the plank upon which he had been standing. The sergeant turned to the captain, saluted and placed himself immediately behind that officer, who in turn moved apart one pace. These movements left the condemned man and the sergeant standing on the two ends of the same plank, which spanned three of the cross-ties6 of the bridge. The end upon which the civilian stood almost, but not quite, reached a fourth. This plank had been held in place by the weight of the captain; it was now held by that of the sergeant. At a signal from the former the latter would step aside, the plank would tilt and the condemned man go down between two ties. The arrangement com-mended itself to his judgment as simple and effective. His face had not been covered nor his eyes bandaged. He looked a moment at his “unsteadfast footing,” then let his gaze wander to the swirling water of the stream racing madly beneath his feet. A piece of dancing driftwood caught his attention and his eyes followed it down the current. How slowly it appeared to move! What a sluggish stream!

He closed his eyes in order to fix his last thoughts upon his wife and children. The water, touched to gold by the early sun, the brooding mists under the banks at some distance down the stream, the fort, the soldiers, the piece of drift—all had distracted him. And now he

3. An acclivity is an upward slope. 4. Fixity refers to a steady and unmoving stance.5. Habit refers to a distinctive manner of dress or type of

clothing.

protrude (pro tr¯¯¯ood) v. to stick out; to projectadorn (ə dorn) v. to make beautiful; to decorate

Vocabulary

A Nation Divided What does the condemned man’s position in life suggest about the possible causes for his execution?

Big Idea

6. Cross-ties are the wooden pieces to which railroad rails are secured.

Visual Vocabulary A frock-coat is a man’s coat that reaches to the knees. Popular in the nineteenth century, it is usually double-breasted and fitted at the waist.

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AMBROSE BIERCE 377

became conscious of a new disturbance. Striking through the thought of his dear ones was a sound which he could neither ignore nor understand, a sharp, distinct, metallic percussion like the stroke of a blacksmith’s hammer upon the anvil; it had the same ringing quality. He wondered what it was, and whether immeasurably distant or near by—it seemed both. Its recurrence was regular, but as slow as the tolling of a death knell.7 He awaited each stroke with impatience and—he knew not why—apprehension. The intervals of silence grew progressively longer; the delays became maddening. With their greater infrequency the sounds increased in strength and sharpness. They hurt his ear like the thrust of a knife; he feared he would shriek. What he heard was the ticking of his watch.

He unclosed his eyes and saw again the water below him. “If I could free my hands,” he thought, “I might throw off the noose and spring into the stream. By diving I could evade the bul-lets and, swimming vigorously, reach the bank, take to the woods and get away home. My home,

thank God, is as yet outside their lines; my wife and little ones are still beyond the invader’s far-thest advance.”

As these thoughts, which have here to be set down in words, were flashed into the doomed man’s brain rather than evolved from it the cap-tain nodded to the sergeant. The sergeant stepped aside.

IIPeyton Farquhar was a well-to-do planter, of an old and highly respected Alabama family. Being a slave owner and like other slave owners a poli-tician he was naturally an original secessionist8 and ardently devoted to the Southern cause.

7. A knell is the solemn sound of a bell ringing.

Making and Verifying Predictions What can the reader predict about the condemned man from this statement?

Reading Strategy

8. A secessionist was one in favor of breaking away from the Union.

ardently (ardent le) adv. passionately; enthusiastically

Vocabulary

The Red Bridge, 1896. Julian Alden Weir. Oil on canvas, 24¼ x 33¾ in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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Circumstances of an imperious nature, which it is unnecessary to relate here, had prevented him from taking service with the gallant army that had fought the disastrous campaigns ending with the fall of Corinth, and he chafed9 under the inglorious restraint, longing for the release of his energies, the larger life of the soldier, the oppor-tunity for distinction. That opportunity, he felt, would come, as it comes to all in war time. Meanwhile he did what he could. No service was too humble for him to perform in aid of the South, no adventure too perilous for him to undertake if consistent with the character of a civilian who was at heart a soldier, and who in good faith and without too much qualification assented to at least a part of the frankly villainous dictum10 that all is fair in love and war.

One evening while Farquhar and his wife were sitting on a rustic bench near the entrance to his grounds, a gray-clad11 soldier rode up to the gate and asked for a drink of water. Mrs. Farquhar was only too happy to serve him with her own white hands.12 While she was fetching the water her hus-band approached the dusty horseman and inquired eagerly for news from the front.

“The Yanks are repairing the railroads,” said the man, “and are getting ready for another advance. They have reached the Owl Creek bridge, put it in order and built a stockade13 on

the north bank. The commandant has issued an order, which is posted everywhere, declaring that any civilian caught interfering with the railroad, its bridges, tunnels or trains will be summarily14 hanged. I saw the order.”

“How far is it to the Owl Creek bridge?” Farquhar asked.

“About thirty miles.”“Is there no force on this side the creek?”“Only a picket post15 half a mile out, on the

railroad, and a single sentinel at this end of the bridge.”

“Suppose a man—a civilian and student of hanging—should elude the picket post and per-

haps get the better of the sen-tinel,” said Farquhar, smiling, “what could he accomplish?”

The soldier reflected. “I was there a month ago,” he replied. “I observed that the flood of last winter had lodged a great quantity of driftwood against the wooden pier at this end of the bridge. It is now dry and would burn like tow.”16

The lady had now brought the water, which the soldier drank. He thanked her cere-moniously, bowed to her hus-

band and rode away. An hour later, after nightfall, he repassed the plantation, going northward in the direction from which he had come. He was a Federal scout.17

IIIAs Peyton Farquhar fell straight downward through the bridge he lost consciousness and was as one already dead. From this state he was awakened—ages later, it seemed to him—by the pain of a sharp pressure upon his throat, fol-lowed by a sense of suffocation. Keen, poignant

9. Chafe means “to fret; to feel irritation.” 10. A dictum is a formal, authoritative pronouncement. 11. Confederate soldiers wore gray uniforms. 12. [Mrs. Farquhar . . . hands] Ordinarily, a servant or slave

would have served the guest. In this case, Mrs. Farquhar brought the soldier a drink of water.

13. A stockade is an enclosure made of posts in which prisoners may be kept.

A Nation Divided What does this statement imply about civilians during the Civil War?

Big Idea

assent (ə sent) v. to express agreementpoignant (poin yənt) adj. sharp; severe; causing emo-tional or physical anguish

Vocabulary

14. Summarily means “without delay; arbitrarily.” 15. A picket post is a group of soldiers sent ahead to watch for

and to warn of a surprise attack. 16. Tow (to) is the coarse fibers of flax or hemp used to make

yarn and twine. 17. Here, a Federal scout is a Union spy.

Making and Verifying Predictions What does this sentence enable the reader to predict about the outcome of Farquhar’s mission to burn the bridge?

Reading Strategy

As Peyton Farquhar fell straight

downward through the bridge he lost consciousness . . .

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AMBROSE BIERCE 379

agonies seemed to shoot from his neck down-ward through every fiber of his body and limbs. These pains appeared to flash along well-defined lines of ramification18 and to beat with an inconceivably rapid periodicity.19 They seemed like streams of pulsating fire heating him to an intolerable temperature. As to his head, he was conscious of nothing but a feeling of fullness—of congestion. These sensations were unaccompanied by thought. The intellec-tual part of his nature was already effaced; he had power only to feel, and feeling was tor-ment. He was conscious of motion. Encompassed in a luminous cloud, of which he was now merely the fiery heart, without material sub-stance, he swung through unthinkable arcs of oscillation,20 like a vast pendulum. Then all at once, with terrible suddenness, the light about him shot upward with the noise of a loud plash;21 a frightful roaring was in his ears, and all was cold and dark. The power of thought was restored; he knew that the rope had broken and he had fallen into the stream. There was no additional strangulation; the noose about his neck was already suffocating him and kept the water from his lungs. To die of hanging at the bottom of a river!—the idea seemed to him ludi-crous. He opened his eyes in the darkness and saw above him a gleam of light, but how distant, how inaccessible! He was still sinking, for the light became fainter and fainter until it was a mere glimmer. Then it began to grow and brighten, and he knew that he was rising toward the sur-face—knew it with reluctance, for he was now very comfortable. “To be hanged and drowned,” he thought, “that is not so bad; but I do not wish to be shot. No; I will not be shot; that is not fair.”

He was not conscious of an effort, but a sharp pain in his wrist apprised him that he was trying to free his hands. He gave the struggle his atten-tion, as an idler22 might observe the feat of a jug-gler, without interest in the outcome. What splendid effort!—what magnificent, what

superhuman strength! Ah, that was a fine endeavor! Bravo! The cord fell away; his arms parted and floated upward, the hands dimly seen on each side in the growing light. He watched them with a new interest as first one and then the other pounced upon the noose at his neck. They tore it away and thrust it fiercely aside, its undulations23 resembling those of a water-snake. “Put it back, put it back!” He thought he shouted these words to his hands, for the undoing of the noose had been succeeded by the direst pang that he had yet experienced. His neck ached horribly; his brain was on fire; his heart, which had been fluttering faintly, gave a great leap, trying to force itself out at his mouth. His whole body was racked and wrenched with an insupportable anguish! But his disobedient hands gave no heed to the command. They beat the water vigorously with quick, downward strokes, forcing him to the surface. He felt his head emerge; his eyes were blinded by the sunlight; his chest expanded convulsively, and with a supreme and crown-ing agony his lungs engulfed a great draft of air, which instantly he expelled in a shriek!

He was now in full possession of his physical senses. They were, indeed, preternaturally24 keen and alert. Something in the awful disturbance of his organic system had so exalted and refined them that they made record of things never before perceived. He felt the ripples upon his face and heard their separate sounds as they struck. He looked at the forest on the bank of the stream, saw the individual trees, the leaves and the veining of each leaf—saw the very insects upon them: the locusts, the brilliant-bodied flies, the gray spiders stretching their webs from twig to twig. He noted the prismatic colors in all the dewdrops upon a million blades of grass. The humming of the gnats that danced above the eddies25 of the stream, the beating of the dragon-flies’ wings, the strokes of the water-spiders’ legs,

Point of View What does this state-ment tell the reader about the narrator’s point of view?

Literary Element

18. Here, ramification means “the act of branching out.” 19. Periodicity means “recurrence at regular intervals.” 20. Oscillation is swinging back and forth with regular rhythm. 21. Plash is a splash or the sound of a splash. 22. An idler is a person who is lazy or not employed.

23. Undulations are regular movements that come in waves. 24. Preternaturally (pre tər nach ər əl e) means “going

beyond what is normal” or “extraordinarily.” 25. Eddies are currents that move contrary to the main current

in a river or stream, usually in a circular motion.

Making and Verifying Predictions What does this statement suggest about Farquhar’s attempt to escape?

Reading Strategy

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like oars which had lifted their boat—all these made audible music. A fish slid along beneath his eyes and he heard the rush of its body parting the water.

He had come to the surface facing down the stream; in a moment the visible world seemed to wheel slowly round, himself the pivotal point, and he saw the bridge, the fort, the soldiers upon the bridge, the captain, the sergeant, the two pri-vates, his executioners. They were in silhouette against the blue sky. They shouted and gesticu-lated, pointing at him. The captain had drawn his pistol, but did not fire; the others were unarmed. Their movements were grotesque and horrible, their forms gigantic.

Suddenly he heard a sharp report26 and some-thing struck the water smartly within a few inches of his head, spattering his face with spray. He heard a second report, and saw one of the sentinels with his rifle at his shoulder, a light cloud of blue smoke rising from the muzzle. The man in the water saw the eye of the man on the

bridge gazing into his own through the sights of the rifle. He observed that it was a gray eye and remembered having read that gray eyes were keenest, and that all famous marksmen had them. Nevertheless, this one had missed.

A counter-swirl had caught Farquhar and turned him half round; he was again looking into the forest on the bank opposite the fort. The sound of a clear, high voice in a monotonous singsong now rang out behind him and came across the water with a distinctness that pierced and subdued all other sounds, even the beating of the ripples in his ears. Although no soldier, he had frequented camps enough to know the dread significance of that deliberate, drawling, aspi-rated27 chant; the lieutenant on shore was taking a part in the morning’s work. How coldly and pitilessly—with what an even, calm intonation, presaging,28 and enforcing tranquillity in the men—with what accurately measured intervals fell those cruel words:

26. Here, a report is an explosive sound or noise, especially from a rifle or a pistol when fired.

27. Here, aspirated refers to a breathy sort of speech. 28. Presaging means “acting as a sign or a warning of.”

Sugar Bridge Over Coulee, 1973. George Rodrigue. Oil on canvas, 48 x 75 in. Private collection. Viewing the Art: Does this painting look as if it could depict a scene from “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge”? Explain.

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AMBROSE BIERCE 381

“Attention, company! . . . Shoulder arms! . . . Ready! . . . Aim! . . . Fire!”

Farquhar dived—dived as deeply as he could. The water roared in his ears like the voice of Niagara, yet he heard the dulled thunder of the volley29 and, rising again toward the surface, met shining bits of metal, singularly flattened, oscil-lating slowly downward. Some of them touched him on the face and hands, then fell away, con-tinuing their descent. One lodged between his collar and neck; it was uncomfortably warm and he snatched it out.

As he rose to the surface, gasping for breath, he saw that he had been a long time under water; he was perceptibly farther down stream—nearer to safety. The soldiers had almost finished reloading; the metal ramrods30 flashed all at once in the sunshine as they were drawn from the bar-rels, turned in the air, and thrust into their sock-ets. The two sentinels fired again, independently and ineffectually.

The hunted man saw all this over his shoul-der; he was now swimming vigorously with the current. His brain was as energetic as his arms and legs; he thought with the rapidity of lightning.

“The officer,” he reasoned, “will not make that martinet’s31 error a second time. It is as easy to dodge a volley as a single shot. He has probably already given the command to fire at will. God help me, I cannot dodge them all!”

An appalling plash within two yards of him was followed by a loud, rushing sound diminuendo,32 which seemed to travel back through the air to the fort and died in an explosion which stirred the very river to its deeps! A rising sheet of water curved over him, fell down upon him, blinded him, strangled him! The cannon had taken a hand in the game. As he shook his head free from the commotion of

the smitten33 water he heard the deflected shot humming through the air ahead, and in an instant it was cracking and smashing the branches in the forest beyond.

“They will not do that again,” he thought; “the next time they will use a charge of grape.34 I must keep my eye upon the gun; the smoke will apprise me—the report arrives too late; it lags behind the missile. That is a good gun.”

Suddenly he felt himself whirled round and round—spinning like a top. The water, the banks, the forests, the now distant bridge, fort and men— all were commingled and blurred. Objects were represented by their colors only; circular horizon-tal streaks of color—that was all he saw. He had been caught in a vortex35 and was being whirled on with a velocity of advance and gyration that made him giddy and sick. In a few moments he was flung upon the gravel at the foot of the left bank of the stream—the southern bank—and behind a projecting point which concealed him from his enemies. The sudden arrest of his motion, the abrasion of one of his hands on the gravel, restored him, and he wept with delight. He dug his fingers into the sand, threw it over himself in handfuls and audibly blessed it. It looked like dia-monds, rubies, emeralds; he could think of noth-ing beautiful which it did not resemble. The trees upon the bank were giant garden plants; he noted a definite order in their arrangement, inhaled the fragrance of their blooms. A strange, roseate36 light shone through the spaces among their trunks and the wind made in their branches the music of æolian harps.37 He had no wish to per-fect his escape—was content to remain in that enchanting spot until retaken.

A whiz and rattle of grapeshot among the branches high above his head roused him from his dream. The baffled cannoneer had fired him a random farewell. He sprang to his feet, rushed up the sloping bank, and plunged into the forest.

All that day he traveled, laying his course by

A Nation Divided How do you think Bierce’s actual experiences in the war affected his descriptions of combat?

Big Idea

29. Here, a volley is a discharge of bullets in rapid succession. 30. Ramrods are rods used for stuffing the charge down the

barrel of a rifle that is loaded from the muzzle. 31. A martinet is one who stresses strict attention to forms and

rules. 32. Diminuendo (di min u en do) is a musical term that

describes a gradual decrease in volume.

33. Here, smitten means that the water has been bombarded with ammunition from the cannon.

34. Grape refers to grapeshot, a cluster of small iron balls that disperse when shot from a cannon.

35. Here, a vortex is a whirling mass of water that pulls everything to its center.

36. Roseate means “rose-colored.” 37. Æolian harps produce musical sounds when air passes

through the strings.

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the rounding sun. The forest seemed intermible; nowhere did he discover a break in it, not even a woodman’s road. He had not known that he lived in so wild a region. There was something uncanny38 in the revelation.

By nightfall he was fatigued, footsore, famish-ing. The thought of his wife and children urged him on. At last he found a road which led him in what he knew to be the right direction. It was as wide and straight as a city street, yet it seemed untraveled. No fields bordered it, no dwelling anywhere. Not so much as the barking of a dog suggested human habita-tion. The black bodies of the trees formed a straight wall on both sides, ter-minating on the horizon in a point, like a diagram in a lesson in per-spective. Overhead, as he looked up through this rift in the wood, shone great golden stars looking unfamiliar and grouped in strange constellations. He was sure they were arranged in some order which had a secret and malign39 sig-nificance. The wood on either side was full of singular noises, among which—once, twice, and again—he distinctly heard whispers in an unknown tongue.

His neck was in pain and lifting his hand to it he found it horribly swollen. He knew that it had a circle of black where the rope had bruised it. His eyes felt congested; he could no longer

close them. His tongue was swollen with thirst; he relieved its fever by thrusting it forward from between his teeth into the cold air. How softly the turf had carpeted the untraveled avenue—he could no longer feel the roadway beneath his feet!

Doubtless, despite his suffering, he had fallen asleep while walking, for now he sees another scene—perhaps he has merely recovered from a delirium. He stands at the gate of his own home. All is as he left it, and all bright and beautiful in the morning sunshine. He must have traveled

the entire night. As he pushes open the gate and passes up the wide white walk, he sees a flutter of female gar-ments; his wife, looking fresh and cool and sweet, steps down from the veranda to meet him. At the bottom of the steps she

stands waiting, with a smile of ineffable40 joy, an attitude of matchless grace and dignity. Ah, how beautiful she is! He springs forward with extended arms. As he is about to clasp her he feels a stunning blow upon the back of the neck; a blinding white light blazes all about him with a sound like the shock of a cannon—then all is darkness and silence!

Peyton Farquhar was dead; his body, with a broken neck, swung gently from side to side beneath the timbers of the Owl Creek bridge.

Point of View What does this statement suggest to the reader about the reliability of the narrator in Part III of the story?

Literary Element

Making and Verifying Predictions Does this statement verify your predictions? Explain.

Reading Strategy

38. Uncanny means “eerie” or “weird.” 39. Malign (mə ln) means “evil or harmful in nature or effect.”

Making and Verifying Predictions What do the uncanny quality of the woods and Peyton Farquhar’s confusion suggest about the nature of his perceptions?

Reading Strategy

40. Ineffable means “indescribable” or “unspeakable.”

Somerset Place at Creswell, North Carolina.

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AMBROSE BIERCE 383

AFTER YOU READ

Respond1. What was your reaction to the end of the story?

Recall and Interpret2. (a)Summarize the scene in the story’s first two

paragraphs. Who is involved? What reactions does the narrator describe? (b)Why do the observers of the event respond to it in the way they do?

3. (a)In sections I and II, what do you learn about Farquhar’s appearance, personality, and background? (b)What can you infer about the narrator’s attitude toward Farquhar from these descriptions?

4. (a)Describe the specific physical sensations that Farquhar experiences in section III. (b)How do his sensations change during the course of this section? (c)What do these changes suggest?

Analyze and Evaluate5. (a)What literary device does Bierce use in section II

of the story? (b)Did you find this literary device to be effective? Explain.

6. Do you think that the description of Farquhar’s final thoughts is realistic? Explain.

Connect7. Big Idea A Nation Divided How do you think

Bierce’s war experiences affected his attitude toward the events in this story? What view of peo-ple’s desire to fi ght wars do you think Bierce expresses in this selection?


Read the following two excerpts of literary criticism. The first is by Edmund Wilson, an American literary critic of the mid-twentieth century. The second is by Bierce’s biographer and Civil War historian Roy Mor-ris Jr. As you read, consider how these critics share similar assumptions but differ in their conclusions.

“But eventually, in his horror stories, the obsession with death becomes tiresome. If we try to read these stories in bulk, they get to seem not merely disgusting but dull . . . the trick repeated again and again. The executioner Death comes to us from outside our human world and, capriciously, gratuitously, cruelly, slices away our lives. It is an unpleasant limitation of Bierce’s treatment of violent death that it should seem to him never a tragedy, but merely a bitter jest.”

—Edmund Wilson

“One might quibble with the charge that Bierce’s stories lack sympathy; they are, in their way enormously sympathetic, but it is the understated and unspoken sympathy of the modern stylist, not the breathy sentimentality of the Victorian. Besides, Bierce might have answered, such sentimental bosh is what got the soldiers in his stories into their deadly predicaments in the first place. It is not sympathy that Bierce is after, but clarity.”

—Roy Morris Jr.

Group ActivityDiscuss the following questions. Refer to the excerpts above and cite evidence from “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” to support your opinions.

1. (a)How do these two critics differ in their conclu-sions about Bierce? What assumptions do they share? (b)Which critic do you think comes closer to accurately assessing Bierce’s attitude? Explain.

2. How does the “clarity” that Morris sees in Bierce’s writings differ from the Transcendentalist clarity as described by Emerson in essays such as “Nature”?

BIERCE’S OBSESSION WITH DEATH

YOU’RE THE CRITIC : Point/Counterpoint

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Literary Element Point of ViewAuthors will sometimes shift the narrative point of view during a story. The shift might be dramatic, such as a change from the first- to the third-person point of view, or it might be a subtle shift from the third-person omniscient to the third-person limited point of view.

1. How does Bierce shift the point of view in this story? Explain.

2. What does Bierce achieve by using the third-person limited point of view for most of the story?

3. How do you think the effect on the reader would have been different had Bierce decided to use the omniscient narrator throughout the story?

Review: DescriptionAs you learned in Unit One, description is the use of details to give the reader a vivid picture of a person, place, thing, or event.

Partner Activity Meet with a classmate and discuss the descriptions used in section III of the story. Pay attention to the author’s use of precise and vivid adjec-tives, nouns, and verbs and sensory details, such as color, texture, or smell. Working with your partner, create a list of those descriptions that you found most compel-ling. Be sure to take note of what the author is describ-ing and what kind of details he uses to describe it. Use a simple table, such as the one shown below.

Reading Strategy Making and Verifying Predictions

Predictions can be made about various aspects of a text. For example, as you read you might make predic-tions about a character’s motives, the theme of the story, or the outcome of a specific conflict. Inevitably, the predictions you make will sometimes be wrong. In “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” Bierce intention-ally misleads the reader to make the ending a surprise. However, Bierce does provide clues to help the reader predict the plot’s outcome.

1. What images, details, or descriptions do you notice that foreshadow the story’s conclusion?

2. List any clues that you did not notice initially that now can be seen to foreshadow the conclusion.

Vocabulary PracticePractice with Synonyms Find the synonym for each vocabulary word from “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” listed in the first column.

1. protrude a. jut b. impede

2. adorn a. ornament b. cover

3. ardently a. greedily b. fervently

4. assent a. consent b. believe

5. poignant a. silly b. emotional

Academic Vocabulary

Here are two words from the vocabulary list on page R86. These words will help you think, write, and talk about the selection.

physical (fiz i kəl) adj. having material existence

sequence (se kwəns) n. a continuous or connected series

Practice and Apply1. Describe some of Farquhar’s physical

characteristics.2. What was the sequence of events that led

Farquhar to his fate?

Detailsvivid adjectives:

“deliberate” “drawling” “aspirated”

What Is Describedthe lieutenant’s

order to fire


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AMBROSE BIERCE 385

WRITING AND EXTENDING GRAMMAR AND STYLE

Writing About LiteratureAnalyze Flashback A flashback is a scene that interrupts the chronological flow of narrative to describe events that occurred earlier. What is the func-tion of the flashback in section II? Write a short expos-itory analysis that explains Bierce’s use of this flashback. Use evidence from the story and examples from your own experience to support your main points.

Before you begin your draft, create a brief outline sim-ilar to the one shown below. Include all of the main points you plan to cover and the evidence you plan to use to support your main points.

A. Context of QuestionB. Thesis Statement

A. Supporting EvidenceB. Supporting EvidenceC. Supporting Evidence

A. Summary of Key PointsB. Restatement of Thesis

II. Body Paragraph

I. Introductory Paragraph

▲

➧

▲▲

➧

III. Concluding Paragraph

After completing your draft, exchange essays with a peer reviewer to evaluate each other’s work and to suggest revisions. Then proofread and edit your draft for errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

Literary CriticismGroup Discussion Critic Cathy N. Davidson identifies three main types of language that Bierce uses to nar-rate “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge.” In section I, according to Davidson, the narrator speaks in “military terminology, objective and distant.” In section II, the narrator uses “jingoistic cant, deceiving and self-deceiv-ing.” In section III, Davidson describes the narrator’s language as “lush and sensuous.” Do you agree with Davidson’s opinion? Meet with a group of classmates and discuss Bierce’s use of language in the story. Present your conclusions to the class.

Bierce’s Language and StyleUsing Participial Phrases A participle is a verb form that can function as an adjective. For example:

The married couple loved to travel.

Here, the verb married acts as an adjective that modi-fies the noun couple.

A participial phrase contains a participle plus any complements or modifiers. These phrases can be used in various positions in a sentence and always function as adjectives. For example, in “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” Bierce writes, “The sentinels, facing the banks of the stream, might have been statues to adorn the bridge.” Here, facing the banks of the stream is a participial phrase that modifies sentinels.

Participial phrases are useful for combining separate but related sentences, varying sentence type, and increasing general readability. It is important to keep in mind, however, that participial phrases must be closely attached to the nouns that they modify to avoid con-fusion. Consider the following examples.

1. Badly needing sleep, Tim’s bed looked very inviting.

2. Badly needing sleep, Tim thought his bed looked very inviting.

In the first sentence, the participial phrase badly needing sleep modifies bed, which confuses the writ-er’s intended meaning. In the second sentence, badly needing sleep modifies Tim, which eliminates the confusion.

Activity Scan “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” for other examples of participial phrases. Write down three sentences from the story that include participial phrases and underline the phrases. Then write three sentences imitating Bierce’s style that use participial phrases.

Revising CheckParticipial Phrases Work with a partner to review and revise your use of participial phrases in the essay you wrote for the Writing About Literature feature on this page.


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BEFORE YOU READ

The Gettysburg Address

MEET ABRAHAM LINCOLN

Abraham Lincoln’s impact on the history and culture of the United States has been immeasurable. He is a familiar figure to all

Americans—even small children recognize his trademark hat. One of the United States’ greatest presidents, Lincoln led the country through the Civil War, helping to preserve the Union and to end slavery. Lincoln and the United States showed the world that democracy can be a durable form of government.

“A new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

—Abraham LincolnThe Gettysburg Address

Politician Born in Hardin County, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up mainly on frontier farms in Indiana, where he worked as a rail-splitter, flatboat-man, storekeeper, surveyor, and postmaster. Lincoln’s parents were nearly illiterate and Lincoln received no formal education. Nevertheless, he developed a hunger for learning and read every book he could find. Following a move to New Salem, Illinois, Lincoln began to study law. At twenty-five, he was elected to the Illinois state leg-islature, marking the beginning of an astounding political career. In 1836, the self-taught Lincoln passed the bar examination and began to practice law. Twenty-four years later, after gaining national political prominence, he was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate. Lincoln won the election on November 6, 1860.

President and Commander in Chief Because Lincoln believed that Congress should prevent the spread of slavery, his victory prompted seven

Southern states to secede from the Union. As a result the nation plunged into the Civil War. A man who had once described military glory as “that attractive rainbow that rises in showers of blood—that serpent’s eye that charms to destroy” became a great war leader only because it was necessary to preserve the Union. Lincoln believed quite strongly that a Confederate victory would most likely have resulted in at least two separate nations. That, he felt, would have marked the failure of our nation’s democracy. His policies as president proved shrewd, and the war ended on April 9, 1865, with victory for the North.

Public Speaker Lincoln’s tragic and dramatic assassination cemented his place as a U.S. legend. His fame stems largely from the enduring power of his words, and the Gettysburg Address and his Second Inaugural Address are perhaps the most notable examples of Lincoln’s mastery of public speaking. These speeches forcefully convey Lincoln’s deepest convictions in spare, highly evocative language. Both speeches have had a vast influence on the language of U.S. politics.

Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 and died in 1865.

Author Search For more about Abraham Lincoln, go to www.glencoe.com.

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ABRAHAM LINCOLN 387

Connecting to the SpeechIn the Gettysburg Address, President Lincoln honors the Union soldiers killed in battle. Imagine yourself in the position of someone who has just lost a loved one in a war and is attending a memorial service for that person. Ask yourself the following questions:

• What words of comfort would you expect to hear?

• What rhetorical skills would you find appropriate for the speaker to use on such an occasion?

Building BackgroundLincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of a military cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. A solemn group of people gathered on the battlefield to honor the Union soldiers killed there in early July. The main speaker at the ceremony was Edward Everett, one of the most famous orators of the time. The president was scheduled to deliver “remarks” following Everett’s speech. Everett spoke first—for two hours. Lincoln spoke for approximately two minutes. Everett wrote to Lincoln afterward, “I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion in two hours as you did in two minutes.”

Setting Purposes for Reading Big Idea A Nation DividedAs you read, notice how Lincoln stresses that the Civil War is a test of the United States’ democracy.

Literary Element ParallelismParallelism is the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form. As you read the Gettysburg Address, notice how Lincoln uses this device as a rhetorical technique.


Reading Strategy Analyzing StyleStyle is a term that denotes the expressive qualities that distinguish an author’s work. As you analyze Lincoln’s style in this speech, note his word choice, the structure and length of his sentences, and his figurative language.

Reading Tip: Taking Notes Use a chart to record examples of Lincoln’s style.

Vocabulary

score (sk�or) n. a group of twenty items; p. 388Ben ordered ten tablecloths and six score of napkins.

consecrate (kon� �sə krat´) v. to set apart as sacred; to make or declare holy; p. 388 A cere-mony was held to consecrate the young couple’s marriage.

hallow (hal� �o) v. to make or select as holy; to regard or honor as sacred; p. 388 The church stands on hallowed ground.

perish (per��ish) v. to pass from existence; to disappear; p. 388 Thousands of animals perish in forest fires.

Vocabulary Tip: Analogies Analogies are compari-sons based on relationships between words and ideas. For example, the relationship between scis-sors and cloth is the same as the relationship between saw and wood.


Example

dedicate

consecrate

Style Element

word choice

repetition


• relating literature to its historical period

• analyzing parallelism

• analyzing style

• writing an evaluative essay

OBJECTIVES

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Reza Estakhrian/Stone/Getty Images


FOUR SCORE AND SEVEN YEARS AGO OUR FATHERS brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the propo-sition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, test-ing whether that nation or any nation so con-ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is alto-gether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will lit-tle note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remain-ing before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Abraham Lincoln

score (skor) n. a group of twenty itemsconsecrate (kon sə krat´) v. to set apart as sacred; to make or declare holyhallow (hal o) v. to make or select as holy; to regard or honor as sacredperish (perish) v. to pass from existence; to disappear

Vocabulary

Parallelism How is this sentence an example of parallelism?

Literary Element

A Nation Divided How do you think someone living in a Confederate state might have perceived this statement? Explain.

Big Idea

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AFTER YOU READ

Respond1. Which part of this speech made the greatest

impression on you? Why?

Recall and Interpret2. (a)In the opening sentence, what words does

Lincoln use to describe the United States? (b)What does this sentence tell you about Lincoln’s concept of government?

3. (a)According to Lincoln, why are he and those in the audience gathered together? (b)In what way does Lincoln believe that the battlefield has already been consecrated?

4. (a)To what does Lincoln say “the living” should dedicate themselves? (b)What does Lincoln mean by the “unfinished work” and the “great task remaining before us”?

Analyze and Evaluate5. (a)How does Lincoln’s speech affect your impres-

sions of Lincoln? (b)What can you infer from this speech about Lincoln’s character?

6. This speech is often quoted. What, in your opinion, makes it so memorable and inspiring?

7. What is unintentionally ironic about Lincoln’s state-ment that “The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never for-get what they did here”?

Connect8. Big Idea A Nation Divided Why did Lincoln

consider the Civil War a test of U.S. democracy?




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 389

Literary Element ParallelismThe Gettysburg Address contains one of the most famous examples of parallelism in American history: “of the people, by the people, for the people.” The gram-matical structure that is repeated here is the preposi-tional phrase.

1. Find another example of parallelism in this speech. Identify the grammatical structure that is repeated.

2. Explain how parallelism ties ideas together in this speech.

Writing About LiteratureEvaluate Author’s Craft Writers sometimes position opposite ideas next to each other to emphasize a point. This technique is called antithesis. Identify at least two uses of antithesis in Lincoln’s speech and describe their roles in conveying Lincoln’s message.

Reading Strategy Analyzing StyleThe style of the Gettysburg Address has been praised, particularly its word choice and sentence structure.

1. Some critics have pointed out that Lincoln’s speeches possess a poetic quality. What elements of poetry can you detect in Lincoln’s word choice? Explain.

2. Look at the final sentence of Lincoln’s speech. (a)How does its structure differ from the sentence structure employed earlier? (b)Do you think this final sentence is an effective conclusion to the speech?

Vocabulary PracticePractice with Analogies Choose the words that best complete each analogy.

1. twenty : score :: a. four : quarter d. thrice : three b. twelve : dozen e. ten : twenty c. hundred : millennium

2. consecrate : church :: a. sterilize : hospital d. work : offi ce b. sport : stadium e. audience : theater c. learn : school

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Garry Wills

Archival Research International/National Archives


Building BackgroundIn the following passage, historian Garry Wills closely examines the continuing significance of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, which is considered one of the greatest speeches ever given by an American president. In Wills’s Pulitzer Prize–winning book, he discusses the meaning of Lincoln’s words, their long-term effect, and the historical environment in which Lincoln delivered the address. Wills maintains that the importance of Lincoln’s brief 272-word speech is nearly unparalleled.

Set a Purpose for Reading Read to discover the significance of the Gettysburg Address and why it remains important today.

Reading Strategy

Connecting to Political ContextConnecting to political context involves an examination of the political assumptions that influenced the writing of a literary work. As you read this selection, look for the answer to this question: What is the basic political assumption that Wills attributes to Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address? Cite evidence from the text to support your answer.

hen Lincoln rose, it was with a sheet or two, from which he read—as had the minister who offered the invoca-

tion. Lincoln’s three minutes would, ever after, be obsessively contrasted with Everett’s1 two hours in accounts of this day. It is even claimed that Lincoln disconcerted the crowd with his abrupt performance, so that people did not know how to respond (“Was that all?”). Myth tells of a poor photographer making leisurely arrange-ments to take Lincoln’s picture, expecting him to be there for some time. But it is useful to look at the relevant part of the program as Wills’s2 com-mittee printed it:

Music, by BIRGFIELD’S Band.Prayer, by REV. T. H. STOCKTON, D.D.Music, by the Marine Band.Oration, by Hon. EDWARD EVERETT.

1. Edward Everett, who delivered the previous oration, had been president of Harvard University, a member of Congress, and the governor of Massachusetts. He was one of the most well-known speakers of his day.

2. David Wills was a prominent citizen of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and responsible for organizing the interstate commission that created the Gettysburg National Cemetery.

WPulitzer Prize Winner

POL IT ICAL PERSPECTIVE on The Gettysburg Address Informational Text

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GARRY WILLS 391

Music, Hymn composed by B. B. FRENCH, Esq.Dedicatory Remarks, by the PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.Dirge, sung by Choir selected for the occasion.Benediction, by REV. H. L. BAUGHER, D.D.

There was only one “oration” announced or desired here. Though we call Lincoln’s text the Gettysburg Address, that title clearly belongs to Everett. Lincoln’s contribution, labeled “remarks,” was intended to make the dedication formal (somewhat like ribbon-cutting at modern “openings”). Lincoln was not expected to speak at length, any more than Reverend Stockton was (though Stockton’s prayer is four times the length of the President’s remarks). In fact, Lincoln’s contribution was as ancillary to Everett’s as were those of Reverend Baugher and B. B. French (Lamon’s friend, who rushed in where Longfellow, Bryant, and Whittier feared to tread3). Lincoln’s text had about the same num-ber of words as French’s, and twice the number of Dr. Baugher’s. It is instructive to look at The New York Times’ coverage of the events in Gettysburg. It ranked Lincoln’s talk, about which it had good things to say, with two given the night before in response to roving serenaders,4 rather than with Everett’s, which was kept in a category of its own. The headline reads:

IMMENSE NUMBERS OF VISITORSORATION BY HON. EDWARD EVERETT—SPEECHES OF

PRESIDENT LINCOLN, MR. SEWARD AND GOVERNOR SEYMOUR

Lincoln was briefer, even, than New York’s Governor Seymour had been the night before; but comparison with him was more natural at the time than with the designated orator of the day. A contrast of length with Everett’s talk

raises a false issue. Lincoln’s text is startlingly brief for what it accomplished, but that would be equally true if Everett had spoken for a shorter time or had not spoken at all.

The contrast in other ways was strong. Everett’s voice was sweet and expertly modu-lated; Lincoln’s was high to the point of shrill-ness, and his Kentucky accent offended some Eastern sensibilities. But Lincoln derived an advantage from his high tenor voice—carrying power. If there is agreement on any one aspect of Lincoln’s delivery, at Gettysburg and elsewhere, it is his audibility. Modern impersonators of Lincoln, like Walter Huston, Raymond Massey, Henry Fonda, and the various actors who give voice to Disneyland animations of the President, bring him before us as a baritone, which is con-sidered a more manly or heroic voice—though both the Roosevelt presidents of our century were tenors. What should not be forgotten is that Lincoln was himself an actor, an expert raconteur5 and mimic, and one who spent hours reading speeches out of Shakespeare to any will-ing (and some unwilling) audiences. He knew a good deal about rhythmic delivery and meaning-ful inflections. John Hay,6 who had submitted to many of those Shakespeare readings, gave high marks to his boss’s performance at Gettysburg. He put in his diary at the time that “the President, in a fine, free way, with more grace than is his wont, said his half dozen words of consecration.” Lincoln’s text was polished, his delivery emphatic, he was interrupted by applause five times. Read in a slow, clear way to the farthest listeners, the speech would take about three minutes. It is quite true that the audience did not take in all that happened in that short time—we are still trying to weigh the consequences of that amazing performance. But the myth that Lincoln was disappointed in the result—that he told the unreliable Lamon that his speech, like a bad plow, “won’t scour”—has no basis. He had done what he wanted to do, and Hay shared the pride his superior took in an important occasion put to good use.

At the least, Lincoln had far surpassed David Wills’s hope for words to disinfect the

3. Ward Lamon was Lincoln’s friend and bodyguard; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882), William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), and John Greenleaf Whittier (1807–1892) were all famous poets (see pages 196–197).

4. The night before the address, serenaders wandered through Gettysburg’s crowded town square. The crowds prompted speeches from Lincoln’s secretary of state, William Seward, and New York’s governor, Horatio Seymour.

5. A raconteur is a storyteller.6. John Hay was President Lincoln’s personal secretary.

Informational Text

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air of Gettysburg. The tragedy of macerated7 bodies, the many bloody and ignoble aspects of this inconclusive encounter, are transfig-ured in Lincoln’s rhetoric, where the physical residue of battle is volatilized as the product of an experiment testing whether a govern-ment can maintain the proposition of equality. The stakes of the three days’ butchery are made intellectual, with abstract truths being vindicated. Despite verbal gestures to “that” battle and the men who died “here,” there are no particulars mentioned by Lincoln—no names of men or sites or units, or even of sides (the Southerners are part of the “experi-ment,” not foes mentioned in anger or rebuke). Everett succeeded with his audience by being thoroughly immersed in the details of the event he was celebrating. Lincoln eschews8 all local emphasis. His speech hovers far above the carnage. He lifts the battle to a level of abstraction that purges it of grosser matter—even “earth” is mentioned as the thing from which the tested form of govern-ment shall not perish. More than William

Saunders9 himself, Lincoln has aligned the dead in ranks of an ideal order. The nightmare realities have been etherealized10 in the cruci-ble of his language.

But that was just the beginning of this com-plex transformation. Lincoln did for the whole Civil War what he accomplished for the single battlefield. He has prescinded11 from messy squabbles over constitutionality, sectionalism, property, states. Slavery is not mentioned, any more than Gettysburg is. The discussion is driven back and back, beyond the historical particulars, to great ideals that are made to grapple naked in an airy battle of the mind. Lincoln derives a new, a transcendental, signifi-cance from this bloody episode. Both North and South strove to win the battle for interpreting Gettysburg as soon as the physical battle had ended. Lincoln is after even larger game—he means to “win” the whole Civil War in ideologi-cal terms as well as military ones. And he will succeed: the Civil War is, to most Americans, what Lincoln wanted it to mean. Words had to complete the work of the guns.


Respond1. What did you find most interesting in this essay?

Recall and Interpret2. (a)Why does Wills say that comparing the lengths

of Lincoln’s address and Everett’s oration “raises a false issue”? (b)How important to Wills is the length of the Gettysburg Address?

3. (a)What does Wills tell us about Lincoln’s voice and delivery? (b)To what personal fact about Lincoln does Wills attribute the effectiveness of his performance?

Analyze and Evaluate4. (a)To what plane does Wills claim that Lincoln ele-

vated the discussion of the Civil War? (b)What evi-dence does he present to support this contention? (c)What effect do you think the Gettysburg Address has had on historians’ interpretation of the war?

5. (a)Why do you think that Wills mentions several “myths” related to the address? (b)Do you find his points about these myths convincing? Explain.

Connect6. Wills says that, because of the Gettysburg Address,

“the Civil War is, to most Americans, what Lincoln wanted it to mean.” What does the Civil War mean to you? How has the Gettysburg Address influenced your interpretation?

7. Macerated means “wasted away.”8. Eschew means “to avoid.”

9. William Saunders designed the Gettysburg National Cemetery. 10. Etherealize means “to eliminate physical properties.” 11. Prescinded means “removed from thought.”

Informational Text

• Enhance your understanding of U.S. history and culture.

• Analyze political assumptions in a literary work.

• Analyze the features and rhetorical devices of a public document.

OBJECTIVES

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PART PART 22 The Civil War: A Nation Divided

Documents

Transcript of PART PART 22 The Civil War: A Nation Divided