xii Special education in contemporary Society

Detailed Contents

Preface xxvKey Features of the Text xxixAcknowledgments xxxi

Part I. Foundations of Special Education

1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives 3Definitions and Terminology 4

Exceptional Children 4Disability Versus Handicap 5Developmentally Delayed and At-Risk 6

First Person: Elizabeth—Perceptions and Impressions 7

Special Education 7

Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Communicating About Individuals With Disabilities 8

Categories and Labels 10Prevalence of Children and Young Adults With Disabilities 12

Definitions and Difficulties 12Number of Children and Young Adults Served 13

A Brief History of the Development of Special Education 16Pioneers of Special Education 16The Establishment of Institutions 17Special Education in the Public Schools 19

Professionals Who Work With Individuals With Exceptionalities 20

Insights: A Timeline of Key Dates in the History of Special Education in the United States 21

Consultative Services 23Service Delivery Teams 23

Cooperative Teaching 25One Teach, One Observe 26One Teach, One Support 26Station Teaching 26Parallel Teaching 26Alternative Teaching 27Team Teaching 28

Universal Design for Learning 29Exceptionality Across the Life Span 31

Infants/Toddlers and Preschoolers With Special Needs 31Adolescents and Young Adults With Disabilities 33

2. Policies, Practices, and Programs 43Litigation and Legislation Affecting Special Education 43

Key Judicial Decisions 44Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: 1975–1997 44

Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education 53No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 54Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 55

First Person: Lisa—Teaching in the Age of Accountability 56

Civil Rights Legislation 59Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 59Public Law 101–336 (Americans With Disabilities Act) 61Public Law 110–325 (the Americans With Disabilities Act

Amendments of 2008) 61Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences 62Referral and Assessment for Special Education 63

Prereferral 63Referral 63Assessment 65Instructional Programming and Appropriate Placement 66

Insights: Assessment Accommodations 67

Designing Individualized Instructional Programs 68Individualized Education Program 68

Insights: Elements of a Meaningful IEP 69

Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggested Individualized Education Program Meeting Agenda 71

Individualized Family Service Plan 72Service Delivery Options: Where a Special Education Is Provided 73

Educational Placements 74A Cascade of Service Delivery Options 74A Contemporary Challenge 75

3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality 85Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation 85

Insights: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Quiz 86

Cultural Diversity in the Teaching Profession 87From Assimilation to Cultural Pluralism 87Terminology of Cultural Differences 88Describing Diversity 90Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education,

and Student Diversity 91Multicultural Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91Bilingual Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91

Insights: Instructional Options for Students Who Are Bilingual 94

First Person: Jenny—Teaching English Language Learners 95

Bilingual Special Education: Concepts and Characteristics 95Disproportional Representation of Minority Students in

Special Education Programs 97Office for Civil Rights Survey Data 98Factors Contributing to Over- and Underrepresentation 100Consequences of Disproportional Representation 102

Issues in Assessing Students From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Groups 102

Assessment Challenges 103

Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Pupils 104

Assessment Safeguards 104Assessment Innovations 105Contemporary Assessment Strategies 106Assessment Recommendations 106

Educational Programming for Students With Exceptionalities Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 107

Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Instructional Materials 108

4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality 113Parent–Professional Relationships: Changing Roles 113

Antagonistic and Adversarial Relationships 114Building Working Relationships 115Parent Empowerment and Family-Centered

Relationships 116A Family Systems Approach 117The Effects of a Child’s Disability on Parents and the Family 121Stages of Parental Reaction to Disability 121Disability and the Family 123

Marital Relationships 123Mothers of Children With Disabilities 124Fathers of Children With Disabilities 124Siblings of Children With Disabilities 124

First Person: Kristina—Daydreams 125

First Person: Mindy—The Other Children 127

Grandparents of Children With Disabilities 128Working With Families Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 128

Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Providing Families With Culturally Sensitive Services 130

Cultural Reactions to Disability 130Suggestions for Facilitating Family and Professional Partnerships 131

Part II. a Study of Individuals With Special Needs

5. Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 139Defining Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation: An Evolving Process 142

1961 AAIDD Definition 1421973 AAIDD Definition 1431983 AAIDD Definition 1441992 AAIDD Definition 1442002 AAIDD Definition 1452010 AAIDD Definition 146

Assessing Intellectual Ability and Adaptive Behavior 147Intellectual Ability 147Adaptive Behavior 149

Classification of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 150

An Etiological Perspective 151Intellectual Deficits 151An Educational Perspective 151Levels of Support 152

A Brief History of the Field 153Early Civilizations 153The Middle Ages 154Early Optimism 154Protection and Pessimism 154The Emergence of Public Education for Students With

Intellectual Disabilities 155Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 155Etiology of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 157

Prenatal Contributions 157Perinatal Conditions 161Postnatal Factors 162

Prevention of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 163Characteristics of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental

Retardation 164Learning Characteristics 165Social and Behavioral Characteristics 167

Educational Considerations 168Where Are Students With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental

Retardation Educated? 169Educational Programming Options 169

Suggestions for the Classroom: Characteristics of Effective Teachers 173

Instructional Methodology 173

Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Pupils With Intellectual Disabilities 175

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 176

Suggestions for the Classroom: Using Scaffolding in the Classroom 178

Services for Young Children With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 179

Transition Into Adulthood 180Adults With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 182Family Issues 184Issues of Diversity 185

First Person: Meredith—In Her Own Words 185

Technology and Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 186

Trends, Issues, and Controversies 186

6. Individuals With Learning Disabilities 193Defining Learning Disabilities 195

National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children 196

Federal Definition of Learning Disabilities 196Association for Children With Learning Disabilities 198The Continuing Debate 198

A Brief History of the Field 199Foundation Phase 199Transition Phase 200Integration Phase 200Current Phase 201

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 201Etiology of Learning Disabilities 202

Acquired Trauma 202Genetic/Hereditary Influences 203Biochemical Abnormalities 203Environmental Possibilities 204

Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities 204Learning Characteristics 206Social and Emotional Problems 210Attention Problems and Hyperactivity 210

Assessment of Learning Disabilities 211Assessment Decisions 211Response to Intervention 212Assessment Strategies 214

Educational Considerations 215Where Are Students With Learning Disabilities Educated? 216Instructional Approaches 217

Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Reading 217

Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities 221

Services for Young Children With Learning Disabilities 221

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Learning Disabilities 222

Transition Into Adulthood 225

First Person: Christopher—In His Own Words 226

Adults With Learning Disabilities 227

Insights: Young Adults With Learning Disabilities Speak Out: The Truth About Having a Learning Disability 229

Family Issues 229Issues of Diversity 230Technology and Individuals With Learning Disabilities 231Trends, Issues, and Controversies 231

Challenges in Service Delivery: The Full Inclusion Movement 231

Insights: A Reaction to Full Inclusion: A Reaffirmation of the Right of Students With Learning Disabilities to a Continuum of Services 232

Educational Reform Movement 233

7. Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 239Defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 241A Brief History of the Field 241Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 243Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 244

Neurological Dysfunction 244Hereditary Factors 245Environmental Factors 246

Characteristics of Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246

First Person: Helen—Good Things Come in Small Packages 247

Behavioral Inhibition and Executive Functioning 248Social and Emotional Issues 249Comorbidity 249

Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 249Medical Evaluation 250Behavioral/Educational Evaluation 250

Educational Considerations 251Where Are Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Educated? 252Suggestions for the Classroom: Accommodations to Help Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 253

Functional Behavioral Assessment 255Self-Regulation/Monitoring 255Home–School Collaboration 255

Effective Instructional Practices: Managing Students With ADHD 256

Instructional Modification 257Medication 259

Insights: Myths and Misunderstandings About Stimulant Medication: A Quiz for Teachers 261

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 262

Adolescents and Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 264Educational/Vocational Outcomes 265Marital Relations 265

Issues of Diversity 265

8. Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 271Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 273

Four Dimensions of Behavior 274Disturbed and Disturbing Behavior 274Transient Nature of Problematic Behavior 274Typical and Atypical Behavior 275

First Person: Anonymous—My Eagle Scout 275

Variability in Cultural and Social Standards of Behavior 277Federal Definition 277Contemporary Terminology and Definitions 278

Classification of Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 279

Clinically Derived Classification Systems 279Statistically Derived Classification Systems 280

A Brief History of the Field 281The Mental Hygiene Movement 281Early Research on Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 282The Birth of a Specialized Field of Study 282The Emergence of Conceptual Models 283

Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 284Etiology of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 285

Biological Risk Factors 285Psychosocial Risk Factors 285

Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 288Research on Resiliency 288Research on Positive Behavioral Support 289

Characteristics of Children and Youth With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 291

Learning Characteristics 291Social Characteristics 292Language/Communication Characteristics 292

Assessing Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 292Assessment Strategies 293Recent Trends in Assessment of Students With Emotional or Behavioral

Disorders 293Educational Considerations 296

Where Are Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Educated? 296

Physical Environment Interventions 297

Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Effective Scheduling 298

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 300

Academic and Instructional Interventions 301Behavioral and Cognitive–Behavioral Interventions 303Special Programmatic Concerns 305

Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Establishing Classroom Rules 306

Effective Instructional Practices: Behavioral Principles 307

Services for Young Children With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 309Transition Into Adulthood 310Adults With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 311Family-Centered Interventions 312Issues of Diversity 313Technology and Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 314Trends, Issues, and Controversies 314

Teacher Shortages 315Public Policy and Societal Attitudes 315Lack of Interagency Collaboration 315Creating Systems of Care 315

9. Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 321Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evolving Process 324Classification of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 325

American Psychiatric Association and the Multiaxial System 326

Pervasive Developmental Disorders 326Asperger Syndrome 326Individuals With Disabilities Education Act 328Other Considerations for Classification 328Associated Conditions 328

A Brief History of the Field 329Psychogenic Theories 329Organic Theories 329Behavioral Theories 329

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330Characteristics of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 332

Theory of Mind 333Social Interaction Symptoms 333

First Person: Jean-Paul—Think About Thinking 333

Communication Symptoms 334Repetitive and Restrictive Behaviors 335Other Characteristics 335

Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 336Intellectual Assessment 336

Insights: Examples of “Splinter Skills” 337

Screening and Diagnosis 337Educational Considerations 338

Where Are Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders Educated? 338Instructional Approaches 338

Suggestions for the Classroom: Tips for Teaching High-Functioning Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 340

Effective Instructional Practices: Social Stories 341

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342

Services for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342Early Intervention Services 343Communication Deficits and Safety Issues 344Curriculum Issues 344Preschool Programs 344

Transition Into Adulthood 345Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorders 345

Insights: Transition Planning: Questions to Address 346

Supervised Group and Apartment Living 347Adult Foster Care 348Residential Services 348Employment Options 348

Family Issues 348Issues of Diversity 349Technology and Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 349

High-Tech Devices 350Low-Tech Devices 350

Trends, Issues, and Controversies 351

10. Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 357The Nature of Speech, Language, and Communication 359

Insights: The Genetics of Speech 363

Defining Speech and Language Impairments 364Classifying Speech and Language Impairments 364

Speech Disorders 364

Insights: Questions and Answers About Articulation Problems 367

Insights: Questions and Answers About Stuttering 368

Language Disorders 369Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) 370

Historical Perspectives 372Prevalence of Speech and Language Impairments 373Etiology of Speech and Language Impairments 373Prevention of Speech and Language Impairments 374Characteristics of Individuals With Speech and Language

Impairments 376

Assessing Speech and Language Impairments 376

First Person: Emily—A Journey Toward Success 378

Educational Considerations 381

Suggestions for the Classroom: Educational and Treatment Approaches for Central Auditory Processing Problems 382

Where Are Students With Speech and Language Impairments Served? 382

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 384

Services for Young Children With Speech and Language Impairments 384

Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Language Skills 386

Adolescents and Adults With Speech and Language Impairments 387Family Issues 387Issues of Diversity 387Technology and Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 388Trends, Issues, and Controversies 389

11. Individuals With Hearing Impairments 395Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment 397

The Anatomy of the Auditory System 397Classifications of Hearing Loss 398Degree of Hearing Loss 399Measurement of Hearing Impairment 400Other Types of Hearing Assessment 401Age of Onset 403

A Brief History of the Field 404Prevalence of Hearing Impairment 406Etiology of Hearing Impairment 407

Genetic/Hereditary Factors 407Infections 409Developmental Abnormalities 409Environmental/Traumatic Factors 409

Characteristics of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 410Intelligence 410Speech and Language 410Social Development 410Educational Achievement 412

Assessment of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 412Cognitive Assessment 412Communication Assessment 413Personal/Social/Behavioral Assessment 413

Educational Considerations 413

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Hearing Impairments 416

Where Are Students With Hearing Impairments Served? 417

Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Hearing Impairments 418

First Person: Mindy—Believing in Yourself 420

Instructional Interventions 421Services for Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426

Effective Instructional Practices: Promoting Language Development in Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426

Transition and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 427Services for Adults With Hearing Impairments 428Family Issues 429

Family Reaction 429Siblings and Grandparents 429

Issues of Diversity 430Technology and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 431

Hearing Aids and Auditory Training Devices 431Computers 432

Insights: How to Check a Hearing Aid 433

Alerting Devices 434Real-Time Captioning/Interpreting Technology 434Captioning 435Telecommunication Devices 435Cochlear Implants 435

Trends, Issues, and Controversies 437

12. Individuals With Visual Impairments 445Defining Visual Impairments 447The Eye and How It Works 448Classification of Visual Impairments 449A Brief History of Visual Impairments 451Prevalence of Visual Impairments 452The Vision Process and Etiology of Visual Impairments 453Prevention of Visual Impairments 454

Early Detection 454Eye Safety 455

Characteristics of Individuals With Visual Impairments 455Academic Performance 455Social and Emotional Development 456Vocational Skills 457

Assessment of Students With Visual Impairments 458Functional Vision Evaluation 459Learning Media 460Educational Assessment and Program Planning 461Eligibility Determination 462

Educational Considerations 463Where Are Students With Visual Impairments Educated? 464Instructional Considerations 464

First Person: Carrie—The Face of “Different” 465

Effective Instructional Practices: Accommodations for Students With Visual Impairments 466

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Visual Impairments 467

Young Children With Visual Impairments 468

Suggestions for the Classroom: Orientation and Mobility Tips 470

Transition Into Adulthood 471Adults With Visual Impairments 472Family Issues 472Issues of Diversity 473Technology and Individuals With Visual Impairments 474

Legal Aspects 474Technology and Literacy 474

Trends, Issues, and Controversies 477

13. Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 485

Defining Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 488

A Brief History of the Field 490Early History 490Emergence of Public Education 491

Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491

Etiology of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491

Chromosomal and Genetic Causes 492

First Person: Virginia—One Day at a Time 493

Teratogenic Causes 493Prematurity and Complications of Pregnancy 494Acquired Causes 494

Characteristics of Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 494

Characteristics of Students With Orthopedic Impairments 495Characteristics of Students With Multiple Disabilities 500Characteristics of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 501

Suggestions for the Classroom: Strategies That May Be Used With Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 503

Characteristics of Students With Other Health Impairments 503

Suggestions for the Classroom: Steps for Teachers to Take When a Tonic–Clonic Seizure Occurs 505

Characteristics of Students With Deaf–Blindness 506Assessment of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related

Low-Incidence Disabilities 507Assessment of Students With Deaf–Blindness 507

Educational Considerations 508Where Are Students With Physical or Health Disabilities Educated? 508Impact on School Performance 510Meeting Educational Needs 514

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 516

Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Students With Physical or Health Disabilities 519

Meeting the Educational Needs of Students Who Are Deaf–Blind 519

Services for Young Children With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 522

Transition Into Adulthood 523Adults With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence

Disabilities 524Family Issues 525Issues of Diversity 525Technology and Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and

Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 526Computer Assistive Technology 526Augmentative Communication 528Positioning and Seating Devices 528Mobility Devices 529Environmental Control and Assistive Technology for Daily Living 529Assistive Technology for Play and Recreation 530

Trends, Issues, and Controversies 530

14. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 537Insights: FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions) About Children and Youth Who Are Gifted and Talented 539

Defining Giftedness: Refining the Meaning 541Assessing Giftedness and Talent 544Differences Among Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 547A Brief History of the Field of Gifted and Talented Education 548

The First Half of the Twentieth Century: Pioneering the Field 548The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s: Establishing Foundations for the Field 549The 1980s and 1990s: The Field Matures and Provides Focus for

School Reform 550The Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Promise Present 552

Prevalence of Giftedness and Talent 552Etiology of Giftedness and Talent 552Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 553Educational Considerations 554

Differentiation 555

Insights: Myths and Truths About Gifted Students 556

Suggestions for the Classroom: Differentiated Programming: What It Is and What It Isn’t 557

Instructional Strategies 557

First Person: Patrice—One Size Does Not Fit All 560

Service Delivery Options 561

Making Inclusion Work: Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 562

Effective Instructional Practices: Differentiated Instruction 564

First Person: Graham—Summer Programming 568

Services for Young Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 569Adolescents and Adults Who Are Gifted and Talented 570Family Issues 571Issues of Diversity 572

Students With Gifts and Talents and Disabilities 572Girls Who Are Gifted 573Identifying and Serving Children From Diverse Backgrounds 575

Technology and Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 577Trends, Issues, and Controversies 578

Striving for World-Class Standards 578Equity and Excellence 579Full Inclusion 579Services for Gifted Students Instead of the Gifted Program 579Talent Development 580

Postscript 587Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities 588Appendix B: Professional Standards 590Glossary 615References 628Photo Credits 658Author Index 660Subject Index 673About the Contributors 693