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Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg MesopotaMIas ubaId perIod

AstudysponsoredbytheCurtisst.AndMAryG.brennAnFoundAtion

brAdleyJ.pArker,the university of utah

introduCtion

oneofthebiggestproblemsfacingprehistoriansoftheancientneareastisexplainingthespreadanddistri-butionofpatternsofmaterialculture.duringseveralphasesoftheearlyandmiddleChalcolithicperiod,betweenabout6000and4000b.c.,firsttheso-calledhassuna-samarraculture,thenthehalafandfinallytheubaidcul-turesspreadfromdifferentpartsoftheMesopotamianheartlandtoencompasslargepartsoftheancientneareast.theubaidcultureisparticularlyinterestingnotonlybecauseitspreadfromsoutherniraqtoencompassanareaofunprecedentedscope,extendingfromthepersianGulftosyriaandsoutheasternAnatolia,butalsobecauseitisof-tenhailedasthedevelopmentalbridgelinkingtheperiodoftheadventofagriculturetotheeraofstateformation(henricksonandthuesen1989b).Althoughscholarshaveproposedvarioushypothesestoaccountforwhatmightbetermedtheubaidphenomenon,includingtheoriesofmigration,colonizationandculturecontact(hole2000:22;thuesen2000:76),technologicaltransfer(nissen1989),andacculturation(breniquet1996),thecorequestionthatliesattheheartoftheissue,namelywhatprocessesaccountforthedramaticdispersalofubaidmaterialculture,haveyettobeadequatelyexplained.

inthispaperipresenttheresultsoffieldworkatthesiteofkenantepe,wheremembersoftheuppertigrisArchaeologicalresearchproject(utArp)haverecentlyunearthedwell-preservedarchitecturalunitsdatingtotheso-calledlatenorthernubaid.byoutliningthechronologyandculturalcharacteristicsoftheubaidcomplexdis-coveredatkenantepe,ihighlightbothsimilaritiesthatlinkthissitetootherubaidsitesingreaterMesopotamia,anddifferencesthatargueforanindigenousculturaldevelopmentwithinthetigrispiedmontduringthisperiod.inlightofthesedata,iproposeamodelthatmighthelpexplainthecomplicatedprocessespropellingthedistributionofubaidmaterialculture.

FieldworkAtkenAntepe

kenantepeislocatedintheuppertigrisriverValleyabout70kmeastofthemoderntownofdiyarbakir(fig.21.1).itisasmallmulti-periodmoundmeasuringbetween4.0and4.4ha(parkeretal.2006).itconsistsofatallcentralmoundandalargelowercitystretchingouttotheeastofthemainmound.overthepastsixfieldseasonsmembersofutArphaveconductedexcavationsineightareasofthesite.Archaeologicalresearchbetween2000and2005hasshownthatkenantepewasoccupiedduringfivebroadperiods:thelateubaidperiod,thelateChal-colithicperiod,thebeginningoftheearlybronzeAge,theMiddlebronzeAge,andtheearlyironAge.1

1Forpreliminaryreportsofubaidresearchatkenantepe,seeespe-ciallyparkeranddodd2005andparkeretal.2006.

348 bradley J. parker

Figure21.1.MapoftheMiddleeastwithenlargementsshowingthelocationofkenantepe

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 349

datagatheredatkenantepeoverthelastsixfieldseasonsallowustodrawinterestingconclusionsaboutthenatureofboththeubaid-periodsettlementatkenantepeandthelatenorthernubaidculturalcomplexingeneral.excavationshaveshownthatubaid-periodartifactsandarchitectureoccurinonlyafewplacesonthesite.theseremainsarerestrictedtoAreasdandeandwerefoundatthebottomofoursteptrenchinAreaA(fig.21.2).exca-vationsduringthe2005fieldseasonhaveshownconclusivelythatkenantepesubaid-periodsettlementdoesnotextendunderkenantepeshighmound(parkeretal.2006;parkeranddodd2005).instead,settlementcoveredasmallareaoflessthan1haontheeasternslopesofwhatwasprobablyalownaturalhill.thesefindingsareconsis-tentbothwithAlgazesoriginalassumptionsbasedonhis1988,1989,and1990surveysofthetigrisbasin(Algaze1989;Algazeetal.1991;Algaze,breuninger,andknudstad1994),andwithothersurveysandexcavationsslightlyfartherafieldinnortherniraq(e.g.,Akkermans1989;Jasim1985;wilkinsonandtucker1995),andnorthsyria(e.g.,Meijer1986),whereubaid-periodsitesareusuallynotmorethan23ha.

recentexcavationsandradiocarbondatingallowatentativeoutlineoftheubaid-periodoccupationatkenantepeconsistingoffourphases.theearliestphase(ubaidphase1)isrepresentedbythehearthsandotherculturaldebrisdiscoveredinthelowestlevelsoftrenchd5.Althoughourexposureisstillverysmall,thesedatasuggesteitherthatduringtheearliestphaseofubaid-periodoccupationatkenantepe,architecturewasrestrictedtoaverysmallportionofthesite,orthatoccupationinthisinitialphaseconsistedofcampsitesand/orsemi-permanentstruc-tures.

oursecondphaseincludesacell-planbuildingthatwerefertoasubaidstructure1.thisstructure,whichwascontainedinthesouthernportionoftrenchd5andthenorthernportionoftrenchd8,consistedofaseriesofsmallsquareorrectangularroomsaveragingbetweenapproximately1.0and1.5minwidth(figs.21.34).Associated

Figure21.2.topographicmapofkenantepeshowingthelocationofareasandtrenches

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Figure21.3.photographoftrenchd8(facingnorth)showingthesouthernportionofubaidstructure1duringexcavation

Figure21.4.planofubaidstructure1

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 351

withthisphase2architecturewasawell-preservedoutsideworksurfacethatcontainedavarietyofdomesticdebrisinsitu(parkeranddodd2005:7173).Mostofthissurfacewascoveredbythousandsofcompactedplantpseudo-morphs.examinationofthestructureandmorphologyofthesepseudomorphssuggeststhattheyareremainsofbar-leyorwheatchaff.inpartofthetrenchthisorganicmasscoveredthepseudomorphicremainsofaveryfinelymadegrassmat(parkeranddodd2005:figs.35).thesamesurfacealsoyieldednumerousexamplesofpaintedfineandunpaintedcoarseubaidpottery,obsidianandchertlithics,andanumberofothersmallfinds(parkeretal.2006).threecarbonsamplestakenfromthissurfaceandfromafireplaceonthissurface,togetherwithapreliminaryanal-ysisoftheceramicsfromtheseandneighboringcontexts,confirmedthattheseremainsbelongtotheso-calledlatenorthernubaidculturalcomplexdatingtoapproximately4650b.c.(parkeranddodd2005:7173andtable1).

levelthreeisrepresentedbyasecond,considerablylarger,cell-planstructurethatwerefertoasubaidstruc-ture2(figs.21.56).thisarchitectureconsistedoftwogroupsofmudbrickwallsrunningroughlynorthsouthandeastwest.thesewallsintersectedatroughlyrightanglesformingaseriesofsmallsquareorrectangularchambersorcellsmeasuringbetween1.0and1.5minwidth.inthenorthhalfoftrenchd8thesewallsformedfivesuchcells.theywereseparatedfromasimilargroupofcellsinthesouthernhalfofthetrench,andextendingintotheneighbor-ingtrench(d10)byanearthensurfacemeasuringapproximately2.0mnorthsouth3.5meastwest.Avarietyofceramics,lithics,andafewanimalboneswererecoveredfromthiscontext.Acarbonsampletakenfromthissurfaceyieldeda2-sigmacalibrateddateof47004460b.c.

thecellsoneithersideofthissurfacecontaineddiscretegroupsofinsituremainsincludinggrainpseudomorphsinatleasttwo,ceramicsinoneandaburialinanother.thegrainpseudomorphswereidenticaltothoseexcavatedinassociationwiththeearlierphase.theburialpresentsaninterestingproblem.Althoughtheskullandmanyofthedisarticulatedsmallbonesofthehandsandforearmswerewithinthecellroom,thelongbonesofthelegsextendedinto,notunder,themudbricksthatmadeuptheneighboringwall.thiswasobviouslyasecondaryburialsincetheskeletonwasdisarticulatedandonlytheskullandsomeofthearmandthelegboneswereincludedinthisinhuma-tion.thesefactors,plustheveryunusualpositionofthebones,suggestthattheseremainswerepurposefullydepos-itedasasecondaryinhumationduringtheconstructionofubaidstructure2.

inthesouthernportionoftrenchd8asecondsetofintersectingmudbrickwallsformedatleasttwomoresmallcells(figs.21.56).thesewallsproceededintotheneighboringtrenchd10.theubaidarchitecturalremainsintrenchd10werepartiallydestroyedbyseverallargepits.nevertheless,theubaid-periodwallsclearlydemarcatedatleastonemorerectangularcell.Althoughalargepitcutintothiscell,whatremainedsuggeststhattheinteriorofthecellhadatsomepointbeenfilledinwithmudbrickscreatingamudbrickplatform,surface,orfoundation.becauseofthedisturbednatureofthecontextsinandaroundthesouthernportionofubaidstructure2wecannotsaywithcertaintywhetherornotthesebricksbelongedtotheoriginalconstructionofubaidstructure2oriftheywerealateraddition.however,furtherexcavationintrenchd8revealedthatsomeofthecellsoftheearlierubaidstructure1hadbeenfilledinwithmudbrickstofacilitatetheconstructionofubaidstructure2.thisbeingthecase,wesuspectthatthesebricksarealateraddition.ifthishypothesisiscorrect,afourthphaseofubaidremainspost-datingubaidstructure2mayhavebeendestroyedbyerosionand/orlaterconstructiononthispartofkenantepesmainmound.ubaidstructure2wasextraordinarilywellpreserved.onlyatitssouthernend(theportioncontainedintrenchd10),wasthearchitecturedisturbedbylaterpits.Allinall,structure2measuredmorethan5minwidth(eastwest)14minlength(northsouth).

partofathirdubaid-periodcell-planstructure,whichwerefertoasubaidstructure3,wasexcavatedonthesouthernslopesofthehighmoundintrenche2(fig.21.2).Althoughpartiallydisturbedbyseverallaterpits,wedis-coveredthenortheasternbearingwallofthisstructure,onecompletecellandportionsofatleastonemorecell(fig.21.7).thenortheasternhalfofthetrenchconsistedofalarge,well-preservedoutsideworksurfacethatcontainednumerousceramics,lithics,andanimalbonesinsitu.Acarbonsampletakenfromthissurfaceyieldeda2-sigmacalibrateddateof47204520b.c.interestingly,wealsohaveaburialintrenche2thatispartiallycontainedwithinthewallsthatmakeupstructure3.inthiscase,however,theseweretheremainsofanadultfemalewhowasburiedinalargeceramicvessel(fig.21.8).unliketheburialintrenchd8,thisappearstohavebeenaprimaryinhumation.thebodywaswellarticulatedandtheskeletonwascomplete.ourassumptionisthatthebodywasinsertedintothevessel(headfirst)andthatthevesselwasthenplacedinthecellduringtheconstructionofubaidstructure3.

thusfarwehaverunfivecarbondatesfromubaid-periodcontextsatkenantepe:threefromthesurfaceout-sideubaidstructure1intrenchd5(parkeranddodd2005:table1);onefromthesurfacebetweenthenorthernandsouthernportionsofubaidstructure2intrenchd8;andonefromthesurfaceoutsideubaidstructure3intrenche2(fig.21.9).oneinterestingaspectoftheradiocarbondataishowcloselytogetherthesedatescluster:thefullrange

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Figure21.5.photographoftrenchesd8andd10(facingnorth)showingubaidstructure2duringexcavation

Figure21.6.planofubaidstructure2intrenchesd8andd10.

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Figure21.7.planofubaidstructure3intrenche2

Figure21.8.ubaid-periodpotburialintrenche2

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ofthe2-sigmacalibrateddatescoversaperiodofonly260years(between4720and4460b.c.).sincethisisaverysmallcorpusofdatesandbecausetheyfallquitecloselytogether,onlyafewtentativeconclusionscanbedrawn.First,thesedatessuggestthatthephasesofubaid-periodarchitecturediscernibleinthestratigraphyatkenantepetookplaceoverarelativelyshortperiodoftime.second,thesedatesrevealadiscrepancywiththosesuggestedbytheceramicanalysis:theceramicparallelssupportaslightlylaterdateintheubaid4orterminalubaidperiod(con-temporarywithGawraXiii,Xiiandhammanet-turkmaniVd[fordiscussionseeparkeretal.2006:9394]).

Figure21.9.radiocarbondata

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disCussionoFtheArChiteCture

Althoughcell-planarchitectureisnotunprecedentedduringtheubaidperiod,itisnotthenorm(roaf1984;Akkermans1989).ironically,thenearestparallelingeographictermscanbefoundattheneolithicsiteofCayn,whichliesabout75kmtothenorthwestofkenantepe,thoughthereisfartoomuchdepthoftimetoargueforanydirectconnection.therearealsoanumberofubaid-periodparallels.JasimhasreportedthatsimilararchitectureexistsattellAdabalevelii(Jasim1989:8385).thereare,however,significantdifferencesbetweenthetellAdabastructureandthecell-planstructuresunearthedatkenantepe.thetellAdabastructureconsistsoffourpar-allelrowsofroomssurroundedbycourtyards.AttellAdabathistypeofarchitectureisclearlynotthenorm,wherethewell-knowntripartitebuildingswerediscoveredinabundance.Judgingfromthearchitectureandthematerialremainsdiscoveredinandaroundthisstructure,andcitingethnographicparallels,Jasimconcludesthatthisistheremainsofastoragefacilityconsistingofanumberofsmallcompartmentswhichwerecoveredoverbyreedsandclaywhenfull(Jasim1989:8485).Asimilar,althoughmuchearlier,cell-planstructurewasunearthedatoueili.inthiscasethecellswereconsiderablysmallerthanthoseattellAdabaorkenantepe(averaging5060cmindiameter).huotinterpretstheseremainsdifferentlythanJasim.insteadofseeingtheroomsasseparatestoragecom-partments,hesuggeststhatasurfacemadeofbiodegradablematerialwaslaidacrossthecellstocreatearaisedfloorforagranary(huot1989:32).parallelsdatingtotheubaidperiodcanalsobefoundinsyriaatthesitesoftellko-sakshamali(nishiaki1999)andtellal-Abr(hammadeandyamazaki1995).inbothcases,severalscholarshavesuggestedthatthecellwallsunearthedatthesesitesweremeanttosupportraisedfloorsusedforstoringordryinggrains(Akkermansandschwartz2003:16465).

Althoughtheexcavatedareaistoosmall(ca.180sq.m)todrawanythingmorethantentativeconclusions,theavailabledatasupportthreepossibleinterpretationsofthecell-planstructuresatkenantepe.Firstly,thesecouldbetheremainsofdomesticstructureswithraisedfloors.secondly,thesecouldbethefoundationsoflargestoragebuildingswithraisedfloors.Andthirdly,thesecouldbetheremainsofaseriesofsmallstoragecompartmentsthat,oncefilled,weresealedwithalayerofreedsorsomeothermaterialandthencoveredwithclay.

regardingthefirsthypothesis,severallinesofevidenceindicatethatthecell-planunitsservedsomesortofdo-mesticfunction.numerousartifactsfromassociatedsurfacessuggestthatawidevarietyofdomesticactivitiestookplacearoundthecell-planbuildings,includingtextileproduction,lithicblademodification,compositetooluseorrepair,fishingequipmentstorageorrepair,cooking,andfoodpreparation,themanufactureoruseofpersonalorna-ments,andcerealprocessing.Archaeologicalevidencefromwithinthecellroomsislessconclusive.thecellsareclearlytoosmalltohavebeenusedaslivingspaces,butinseveralcasesthepseudomorphicremainsofgrainswerediscovered.inothercasesthecellsappeartohavebeenempty,andintwocasesthecellscontainedhumanremains.thesedata,combinedwiththefactthatcerealprocessingwasclearlytakingplacearoundthesestructures,suggeststhatthesesmallcellroomswereusedforstorage,perhapsrepresentingindependentstorageunitssimilartothoseun-earthedattellAdaba.itisalsopossiblethatthesecellroomsservedassmallbasementstoragechambersbeneathadomesticsuperstructure,withthewallsservingtoelevatethewoodenlivingsurfacesaswellascreatestoragespaces.

thearchaeologicaldatadonotsupportthesecondhypothesis.ifthekenantepestructureswerelargestoragefacilitieswithraisedfloorsmeantforstoringordryinggrains,thentheremainsfoundinsideeachcellroomwouldhavefallenfromtheraisedfloorofthestructure.thus,onewouldexpectthedebrisinthecellstobeuniform,whichisnotthecase.inaddition,theburialsarenotlikelytohavebeenplacedinstructureswhosesolepurposewasthestorageorprocessingofagriculturalsurpluses.

thethirdhypothesisremainsadistinctpossibility.Asmentionedabove,thearchaeologicaldatasuggestthatthecell-planstructuresunearthedatkenantepedidservesomesortofstoragefunction.ifthesestructuresrepresenttheremainsofindependentstoragefacilitiessimilartothosediscoveredattellAdabathentheymustbesubsidiarytoother,asofyetunexcavated,domesticorpublicbuildings.onlyfurtherresearchwillconfirmordenythishypoth-esis.

Giventhisevidenceiinterpretthesurfacebetweenthetwogroupsofwallsandcellsinubaidstructure2asacourtyardinthecenterofwhatwaseitheramulti-roomstoragestructureoracourtyardhousewithfloorsraisedabovesmallbasementstoragerooms.thefactthatwehavenowexcavatedpartsofthreestructureswithnearlyiden-ticalcellfloorplanssuggeststhatduringtheubaidperiodthistypeofconstructionwasthequitecommonatthesiteandperhapsevenintheregion.thishypothesisissupportedbyparallels,inbothconstructionandconcept,insyriaandthehatayregionofsouthernturkey(seeaboveandyeneretal.2000).

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Akkermanshasargued,contraroaf(1984),thatthetripartitedomestichouseplanisnotthenorminubaid-periodarchitecture(Akkermans1989).sincesixseasonsofresearchatkenantepehaveyettorevealtripartitear-chitecture,ourdataappeartosupportAkkermanshypothesis.nevertheless,iprefertoapproachthisproblemfromanotherdirection.insteadofassumingthatsimilaritiesinceramicassemblagesshouldbeparalleledbysimilaritiesinothercategoriesofmaterialremains,suchasarchitecture,burialpractices,lithicassemblages,subsistencepatterns,etc.,whynotseetheseasseparate,independently-patternedmaterialculturetraits?ifweenvisionmaterialcultureasanexpressionofsocialactionoccurringwithinoverlappingsocialnetworks(Mann1986),thentheculturesweexcavateshouldnotbeseenasuniformmonolithicentities.ifwefollowthisreasoning,eachcommunityisnotpartofamonolithicentitybutisinsteadauniquenodeinafabricofsocialrelationships.thuswemightnotexpectdomesticarchitecture,forexample,toexhibitsimilarpatterningand/oruniformitytoothercategoriesofmaterialculture.

thismodeldoesthreethings.Firstly,itreverseshowweviewmaterialculture:insteadoflookingatitfromthetopdown,fromthelargerculturetothesinglecommunitywithinit,inthiscasekenantepe,weseeculturefromthebottomup,whereeachsiterepresentsthematerialremainsofauniquecommunitythatlivedwithinadynamicsocialnetwork.secondly,thismodelforcesustovieweachcategoryofmaterialcultureseparatelyandonitsownterms.whetherornotcertainaspectsofthemonolithicculture,inthiscasetheubaid,wereadoptedbymembersofacommunityisconditionedbyanarrayoffactorsincludinghowagivencommunityfitsintosocialnetworks,andwhatecologicalsocialandideologicalconditionsexistwithineachcommunity.Andthirdly,thismodelforcesustoseeinterregionalinteractionnotasasinglenetworkorinteractionspherethatlinkselitesfromvariouscom-munities(schortman1989;schortmanandurban1992),butasafabricofdifferentoverlappingsocial,economic,political,andideologicalnetworksthatlinkvariousmembersofthecommunitiestoeachotherinavarietyofways.usingthismodelwemustthereforeenvisioncommunitiesasnodesorintersectionsinavarietyofoverlappingso-cialnetworks.theinhabitantsofeachcommunitymayhavedifferentialaccesstoindigenousandexogenousideas,technologies,andcommoditiesviasocialnetworks,andmaychooseto,orchoosenotto,adopt,adapt,oremulateanynumberofmaterials,technologies,oractivitiesavailablethroughthem.withthisinmindinowturntoseveralcategoriesofmaterialculturefoundinandaroundthearchitecturediscussedabove,toseehowthesedataarticulatewiththetheoryjustpresented.

CerAMiCs

lynndoddhasrecentlycompletedapreliminaryanalysisoftheubaid-periodceramicsunearthedatkenantepe.sincethisreportispublishedelsewhere(parkeretal.2006),ionlysummarizesomeoftherelevantpoints.thefirstobservationconcernsthenatureoftheassemblage.thecorpusofceramicsexcavatedfromcontextsinandaroundthestructuresdiscussedabovedoindeedshowstrongsimilarities,especiallyinshapeandsurfacetreatment,toubaid-periodceramicsdiscoveredatvarioussitesspreadoveraverywidegeographicareaincludingsouthern(oueili,rasalAmiya),central(tellAdaba,tellMadhhur),andnortherniraq(tepeGawra),syria(hammamet-turkman,tellel-Abr,tellZiyadeh,tellkosakshamali),andturkey(tellkurdu,deirmentepe).AlthoughthesesimilaritiesclearlyplacetheMiddleChalcolithicremainsunearthedatkenantepewithintheorbitofthelateubaidceramictradition,therearealsoidiosyncrasiesthatbetraysomeaspectsoflocalagency.

wehaveidentifiedfourfabrictypesamongtheubaidceramicsfromkenantepe:roughware,coarseware,mediumware,andfineware.ubaidroughwarehaslargechaffandsomecalcareousgrittemperandbreaksinaveryangularfashion.occasionalpebble-sizedinclusionshavebeennoted.sherdsofthisfabricusuallyhaveablackcore.ubaidcoarsewarehasfinegritandmediumtolargechafftemper.brownfabriccolorspredominate.Vesselsmadeofthisfabricareoftenburnished.ubaidmediumwaregenerallyhasfinegritandmediumtolargechafftemper.somevesselsarechaffimpressed.thickerregionsmayhaveablackcore.thefabricisusuallyfairlywelllevigatedandcompactandexhibitsstraight,small-grainedbreaks.ubaidfinewarenormallyhasfinecalcareousgritandfinetomediumchafftemper,islowtomediumfiredandexhibitsstraightfine-grainedbreaks.normallynoblackcoreisevident.thisfabricismostfrequentlyusedtoconstructsmallbowlsandcupsandoccasionallysmall,finejars.

openvesselsfromthekenantepecorpusfallintofourcategories,includingbell-shapedcups(fig.21.10d,e,l,M,andn),shallowbowlsthatsometimeshaveascrapedexterior(fig.21.10Jandk),openbowls(fig.21.10C,F,G,h,andi;fig.21.12A),andbasins.Closedvesselsfallintotwocategories:globularjarsthatareusuallycon-

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 357

structedofroughfabrics(fig.21.11Ah),andjarswithtallrims(fig.21.10Ab;fig.21.12Cd)whichareusuallyconstructedofmediumorfinefabrics.

Fivecategoriesofsurfacetreatmentshavealsobeenidentified:paintonanuntreatedfabric,paintonaslipcoveredfabric,burnishedvessels,inciseddesigns,andbichromepainteddesigns.themostcommonmethodofdecorationconsistsofpaintonanuntreatedfabric.painteddesignsarerestrictedtoubaidfineandmediumwares.themostcommoncolorsarepurpleordarkred,black,andgray(fig.21.12).burnishingusuallyoccursoncookingpotsandisrelativelycommoninthekenantepecorpus.Ceramicanalysissuggeststhatdifferentialfiringmayac-countformostcasesinwhichpaintappearsonacream-coloredbackgroundandthusthiscategoryofsurfacetreat-mentisdifficulttoquantify.Contrarytomanyotherubaid-periodsitessuchastellAbada(Jasim1985),hammamet-turkman(Akkermans1988a;1988b),tepeGawra(tobler1950;rothman2002;rothmanandblackman2003)andtellMadhhur(roaf1989),ceramicswithbichromepaintedandinciseddecorationsarerareinthekenantepecorpus.therelativeinfrequencyofthesecategoriesofdecorationhasleddoddtoconcludethat,althoughkenantepespotterswereprobablyfamiliarwithtechniquesofsurfacetexturing,theywerenotinclinedtoinvestthemoreconsiderablelaborthatwouldberequiredtoachievesomeofthemoreelaboratesurfaceeffectsknownfromothersites.

decorativemotifsexhibitedonubaidceramicsexcavatedatkenantepefitwellwithintherangeofthelateubaiddecorativerepertoireknownfromsitessuchasoueiliandhammamet-turkman.however,anumberofmotifscommonattheseandothersitesareconspicuouslyabsent(fordiscussion,seeparkeretal.2006).thecorpusofubaid-periodceramicsthusfarexcavatedatkenantepeisbestparalleledathammamet-turkmanespeciallyinlevelsiVbandiVC.Mostnotably,angled-rimjarsfromkenantepeandfromhammamet-turkmaniVCcommon-lydisplaybroadlyexecuteddesigns(fig.21.12ACandG),whilesolidblackfieldsofpaintarenotcommonexceptwhenusedtocreatenegativedesigns(fig.21.12dF;Akkermans1988b:117,fig.5:57,58,fig.13).

thepercentageofpaintedtounpaintedpotteryinthekenantepecorpushasnotyetbeenquantified.never-theless,ourpreliminaryanalysisshowsthatunpaintedceramicsclearlydominatetheassemblage.inspiteofthis,itappearsthatpaintedceramicsarefarmorepredominantatkenantepethan,forexample,athammamet-turkman,wheretheamountofpaintedpotteryisreportedtobeveryrestricted.Anotherobviousdifferencebetweenkenantepeandhammamet-turkmanissuggestedbytheceramicparallels.Akkermanshasdrawnattentiontoconnec-tionsbetweenthepainteddecorativemotifsfromhammamet-turkmanandpaintedtraditionsatubaidsitesincen-tralandsoutherniraq,whileatthesametimesuggestingthattheundecoratedceramicsfromhammamet-turkmanareunlikesouthernubaidplainwares(Akkermans1988b).theoppositeappearstobetrueatkenantepe,wherepaintedmotifsfinddirectparallelsinsyriawhileplainwaresaresimilartothosefoundinmoresoutherlysiteslikeMadhhurandZiyadeh(parkeretal.2006).

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Figure21.10.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

Ad5l5132kt1#3:lightgrayexteriorsurface(2.5y7/2).lightyellowishbrowncore(10yr6/4).lightbrownishgrayinteriorsurface(2.5y6/2).burnishedinteriorandexteriorsurfaces.washoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.darkyellowishbrownpaintonexteriorsurfaces(10yr3/4).Veryfinechaffandgrittemper.

bd5l5100kt48#1:lightreddishbrownexteriorsurface(5yr6/4).yellowishredcore(5yr5/6).yellowishredinteriorsurface(5yr5/6).burnishedinteriorandexteriorsurfaces.incisedandimpresseddecorationsonexteriorsurface.reddishbrownpaintontherim,theneck,andprobablyonthebody(5yr4/4).Chafftemper.

C

d5l5108kt21#1:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(10yr8/3).Grayfabric(10yr5/1)withanabrupttransi-tiontoareddishyellowcore(7.5yr7/6).Grayinteriorsurface(10yr6/1).darkbrownpaintonrimandexte-riorsurface(7.5yr3/2).Chaffimpressionsoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.Mediumchafftemperwithsomegritinclusions.

dd5l5029kt5093#3:reddishyellowexteriorsurface(5yr6/6).reddishyellowcore(5yr6/6).lightred-dishbrowninteriorsurface(5yr6/4).Veryfinegrittemper.

ed5l5146kt6#5:pinkexteriorsurface(7.5yr7/4).pinkinteriorsurface(5yr7/4).striationsvisibleoninte-riorandexteriorsurfaces.Finewhitegrittemper.

Fd5l5103kt13#1:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(10yr8/4).reddishyellowfabric(5yr7/6)abruptlytransitioningtoagraycore(10yr5/1).darkbrownpaintonexteriorandinteriorrim(7.5yr3/3).smalltome-diumgrit,includingcalcareousgrit,andmediumchafftemper.

Ge1l1004kt1040#5:yellowwashedexteriorsurface(10yr7/6).yellowishbrownfabric(10yr5/8)abrupt-lychangingtogreyishbrown(10yr5/2).yellowwashedinteriorsurface(10yr5/8).Finetomediumgritandchafftemper.

hd5l5100kt49#1:lightredexteriorsurface(2.5yr6/6).Grayfabric(5yr5/1)withanabrupttransitiontoareddishyellowcore(5yr6/6).lightredinteriorsurface(2.5yr6/6).Mediumchafftemper.

ie1l1004kt1040#2:reddishyellowsmoothedexteriorsurface(7.5yr7/6).yellowishbrowncore(10yr5/4).reddishyellowinteriorsurface(7.5yr7/6).Finegritandchafftemper.diameteruncertain.

Jd5l5160kt3#6:lightbrownexteriorsurface(7.5yr6/4).strongbrownfabric(7.5yr5/6)gradingtoadarkgrayishbrowncore(10yr4/2).browninteriorsurface(7.5yr5/3).Fineandmediumgritandfinechafftemper.

ke2l25kt7#8:paleyellowexteriorsurface(5y8/3).yellowishbrownfabric(10yr5/4)gradingtoadarkgrayishbrowncore(10yr4/2).paleyellowinteriorsurface(2.5y7/4).Verydarkgrayishbrownpaintedalongthetopofrim(10yr3/2).washonexteriorsurface.Veryfewmediumgritandfinechafftemper.

ld5l5160kt3#3:yellowishredexteriorsurface(5yr5/8).redfabric(2.5yr5/8).yellowishredinteriorsurface(5yr5/8).Finegritandfewfinechafftemper.

Md5l5160kt3#10:yellowexteriorsurface(2.5yr7/6).brownfabric(7.5yr4/4)gradingtoayellowishbrowncore(10yr5/4).Verydarkgrayishcrosshatcheddesignpaintedonexteriorsurface(10yr3/2).Veryfinegrittemper.

nd5l5190kt1#2:reddishyellowexteriorsurface(5yr6/8).strongbrownfabric(7.5yr5/8).reddishyel-lowinteriorsurface(5yr6/8).darkreddishbrownpaintedonexteriorsurface(5yr3/2).Finegritandfinechafftemper.

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 359

Figure21.10.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

360 bradley J. parker

Figure21.11.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

Ae2l18kt7#1:yellowishbrownexteriorsurface(10yr5/4).lightbrownfabric(10yr6/2)abruptlychang-ingtoablackcore(5y2.5/1).yellowishbrowninteriorsurface(10yr5/4).largequartzgrit(pebblesize)andverylargechafftemper.

be2l25kt7#7:brownexteriorsurface(7.5yr6/3).strongbrownfabric(7.5yr5/6)abruptlychangingtoadarkgraycore(5y4/1).pinkinteriorsurface(7.5yr7/4).threeincisedlinesontheexteriorrim.Veryfinegritandfinechafftemper.

Ce2l16kt15#1:lightbrownexteriorsurface(7.5yr6/4).lightbrowncore(7.5yr6/4).lightbrowninteriorsurface(7.5yr6/4).knobonrim.Finegritandfinechafftemper.

de2l18kt7#2:reddishyellowexteriorsurface(7.5yr7/6).reddishyellowfabric(7.5yr7/6)abruptlychangingtoadarkgrayishbrowncore(10yr4/2).burnishedoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.Finegritandfinechafftemper.

ee2l18kt7#3:lightyellowishbrownexteriorsurface(10yr6/4).lightbrownfabric(7.5yr6/4)abruptlychangingtoabluishblackcore(2.5/5pb).lightyellowishbrowninteriorsurface(10yr6/4).horizontalburnishedoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.smalltolargegritandchafftemper.

Fe2l25kt10#3:lightreddishbrownexteriorsurface(5yr6/4).lightbrownfabric(7.5yr6/4)abruptlychangingtoagraycore(10yr5/1).Mediumgrittemper.

Ge2l24kt3#3:yellowishbrownexteriorsurface(10yr6/4).yellowishbrownfabric(10yr5/4)abruptlychangingtoabluishblackcore(5b2.5/1).yellowishbrowninteriorsurface(10yr5/4).Finegritandfewveryfinechafftemper.

he2l24kt3#2:brownexteriorsurface(10yr5/3).brownfabric(7.5yr4/2)abruptlychangingtoaverydarkgraycore(7.5yr3/1).yellowishbrowninteriorsurface(10yr5/4).horizontalscantburnishedoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.Verylargegritandverylargetomediumchafftemperandchafffacedonexteriorsurface.

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 361

Figure21.11.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

362 bradley J. parker

Figure21.12.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

Ad5l5146kt6#1:darkgraysurface(10yr4/1).reddishyellowfabric(7.5yr6/6)abruptlytransitioningtoablackcore(7.5yr2.5/1).largeandfinegrittemper.

bd5l5029kt5093#1:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(2.5y8/3).reddishyellowcore(7.5yr7/6).paleyel-lowinteriorsurface(10yr8/4).Mediumchafftemper.darkbrownpaint(10yr3/3).

Cd8l70kt4#3:lightbrownexteriorsurface(7.5yr6/4).strongbrownfabric(7.5yr5/3)gradingtoadarkgraycore(2.5y4/1).browninteriorsurface(7.5yr5/3).Finemicaceousgrittemper.darkbrown(7.5yr3/2)paint.

dd5l5109kt1#1:duskyredexteriorsurface(10r3/2)gradingtoaverypalebrowncore(10yr7/4).paleyellowinteriorsurface(2.5yr8/3).darkbrownpaintonexteriorsurface.Creamwashoninteriorsurface.Finegrittemper.

ed5l5079kt5554#5:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(10yr7/4).Verypalebrowncore(10yr7/4).duskyredpaintonexteriorsurface(7.5r3/2).Finesmallwhitegrittemper.diameteruncertain.

Fd5l5079kt5554#3:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(10yr7/4).Verypalebrowncore(10yr7/4).Verypalebrowninteriorsurface(10yr7/4).duskyredpaintonexteriorsurface(7.5r3/2).Finewhitegrittemperwithsmallairpocketsonsurfaces.diameteruncertain.

Gd5l5132kt1#4:Verypalebrownexteriorsurface(10yr8/4).Verypalebrowncore(10yr7/3).paleyel-lowinteriorsurface(2.5y7/4).burnishedoninteriorandexteriorsurfaces.palewashonexteriorsurface.darkbrownpaintonexteriorsurface(7.5yr3/4).Veryfinegritandchafftemper.diameteruncertain.

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 363

Figure21.12.ubaidCeramicsfromkenantepe

364 bradley J. parker

lithiCs

elizabethhealeyhasrecentlycompletedapreliminaryanalysisofasampleofthelithicmaterialfromubaidcontextsatkenantepe(parkeretal.2006;healeythisvolume).heranalysissuggeststhatflinttoolsderivefromlocallyacquiredrivercobbles.obsidian,ontheotherhand,derivesfromanumberofdifferentoutcropsinthebin-golandnemrutdasourceareas.Alargemajorityoftheobsidianremainshavetracesofcortex,suggestingthatobsidianreachedthesiteinarelativelyunpreparedstate.Althoughafewartifactsincludingatleastoneobsidianarrowheadshowconsiderablecraftsmanshipandknowledgeoflithicmanufacture,themajorityoflithictoolsex-hibitnon-systematicworking,suggestingthatnon-specialistswereresponsibleforproducingalargeportionofthelithicassemblage(parkeretal.2006:figs.2325).itshouldalsobenotedthatlithictoolmakersusedeveryscrapofobsidianavailable,asmostpieceswerecontinuallyreworked,andnowholebladecoreshaveyetbeenidenti-fied.lithictoolswereusedforanumberofdomesticactivities.Afewpieceshavebeenidentifiedthatexhibitsilicagloss,suggestingthatsuchbladeswereusedforcuttingsilica-richvegetablematerial,whilepiercers,scrapers,andbladesmaybeindicativeoftextilemanufacture,hidepreparation,and/orfoodpreparation.Finally,thereappearstobeadifferenceintherawmaterials,proportions,andtechnologybetweenubaidstructure1andubaidstructure3.whetherornotthesedifferencesreflectchronologicalvariationordifferentialaccessis,atthispoint,stillamatterofspeculation.

sMAllFinds

Anumberofsmallfindswererecoveredfromubaidcontextsatkenantepe.particularlynotablearethoserecoveredinsitufromaworksurfaceoutsideubaidstructure1.Asmentionedabove,thissurfaceyieldedseveralspindlewhorlsorloomweights,twoboneawls,abonebead,severalstrainerfragments,andthreepiercedstonesthatweinterpretasfishnetweights(parkeranddodd2005).Alltheseartifactsareindicativeofdomesticproduction.Combinedwithotherdatafromthesamecontext,theseartifactsrevealawidevarietyofdomesticactivitiesinclud-ingweavingortextileproduction,grainandfishprocessing,personalornamentation,lithictoolmodification,andfoodpreparation.however,incomparisonwithotherubaid-periodsitesinthehamrin(Jasim1985)andinsoutherniraq,thereareanumberofartifactsthatareconspicuouslyabsent.Attheriskofarguingfromnegativeevidence,iwouldliketoatleastmentionthatthusfarwehavenoevidenceofbentclaynails,stampseals,orclayballs.

disCussionoFtheFinds

inbroadterms,kenantepesubaid-periodceramicsfitcomfortablywithintheregionalubaidceramictradi-tion.inspiteofsomeclosesimilarities,however,manyaspectsoftheceramiccorpusreflectamorelocalcharacterwithintheregionalstyle,asdetailedabove.whiletheforms,manufacture,andbroadcategoriesofstylelinkkenantepesceramiccorpustosyriaandiraq,byfartheclosestceramicparallelscanbedrawnbetweenthevirtuallyidenticalassemblageexcavatedattheneighboringsiteofyeniceyani(bernbeck,Costello,andnal2004).Al-thoughclay-sourcingstudieshaveyettobecarriedout,thereisevidencethatatleastsomecategoriesofceramicswereproducedonsite(parkeretal.2006).thesedatawouldsupportahypothesissimilartothatproposedbyJudithberman(1994)forubaidsitesiniran,thatlocallyproducedceramicsweremadetoemulatesome,butnotall,as-pectsofaregionalstyle.

thereisalsotheproblemofperiodization.Asmentionedabove,ceramicparallelswouldsupportalaterdateintheubaid4orterminalubaidperiod(contemporarywithGawraXiiiandXiiandhammanet-turkmaniVd)thantheradiocarbondatessuggest.therearetwopossibleexplanationsforthisdiscrepancy.First,itispossiblethatasmoredataarerecoveredandourinterpretationofthevariousphasesoftheubaidperiodisrevised,thesediscrepan-cieswillbeminimizedorexplained.Alternatively,thekenantepecorpusmightrepresentaregionaldevelopmentwithintheubaidtraditionthatsawparticularcharacteristicsariseearlierinthispartofthesoutheasternturkeythantheydidelsewhere.Moreresearchwillobviouslybenecessarytosubstantiatethishypothesis.ineithercase,thedata

Networks of INterregIoNal INteractIoN durINg mesopotamIas ubaId perIod 365

fromkenantepedounderscoretheneedformorein-depthstudyoftheabsolutechronologyoftheubaidperiodbothinthesouthernubaidheartlandandinthenorth.

thelithicassemblageshowsboththeexploitationoflocalflintsourcesand,notsurprisingly,theparticipationininterregionaltradenetworks.obsidianfromtheVanregionprobablyreachedthesiteinarelativelyunpreparedstate.despitethefactthatkenantepeis,incomparisontootherubaidsites,relativelyclosetotheseobsidiansourceareas,thepatternsofobsidianusesuggestthatthisresourcewashighlyvaluedandthattoolproductionandmodificationwas,forthemostpart,anelementofthelocaldomesticeconomy.

ConClusions

ipresentthefollowingconclusionsastentativehypothesestobetestedthroughfurtheranalysisandfieldwork.2inhis1986bookthe sources of social power,MichaelMannenvisionsoverlappingideological,economic,mili-tary,andpoliticalnetworksasthescaffoldinguponwhichsocialpowerisconstructed.networkssuchasthoseen-visionedbyMannareobviouslynotsomethingthatisvisibleinthearchaeologicalrecord.however,thematerialconsequencesofsocialactiontakingplacethroughsuchnetworks,perhaps,are.itismypositionthatbyviewingthecategoriesofarchaeologicalevidenceasseparateandindependentlyinterconnectedvariables,wemightreachstimu-latingconclusionsabouttheformationofthepatterninginthearchaeologicalrecordwehavecometocallculture.usingtheMiddleChalcolithicremainsfromkenantepeasareferencepoint,letusconsidersomeoftheimplica-tionsofthisapproach.

Ceramicsandobsidianclearlyderivefromdifferentsocialnetworks.sinceobsidiansourcesarerelativelylim-itedintheneareast,wecanbequitecertainthat,asrawmaterial,obsidiantraveledfromsourceareasincentraleasternAnatoliathroughanintricate,extensiveandalreadyancienteconomicnetwork(renfrewanddixon1976).thedisseminationofceramicstyles,especiallyshapeanddecoration,whichmaycarryencodedculturalmessagesrelatingtoideologyandidentity,certainlytraveledoveraverydifferentnetwork.Asmentionedabove,theavailableevidencesuggeststhatmuchoftheubaidceramiccorpusexcavatedatkenantepewaslocallyproduced(parkeretal.2006).thus,althoughsomepotsmayhavemovedthroughlocaleconomicnetworks,theycertainlydidnottravelthroughthesamenetworksresponsibleforthedistributionofobsidian.instead,localpottersmusthaveadopted,andadapted,regionalstylesandmanufacturingtechniquesthroughideologicalnetworksthatprobablyoriginatediniraqandsyria.Althoughthesocialmeaningsencodedinubaidceramicstylesremainelusive,stylisticformsofnon-ver-balcommunicationweresurelyinstrumentalinthespreadofceramicstyles.thehypothesisthattheceramicstylesdocumentedatkenantepearemostcloselyparalleledinnorthsyria(parkeretal.2006),suggeststhatideologicaldisseminationworkedinadown-the-linefashion,asdescribedbyrenfrew(1975).

ifthecell-planarchitectureexcavatedatkenantepeisthenormatthesiteorintheregion,thenwecanberelativelycertainthatarchitecturalformsthathavecometobeassociatedwiththeubaid(tripartitebuildings)didnotpredominateatallorevenmostsites(ifwefollowAkkermans)thatexhibitubaidceramics.instead,thetypeofarchitectureutilizedisprobablyconditionedbylocalecologicalconditions,andperhapsbylocaltradition.

thedatafromkenantepesupportthehypothesisthattheinhabitantsofkenantepeparticipatedinoverlappingsocialnetworksthroughwhichvariousproducts,materialsandtechnologiesweretransferred.borrowingexplicitlyfromMichaelMann,iproposethatindividuals,households,andcommunitiesshouldbeviewedasuniquenexusesinnetworksofregionalandinterregionalinteraction.Furthermore,insteadofenvisioningthespreadofmaterialcultureastheresultofmigration,colonization,oracculturation,iproposethatthepatternsofmaterialcultureobservableinthearchaeologicalrecordaretheproductofsocialactionandlocalagencythattakesplacewithinthefabricofinter-regionaleconomic,politicalandideologicalrelationships.

2preliminarystudiesofboththefaunalandbotanicalremainshavestartedbutremainincomplete.

366 bradley J. parker

ACknowledGeMents

thischapterreliesontheworkofnumerouspeople,especiallythestaffandcrewoftheuppertigrisArchaeo-logicalresearchproject.iwouldliketothankallthosewhohaveparticipatedintheprojectovertheyears.withouttheirhardworkanddedicationthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible.thesubsectiononubaidceramicsreliesheavilyontheworkoflynndodd,whilethesubsectiononthelithicsreliesheavilyontheworkofelizabethhealey.iamparticularlyindebtedtothesetwoscholarsfortheirinput.AlthoughmuchoftheworkdirectlyrelatedtothischapterwasconductedwiththegeneroussupportoftheCurtisst.andMaryG.brennanFoundation,excavationsatkenantepehavealsobenefitedfromthefinancialsupportofanumberofothergrantingagenciesandinstitutions,includingthenationalendowmentforthehumanities,thenationalGeographicsociety,theAmericanphilosophi-calsociety,theuniversityofutah,andtheuniversityofsouthernCalifornia.iowemysinceregratitudetoalltheseagenciesandinstitutions.Finally,thispaperbenefitedgreatlyfromconversations,suggestions,andcommentsfromCatherinepainterandJennihenecke.

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