Part 2: Issues and Processes in African Music

Notation and Oral Tradition

Notation and Oral Tradition

African music is primarily an oral

tradition, yet it is one of the most

frequently transcribed.

Constraints upon African transcription Western notions of literacy Geographical boundaries

*What geographic region of Africa is excluded from the present study? Why?

Indigenous technologies - Ethiopia Ethiopian zēmā chant

Ethiopian liturgy maintained close ties with the Coptic church of Egypt

Invasion by Muslim forces - 1529 to 1541 melekket signs developed in mid 16th century

-roughly 650 signs that cue the melody associated with the original source text

Melekket plus additional signs and markings comprise the Ethiopian liturgical tradition

Indigenous technologies - Ethiopia Transmitted orally Requires years of study Rhythm is not indicated in written notation,

causing problems when combined with drum accompaniment As a result, drumming patterns traced in air, not

written on paper, in moment of performance

Indigenous technologies - Others Angolan sand ideographs

Composite systems Beni ng’oma Ethiopian folklore ensemble

Early outsiders’ transcriptions Came from travel accounts (i.e., William

Burchell, Edward Bowdich) Certain concepts highlighted

What portion should be transcribed? Descriptive vs. prescriptive? Nature of time, rhythm

Transcription process

Sources Live performances Sound recordings Films

Transcription Process

Visual representation Conventional staff notation Modified staff notation Graphs Tablature Other systems

African use of Western notation Introduced with colonial and missionary presence Established by late 20th century in urban centers Highlights the place of musical transcription in

musical scholarship

“Scholarship on music in Africa has largely remained ‘music-centric’, even as theoretical concerns of the discipline have elsewhere shifted to emphasize the humanistic and social aspects of music making”.

Conceptions of Song:

Ownership, Rights, and African

Copyright Law

Copyright Law in Africa

Central tenet of copyright law is that a composition, text, or other item is owned by a creator

Copyright Law

Ownership means different things in different contexts

Rules dictate appropriate use of material Urban rules different than traditional rules Nationalism influenced conception of rights

Copyright Law - Problems

TRIPS agreement – whose interested protected?

Duration of protection not compatible with traditional music

Authorship can depend on genre, location, use of form Many countries battle this by calling for cultural

administrators to collect/distribute royalties

Dance in Communal Life

Function of Dance in African Life Not primarily for entertainment Dance an integrated art Many occasions for dance

Births Installation of chiefs Death ceremonies Initiation rites Worship many others

*What are some specific local examples given in the text of the above?

Social organization of dances

Two basic groups in a dance event:1. Those with specific assigned roles (dancers,

musicians, participants)

2. Those who have no special status (observers)

Sometimes participation limited to specific groups. Many examples of this all over Africa.

Dance training

Specific skills often needed Contexts provide good, informal opportunities

for learning Camps and guilds are more intensive, formal

ways of learning

Dance – Other considerations

Roles of drummers, singers, and praise singers

Interdependence of dancers and musicians Dancers and musicians in communal life

Islam in Liberia

Islam in Liberia

Two types of Islam in West Africa:

1. Normative

2. Popular

Islam in Liberia

Islamic presence since 1750s Town of Bulumi from 1977-1988

demonstrates change in Vai artistic expression

Bulumi in the 1970s

Secret Societies

Poro(for men)

Sande(for women)

Ancestor veneration Intermediary relationships with spirit world Prominent Bulumi musicians/dancer participated

Bulumi in the 1970s

Most people considered themselves Muslims One imam and one mosque Major Islamic holidays seldom celebrated Nobody in town read Arabic

Fortieth-day feast (d’aa)

Funerary celebration Last in a series of 3 feasts (the other 2 are on

third and seventh day) In the past, lasted about a month Involves processions, food preparation, calls

to prayer, ceremonies, masked dancing One non-Muslim element is sacrifices, often

by secret society specialists

Bulumi in 1984

Two significant changes in religious life Friday mosque Abolition of traditional versions of secret societies

(complete abolition of Poro, transformation of Sande)

Bulumi in 1987, 1988: religious changes Islamic materials brought in (cassettes,

books, etc) Assistant imam More people read, spoke Arabic Friday services regular, well-attended Imams vocal about secrety society opposition More Islamic holidays celebrated

Bulumi in 1987, 1988: musical changes Knowledge of traditional secret society

musical repertoire diminished Knowledge of Islamic song repertoire grew Young men strove to learn Koranic chant Less masquerading, masked dancing at

Fortieth-day feast, more focus on Islamic elements

The Guitar in Africa

Guitar in Africa

Possibly introduced to Africa by Portuguese in 1400s

No proof of European guitar until 1800s Strong cultural impact from 1920s-30s on

Two-finger playing style

Influence from African instruments Thumb and index finger 1928 Kumasi trio photo illustrates technique

Guitar in Africa – 1920s, 1930s First extended series of commercial

recordings of African music (Zonophone Catalogue of 1929)

References to guitar in The Gold Coast Spectator

British Label His Master’s Voice published in mid 1930s

Two groups of songs, 1920s and 1930s1. Songs based on Western diatonic harmony

-Cyclical harmonic patterns, with functional relationships

“Ampa Afful”, ca. 1930, by Sam

Two groups of songs, 1920s and 1930s2. Songs based on indigenous harmony

-Western harmonies, but indigenous styles

“Agyanka Odede”, ca. 1939, by Kwesi Menu

Guitar in Africa – 1920s, 1930s Two main ensemble prototypes w/guitar

1. Guitar bands

-used regional styles (palm wine, jùjú)

-reached a wider audience

2. Dance bands -featured wind instruments

-Intl. ballroom music, highlife, American ragtime

Guitar in Africa – 1940s to 1960s Increasing use of acoustic guitar Amplified guitar appeared in urban centers Appearance of other guitar varieties

Acoustic guitar - 1940s to 1960s 1952 African Music Society award for Best

African Music of the Year to “Masanga”, by Mwenda-Jean Bosco

→ evidence of guitar’s importance and its conception as an African instrument

Also evidence of African and African-American influences (tunings, harmonic patterns, etc.)

Electric guitar – 1940s to 1960s Prominent in urban centers, especially in

Congolese region (Kinshasa and Brazzaville)

→ O. K. Jazz band

Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s Increasing prominence of guitar (sound and

image) Urban rock bands modeled after Western

bands Guitar replacing older indigenous instruments Important guitar genres include chimurenga,

soukous, highlife African musicians known on international

stage

1960s to 1980s

Nicolas Kasanda Wa Mikalayi (Docteur Nico) Zaïrean guitarist Lead guitarist in many ensembles Expanded electric guitar sonorities Helped in development of soukous

Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s King Sunny Ade

Nigerian guitarist, popularized jùjú 1982, Island Records (British) signed him Became international star

Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s Ali Farka Toure and Boubacar Traoré

Malian guitarists Blues influence Going back to acoustic guitar styles

Kru Mariners and Migrants

of the West African Coast

Kru Mariners

Musical confluence = the merging of different streams of music, in which old and new elements combine to articulate an interethnic experience.

The Kru of Liberia

Ethnic group originally from Liberia Most widely employed in West African

maritime activities Migrant laborers

Music of the Kru

Primarily vocal music in Liberian homeland

(i.e., si-o-lele women’s songs)

Single-instrument percussion accompaniment

During travels, acquired new instruments and ideas. Guitar especially fascinating.

Palm wine guitar style

Kru introduced to Port towns through labor Met w/local musicians under palm trees Spread the 2-finger guitar style Based on complex African patterns Style influenced early jùjú music and

Ghanaian highlife

Multiethnic mixes of the 1940s and 1950s Liberian highlife – involved wind instruments

Many local variants, mixed ethnicities performing together

(i.e., Kroo Young Stars)

Late 20th century transitions

Independence for many African countries brought many changes, more nationalistic tendencies

Maritime industry sharply declined

Latin American Musical

Influences in Zaïre

Latin American Influences in ZaïreAssimilation is the final phase in cultural

exchange

1. Listing of cultural materials

2. Evaluation of common denominators

3. Reinterpretation of compatible features

Contact between Latin America and Africa began to flourish in 30s, 40s until the 60s

impact of Latin music on urban expressions stronger in Zaïre

3 main forms: Radio Recording Concerts

Radio

Two stations in Kinshasa

1. Radio-Léo: 1937-1967, Jesuit-owned

2. Radio Congolia: 1939-1948, for black

population. Became national radio later

Recordings

78-rpm recordings of Afro-Cuban and American jazz becomes source material for local bands

(i.e., “El Manisero”) Recording studios provided European and

Latin American instruments to local musicians

Marketing of Zaïrean popular music retained Cuban name

Concerts

Corporation contracts created detribalized centers

Led to creation of brass bands, ensembles Urban ensembles became popular at the

same time Latin American music introduced Band performers took on Latin names,

instruments

Popular Music of Africa

Commercialization

From approx. 1900, foreign corporate network in Africa

Imported records brought new styles Radio broadcasts CD technology currently not widely used

(exception is South Africa)

African Pop and International Market WOMAD festival, started by Peter Gabriel

“World music” a controversial term, started as a marketing tag for African music in international markets

Major Regional Trends – West Africa Traditional sources with predominately Cuban,

Latin-American, African-American influences Cyclical, two-way pattern other local forms

Africa)→Jamaican → Freetown, → Gome, Gombay

gumbay drum Sierra Leone (brought by freed slaves)

basis of Ghanaian highlife

West Africa – Cote d’Ivoire

Abidjan is important center of musical exchange

MASA trade fair

West Africa - Mali

Ancient kingdom of Mansa Musa

Griot, jaliya = caste of musicians

Female musicians of Wassoulou

Salif Keita

West Africa - Senegal

Dakar is center of francophone Africa

griot music basis for mbalax

mbalax = Cuban rhythms, kora-based

melodies, high-pitched vocals

Youssou N’Dour, sang in native tongue

West Africa - Benin

Soundscape is Cameroonian music, rumba, and African Arabic rai

Angelique Kidjo

West Africa - Ghana

highlife = British-derived entertainment style

Popularity replaced in 1970s by jùjú

Major Regional Trends – Central and East Africa Musically interconnected by guitar

Overwhelming influence of Zaïrean music on East African pop

Central and East Africa – Congo/Zaïre Zaïrean style known as rumba very popular

Radio Congo Belge helped popularize

Women also contributed

Soukous was a streamlined, later version Papa Wemba

Central and East Africa - Kenya Guitar styles adapted and developed from

other regions

benga = developed by Luo people D. O. Misiani and Shirati Jazz

Central and East Africa - Tanzania Remmy Ongala

Zanzibar genre is taarab = lyric poetry sung in Swahili, often at weddings

Major Regional Trends – Southern Africa SADC = cooperative forum connects

countries of Southern Africa

First SADC music festival in 1995

Southern Africa – South Africa Oldest and most sophisticated music industry

in Southern Africa

kwela, popular form → mbaqanga Mahotella Queens

Jazz became linked with apartheid struggle Miriam Makeba, Hugh Masekela,

Southern Africa – South Africa Johnny Clegg + Sipho Mchunu created a

mixed ethnic musical collaboration

1986 – Paul Simon, Graceland album

Southern Africa - Zimbabwe

Music used during fight for independence was chimurenga Thomas Mapfumo Oliver Mtukudzi

Mbira music Stella Chiwese

Southern Africa – Angola and Mozambique Mozambique

Timbila and marrabenta

Angola Gourd resonated-bow that went to Brazil with

slaves now known in Brazil as berimbau Poor country, no recording industry National dance troupes

Music and HIV/AIDS in Africa

Successful AIDS prevention campaigns Uganda

Local, community based groups Radio broadcasts

Senegal Targeting of sex workers

Botswana Plays, dramas

The Culture of AIDS

Localized terminologies NGO’s, health-based groups use dance

drama and music to spread messages Work with local religious practitioners Educational, govt’ groups

AIDS in Africa and the International Arena Major African recording stars draw attention International AIDS conferences Mega-concerts, organizations

46664 Live Aid

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