PARENTAL EDUCATION AND TIME INVESTMENTS IN … · PARENTAL EDUCATION AND TIME INVESTMENTS ......

1

PARENTAL EDUCATION AND TIME INVESTMENTS IN CHILDREN

Cristina Borra1 Almudena Sevilla2

1Department of Economics University of Seville (Spain)

2School of Business Management

Queen Mary University of London (UK)

13th, January 2014

2

OBJECTIVES I: Trends in the Education Gradient

Parental time investments for college educated parents higher than for non-college educated parents:

1- Have these differences been increasing (as in the US) or decreasing over the last five decades in the UK?

2- How do these trends compare to other countries in the industrialized world?

3

OBJECTIVES II: College competition explanation

3- Is Ramey and Ramey’s (2010) competition for college admissions hypothesis for the US also plausible in the UK?

§  The arrival of the children of the baby-boom cohort to college age generates excess demand for college slots, especially at elite universities

=> college educated parents: forced to increase their time investments in their children

4

WHY DO WE CARE? Crucial from a child development perspective and policies

aimed at inequality

§  Are children from college-educated parents increasingly receiving more parental time?

=> If yes, then growing inequality in children’s (time and money) resources

5

CONTRIBUTIONS

§  Document trends in the education gradient in the UK, adding a cross-country perspective: §  Previous analysis of trends in North America and United Kingdom

(Chasalani 2007, Ramey and Ramey 2010, Sullivan 2010)

§  Test the competition for college admissions explanation in the UK: §  Ramey and Ramey (2010) focused on the US and compared the

results to those of Canada. The higher education system in the UK is closer to that of the US in being a national market and showing a hierarchy of universities

6

DATA : MTUS

§  Multinational Time Use Study (MTUS): an ex post harmonized cross-time, cross-national comparative time use database, constructed from national random-sampled time-diary

§  Main sample: mothers and fathers aged 18 to 64 who are neither retired nor students, having a child 18 years old or younger in the household

§  UK: 1975,1983, 1987, 1995, 2000, 2005

Time Start

Time Finish

Primary Activity

7:00 7:15 wash face …

7:30 7:45 get dress

… 10:00 10:15 Work

7

DATA: MTUS

VARIABLES OF INTEREST

§  Parental time investments in children: Primary activity reported as caring for his or her child/children (minutes in a 24 hour time period)

§  Coded AV11 in MTUS

§  College educated: If the respondent reports to have some college or more (ISCED level 5 or above)

8

PART I

The Education Gradient Over Time

9

Trends in the Education Gradient

10

College educatedLess than collegeDifference College educatedLess than collegeDifferencePanel A, Average minutes per day over the whole periodChild_Care 82,35 58,75 23,60 32,83 20,95 11.88Market_Work 187,44 141,81 45,63 379,16 373,07 6.09Unpaid_Work 246,42 267,68 -21,26 107,00 96,02 10.98Personal_Care 615,37 629,34 -13,97 587,00 597,44 -10.44Pure_Leisure 291,79 329,86 -38,07 319,43 342,77 -23.34Voluntary_Activities 16,62 12,56 4,06 14,59 9,76 4.83Panel B, Average minutes per day in 1974Child_Care 49,41 36,83 12,58 9,62 8,70 0.92Market_Work 135,53 130,77 4,76 381,88 399,05 -17.17Unpaid_Work 265,94 275,64 -9,70 87,78 70,86 16.92Personal_Care 664,40 638,93 25,47 610,00 601,40 8.60Pure_Leisure 313,32 352,04 -38,72 338,36 354,67 -16.31Voluntary_Activities 11,40 5,79 5,61 12,36 5,32 7.04Panel C, Average minutes per day in 2000Child_Care 84,57 74,05 10,52 36,13 30,80 5.33Market_Work 231,79 173,80 57,99 389,03 358,68 30.35Unpaid_Work 225,18 251,89 -26,71 120,38 119,86 0.52Personal_Care 604,79 628,85 -24,06 571,03 602,12 -31.09Pure_Leisure 279,28 295,28 -16,00 307,46 318,14 -10.68Voluntary_Activities 14,39 16,11 -1,72 15,97 10,40 5.57

Mothers Fathers

11

Trends in Parental Time Investments

§  Parental time investments increased

§  College educated parents spend more time with their children than non-college educated parents

§  Differentials in parental time investments by college and non-college educated parents increased only for fathers

12

METHODS

§  We estimate the following equation by OLS, separately for fathers and mothers:

§  where CTit is total parental time in minutes per day of individual i from survey t

§  Hit is an indicator variable for whether the individual is college educated

§  Tt is a vector of dummy variables indicating period of the survey

§  Xit is a vector of additional individual characteristics: age group, marital status, a quadratic in the number of children, and whether the household has children under age 5

§  εit is the error term

itititit HHCT εββββ ++++= 4321 ittt XTT

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METHODS

§  β1 (a vector of T coefficients) explains the general trend of parental time investments

§  β2 captures the effect of parental education on childcare time explaining the education gradient

§  β3 (also a vector of T coefficients) explains the trend of the education gradient

itititit HHCT εββββ ++++= 4321 ittt XTT

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RESULTS: EDUCATION GRADIENTS -TABLE Notes: This table shows the regress ion of parenta l t ime investments in children measured as daily minutes spent on total childcare as primary activity reported by the diarist. The samples include all mothers and fathers 18-64 who are not students or retired, where mother is defined as having a child under the age of 18 in the house. The omitted year is labelled ref. in each column. Con t ro l s f o r pa ren ts ’ ages (dummies for 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64) are included. The omitted category is age 25-34. Specifications in columns (3) and (4) also include marital status, a quadratic in the number of children, whether the household has children under age 5, and a vector of dummies to control for the day of the week the diary was reported (ref.: Sunday). Standard errors in parentheses. * significant at 10% ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.

Year dummiesyear_1971-1975 ref. ref. ref. ref.year_1981-1985 24.88*** 28.27*** 8.69*** 8.31***

(0.587) (0.217) (0.299) (0.309)year_1986-1990 -9.84*** 6.62 6.94*** 11.29***

(0.747) (3.626) (1.001) (0.755)year_1991-1995 63.79*** 67.15*** 37.36*** 37.90***

(1.148) (1.760) (0.702) (0.409)year_1996-2000 37.29*** 41.66*** 21.51*** 22.29***

(0.332) (0.395) (0.266) (0.224)year_2001-2005 78.17*** 80.25*** 59.90*** 58.26***

(0.691) (2.012) (0.290) (0.431)College educatededuc_3 4.51*** 1.86 -1.40* -1.76*

(1.064) (1.819) (0.576) (0.687)Interaction termseduc3_1971-1975 ref. ref. ref. ref.educ3_1981-1985 30.40*** 21.26*** 23.01*** 18.13***

(1.363) (0.870) (0.413) (1.143)educ3_1986-1990 19.68*** 16.00*** 8.07*** 4.21***

(2.058) (1.231) (0.774) (0.511)educ3_1991-1995 22.86*** 10.28*** 21.28*** 19.84***

(2.073) (1.025) (0.726) (0.671)educ3_1996-2000 11.64*** 11.14*** 7.66*** 7.30***

(2.111) (2.345) (0.756) (0.831)educ3_2001-2005 6.87** -0.68 -1.34* -2.27***

(2.196) (1.862) (0.662) (0.484)

Mothers Fathers

15

EDUCATION GRADIENT OVER TIME 60

8010

012

014

016

018

0

Min

utes

per

day

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010year

Educated Mothers Less Than College Educated Mothers

UK Mothers

2030

4050

6070

8090

Min

utes

per

day

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010year

Educated Fathers Less Than College Educated Fathers

UK Fathers

Notes: The graphs in this Figure plot the coefficients on the regression of daily minutes spent on total childcare on the variables of interest for mothers in the 25-34 age group from columns (2) and (4) in the previous table. The less-than-college-educated line plots the coefficients on the year dummies. The college-educated line plots the coefficients on the interaction between the year dummy and the indicator for whether the mother completed college.

6080

100

120

140

160

180

Min

utes

per

day

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010year

Educated Mothers Less Than College Educated Mothers

US Mothers

2030

4050

6070

8090

Min

utes

per

day

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010year

Educated Fathers Less Than College Educated Fathers

US Fathers

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FINDINGS I

§  Parental time investments: increased 80 min./day for mothers (from 60 mins/day in the 70s) and 60 min./day for fathers (from 20 mins/day in the 70s)

§  Education gradient: Positive over the period, except in 2005 §  15 mins/day for mothers §  8 mins/day for fathers

§  Differentials in parental time investments by college and non-college educated parents increased (25 min./day) until 1983 and decrease (15 min.) thereafter

17

FINDINGS II

§  In 2000, college educated mothers devoted about 11 more minutes per day and college educated fathers, 7 more minutes, approximately 10% more time than less than college educated parents:

§  According to Villena-Roldán and Ríos-Aguilar(2012) for the US: a 10% increase in maternal time investments would increase language aptitude tests by 40% of a standard deviation

§  1 hour more per week (8.57 more minutes per day) increases test scores around 40 per cent of a standard deviation, which translates roughly into about five positions in a class of 30 children for the average child

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Australia Canada Finland France Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden UK US

B. College educated educ_3 28.15*** 4.97*** 18.94** 22.57*** -2.82 17.08* 2.46*** 21.17*** 5.68 27.54* 1.86 5.42***

(2.259) (0.707) (2.373) (0.182) (1.485) (1.356) (0.392) (1.378) (3.465) (3.144) (1.819) (0.513)

C. Interaction terms educ3_1965-1970

-41.98***

-4.64***

(0.796)

(0.977)

educ3_1971-1975 ref. ref.

ref.

ref. ref.

educ3_1976-1980

9.91***

(0.237)

educ3_1981-1985

-2.18

19.30*** ref.

21.26*** -10.00***

(1.469)

(0.340)

(0.870) (0.378)

educ3_1986-1990 -8.14*** -1.89 -3.27

ref. 23.48*** -16.12***

16.00*** 6.29***

(0.845) (0.934) (3.562)

(0.324) (1.163)

(1.231) (0.333)

educ3_1991-1995 -0.59 3.31***

ref.

17.61***

ref. ref. 10.28*** 9.35***

(2.061) (0.540)

(0.436)

(1.025) (0.567)

educ3_1996-2000 -15.01** 1.16 -3.29 -17.02***

6.71*** -9.39*** 8.65**

11.14*** 14.92***

(2.777) (0.871) (3.122) (0.276)

(0.649) (0.545) (1.664)

(2.345) (0.823)

educ3_2001-2005

1.10 -1.30 9.27***

1.26 -2.89 -0.68 20.12***

(0.932) (1.080) (0.344)

(3.537) (0.940) (1.862) (0.305)

educ3_2006-2010

3.01

14.99*** (2.476) (0.310)

Notes: This table shows the regression of parental time investments in children measured as daily minutes spent on total childcare as primary activity reported by the diarist. The samples include all mothers 18-64 who are not students or retired, where mother is defined as having a child under the age of 18 in the house. The omitted year is labelled ref. in each column. Controls for parents’ ages (dummies for 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64) are included. The omitted category is age 25-34. This specification also includes marital status, a quadratic in the number of children, whether the household has children under age 5, and a vector of dummies to control for the day of the week the diary was reported (ref.: Sunday).Standard errors in parentheses. * significant at 10% ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.

COMPARISON ACROSS COUNTRIES: MOTHERS

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Notes: This table shows the regression of parental time investments in children measured as daily minutes spent on total childcare as primary activity reported by the diarist. The samples include all mothers 18-64 who are not students or retired, where mother is defined as having a child under the age of 18 in the house. The omitted year is labelled ref. in each column. Controls for parents’ ages (dummies for 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64) are included. The omitted category is age 25-34. This specification also includes marital status, a quadratic in the number of children, whether the household has children under age 5, and a vector of dummies to control for the day of the week the diary was reported (ref.: Sunday).Standard errors in parentheses. * significant at 10% ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Australia Canada Finland France Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden UK US B. College educated educ_3 -1.73 0.88 11.75** 12.66*** 6.47** 12.35** -2.71*** 8.09*** 7.92*** 3.56* -1.76* 3.66***

(1.908) (0.703) (1.202) (0.448) (0.257) (0.609) (0.617) (0.610) (0.617) (0.468) (0.687) (0.373)

C. Interaction terms educ3_1965-1970

-3.98**

-1.12**

(0.807)

(0.394)

educ3_1971-1975 ref. ref.

ref.

ref.

ref. ref.

educ3_1976-1980

ref.

15.38***

(0.245)

educ3_1981-1985

1.07

9.92*** ref.

18.13*** -3.56***

(1.012)

(0.407)

(1.143) (0.129)

educ3_1986-1990 9.05** -0.71 4.59*

ref. 20.60*** -8.78***

4.21*** 3.42***

(1.945) (1.134) (1.510)

(0.560) (0.848)

(0.511) (0.269)

educ3_1991-1995 13.85*** 10.84***

ref.

14.68***

ref. ref. 19.84*** 6.18***

(2.111) (1.005)

(0.626)

(0.671) (0.084)

educ3_1996-2000 10.22*** 16.31*** -10.66** -3.88***

17.63*** 0.64 11.53***

7.30*** 7.29***

(1.722) (1.061) (1.633) (0.269)

(0.577) (0.492) (1.350)

(0.831) (0.250)

educ3_2001-2005

3.40** -0.99 11.14***

1.40 7.90*** -2.27*** 10.39***

(0.066) (0.944) (0.241)

(1.103) (0.048) (0.484) (0.098)

educ3_2006-2010

-3.95*

15.95*** (1.443) (0.179)

COMPARISON ACROSS COUNTRIES: FATHERS

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FINDINGS I: TRENDS IN PARENTAL TIME INVESTMENTS

§  Parental time investments increased 17 min./day (from a range between 50 to 120 min./day in the 70s)

§  Consistent with previous literature (we add more countries and a longer time-span)

§  general increase in time devoted to children (Gershuny 2000; Gauthier et al. 2004)

§  exceptionality of Sweden’s reduction (Klevmarken and Stafford 1999).

FINDINGS II: EDUCATION GRADIENT

§  Towards the end of the period of analysis most countries show a positive education gradient §  Except in the UK and mothers in Germany

§  With respect to non-college educated parents: §  College-educated mothers devote between 5 more minutes

per day (Canada and France), and 20-25 more minutes per day (Sweden, US). §  Non-college educated mothers: 140 min./day

§  College-educated fathers devote about 10 more minutes in most countries (US 18, UK 5) §  Non-college educated fathers: 70 min./day

21

FINDINGS II: EDUCATION GRADIENT

§  Previous literature: results consistent in sign and in magnitude with: §  Sayer et al. (2004), for parents in Canada, Germany, Italy, and

Norway §  Craig (2006) for parents in Australia §  Guryan et al. (2008) for mothers in Canada, Italy, France,

Netherlands, Norway, United Kigdom; United States

22

§  No regularity regarding trends in education gradients §  Mothers:

§  Increases: Netherlands and the US §  Decreases: Australia, France, Norway §  Constant: Canada, Finland, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden,

the UK. §  Range: -17 min in France, +15 min in the US

§  Fathers: §  Increases: Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands,

Sweden, the US §  Decreases: Finland, France, Spain, the UK. §  Constant: Italy, Norway §  Range: -11 min in Finland, + 16 min in Canada and the US.

23

FINDINGS III: TRENDS IN EDUCATION GRADIENT

§  Previous literature (just for North America and the United Kingdom): §  Agreement with Chalasani (2007), Ramey and Ramey (2010),

and Sullivan (2011) for the US §  Agreement with Sullivan (2011) for fathers in the UK

24

FINDINGS II: TRENDS IN EDUCATION GRADIENTS (cont.)

PART II

Testing the Competition for College Admissions Hypothesis

25

COLLEGE COMPETITION EXPLANATION

26

§  For the US, Ramey and Ramey (2010): increased competition for college admissions by the children of the baby boom

§  Returns to investment in children from college-educated parents may be higher §  children of college-educated parents have greater potential §  educated parents are more productive at childcare

=> different trends in parental time investments (incentive to invest in an elite university has grown for college educated parents)

COLLEGE COMPETITION EXPLANATION IN THE UK

27

§  Similar existence of elite universities with very stringent requirements of entry (Sutton Trust and the Department for Business Innovation, and Skills, 2009)

§  Similar national market for college admissions (Bhattacharya, Kanaya and Stevens, 2012)

§  Similar baby boom demographics (Anderson & Hussey 2000)

§  Similar trends in college wage gaps (Katz and Autor 1999, Acemoglu 2003, Autor et al. 2008, Machin & van Reenen 2007)

§  0.40 means that the wage for a college educated individual is 40% higher than that of a lees than college individual

§  Similar trends in excess demand up to 1994 (HEFCE, 2001)

INCREASING COLLEGE COMPETITION IN THE UK

28

§  The college wage premium .3

.4.5

.6.7

Col

lege

wag

e ga

p

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005year

UK US


29

§  Excess demand, according to HEFCE (2001)

§  Rapid growth in full time undergraduate demand during 1988-1994 (66%) – not matched by increased supply of university slots in elite universities

§  driven by GCSE reforms and relative increase in wages of college educated

§  Much slower growth from 1996 to 2001 (2.6%) §  because of constant proportion of pupils staying on at school

and moderation of wage gaps


30

§  Compare trends in college competition to:

§  Trends in education gradient of mothers and fathers

§  Trends in education gradient of mother and fathers of families with no child under 5

§  Trends in education gradient of mother and fathers by type of child care activity

§  Trends in older children’s time in academic and extra-curricular activities (time spent in school and other classes) §  Data: MTUS Children diaries, aged 10 to 17

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENTS

31

§  Relationship of college wage gaps and education gradients over time for the UK and the US

19831987

1995

2000

2005

1985

19921994

1998

2003

-10

010

2030

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay

.3 .4 .5 .6 .7college_gap

UK Mothers Fitted values-UKUS Mothers Fitted values-US

Mothers

1983

1987

1995

2000

2005

1985

1992

19941998

2003

-50

510

1520

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


UK Fathers Fitted values-UKUS Fathers Fitted values-US

Fathers

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENTS: FAMILIES WITH NO CHILD UNDER 5.

32

§  Relationship of college wage gaps and education gradients of families with older children over time for the UK and the US: matching evidence for fathers in the UK.

1983

1987

1995

2000

20051985

1992

19941998

2003

010

2030

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


UK Mothers Fitted values-UKUS Mothers Fitted values-US

Mothers

1983

1987

1995

2000

20051985

1992

1994

19982003

-10

-50

510

15

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


UK Fathers Fitted values-UKUS Fathers Fitted values-US

Fathers

FURTHER ANALYSIS: BY CATEGORIES OF CHILDCARE

33

Basic Educational Recreational Travel Basic Educational Recreational TravelA. Year dummiesyear_1981-1985 ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref.year_1986-1990 -10.22*** -0.53 -5.64*** -2.07*** 1.23 -0.35*** 2.20** 0.58*

(0.664) (0.204) (0.303) (0.196) (0.962) (0.033) (0.393) (0.158)year_1991-1995

year_1996-2000 8.42*** 1.86*** 7.84*** -1.46*** 8.57*** 0.62*** 5.99*** 0.09(0.341) (0.020) (0.048) (0.061) (0.485) (0.045) (0.099) (0.085)

year_2001-2005

B. College educatededuc_3 17.59*** 0.76*** 2.20** -0.15* 5.19** 0.44*** 7.62*** 1.48***

(0.417) (0.004) (0.268) (0.051) (0.945) (0.039) (0.190) (0.097)C. Interaction termseduc3_1981-1985 ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref.educ3_1986-1990 -4.48*** -0.11 0.20 0.96*** -4.45** -0.12 -6.90*** -1.37**

(0.320) (0.168) (0.450) (0.020) (0.516) (0.076) (0.208) (0.183)educ3_1991-1995

educ3_1996-2000 -14.80*** 1.84*** 1.64** 1.58*** -1.91 0.35* -6.88*** -1.03**(0.686) (0.027) (0.378) (0.089) (1.191) (0.084) (0.231) (0.174)

educ3_2001-2005

Mothers Fathers


34

§  General increasing trend in parental time investments for all types of childcare

§  Positive education gradients for both mothers and fathers for all types of childcare

§  The gap between the time investments of college and non-college educated mothers has increased for all types of childcare, except for basic care. §  Quantitatively the decrease in the education gradient for basic care is

much larger (14 mins. ) than increases in the other categories ( about 5 mins)


35

§  The gap between the time investments of college and non-college educated fathers has decreased for all types of childcare, except for educational care §  Quantitatively the decrease in the education gradient for recreational

care of about 7 mins is relatively large

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENT BY CHILDCARE TYPE

36

1983 1987

2000

1983

1987

20001985

1992

2003

1985 1992

2003

02

46

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


UK Educational-UKUK Travel-UKUS Educational_USUS Travel_US

Mothers

1983 19872000

1983

1987 2000

1985

19922003

1985 1992

2003

-4-2

02

46

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay.3 .4 .5 .6 .7

college_gap

UK Educational-UKUK Travel-UKUS Educational_USUS Travel_US

Fathers

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENTS: CHILDREN’S TIME USE

37

§  Trends in different categories of children’s time use

Notes: This table shows the regression of daily minutes spent on different activities on the variables of interest. The samples include all children 10-17. Controls are age and sex of the child. The omitted year is labelled ref. in each column. Standard errors in parentheses. * significant at 10% ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)Homework School, Home. School ,Home., Sports Total Pure Leisure TV Leisure

Year dummiesyear_1981_1985 ref. ref. ref. ref. ref.year_1986_1990 33.25*** -12.30* -12.65* -38.87*** -29.59***

(0.666) (3.927) (3.836) (1.596) (1.802)year_1991_1995

year_1996_2000 15.97*** -34.31 -32.95 4.70 -22.83**(1.441) (16.191) (16.280) (3.754) (2.577)

College educatededuc_3 43.13*** 110.94*** 106.08*** -83.68*** -57.10***

(0.674) (2.813) (3.063) (1.546) (1.250)Interaction termseduc3_1981_1985 ref. ref. ref. ref. ref.educ3_1986_1990 -36.75*** -97.78*** -98.67*** 153.44*** 98.94***

(0.459) (0.531) (0.806) (2.289) (0.970)educ3_1991_1995

educ3_1996_2000 -15.20*** -61.02*** -54.53*** 57.90*** 49.74***(0.909) (4.596) (5.066) (1.293) (2.058)

CHILDREN’S TIME USE

38

§  General increasing trend in children’s time devoted to study and homework together with a decrease in time devoted to TV viewing.

§  As expected, positive education gradients in Homework and study, School and other classes and homework and School and other classes, Homework, active Sports participation

§  The gap between the time investments of children of the college and non-college educated mothers has decreased for Homework, School, and Active sports. §  Despite this decreasing trend, there remains a 30 min per day gap in

Study and homework and a 50 min per day gap in School and other classes, Homework, and in School and other classes, Homework and Active Sports in 2000.

CHILDREN’S TIME USE

39

§  The gap between the time investments of children of the college and non-college educated mothers has also decreased for Total Leisure and TV viewing. §  Despite this decreasing trend, children of the college educated still

devote 7 less minutes per day to watch TV and 25 less minutes to total leisure than children of the less than college educated in 2000.

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENT FROM CHILDREN’S TIME USE

40

§  Relationship of college wage gaps and education gradients of children’s time spent in School and other classes and Pure leisure activities: matching evidence only for the US

1983

1987

2000

1985

2003

-50

050

100

150

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


UK Children Fitted values-UKUS Children Fitted values-US

Children's Time Spent in School and Other Classes

1983

1987

20001985

2003

-100

-50

050

100

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay



Children's Leisure Time

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENT FROM CHILDREN’S TIME USE

41

§  Relationship of college wage gaps and education gradients of children’s time spent studying and doing homework: matching evidence only for the US

1983

1987

2000

1985 2003

1020

3040

50

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay



Children's Time Spent in Study and Homework

COLLEGE WAGE GAPS AND EDUCATION GRADIENTS

42

§  Relationship of college wage gaps and education gradients over time for all countries (may UK be an outlier?)

CanadaCanada

CanadaCanada

Netherlands

Netherlands

Netherlands

Netherlands

Norway

Norway

Norway

UK

UK

UK

UK

UK

US

USUS

US

US

FinlandFinlandAustralia

Australia

Australia

Germany Germany

Spain

Spain

-10

010

2030

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


Country Fitted line

Mothers

CanadaCanada

Canada

Canada

Netherlands

Netherlands

Netherlands

Netherlands

Norway

Norway

Norway

UK

UK

UK

UK

UK

US

US

USUS

US

Finland

Finland

Australia

Australia

AustraliaGermany

Germany

Spain

Spain

-50

510

1520

Edu

catio

n gr

adie

nt-m

inut

es p

er d

ay


Country Fitted line

Fathers

CONCLUSION I

TRENDS IN EDUCATION GRADIENT

43

§  We document increases in parental time investments and a positive education gradient in most countries

§  Unlike in the US, differences in parental time investments by college and non-college educated parents were similar at the beginning and end in the UK

§  Trends in education gradient not uniform across countries, and vary for fathers and mothers within a given country

CONCLUSION II

EXPLANATIONS FOR TRENDS IN EDUCATION

GRADIENT

44

§  For the United States Ramey and Ramey’s (2010) explanation of increased college competition is further supported (from children’s diaries)

§  In the UK, college educated parents now spend relatively more time in educational activities and childcare-related travel than in the 70s. However, children of college educated parents do not spend relatively more time studying or attending other classes now than in the past

CONCLUSION III

EXPLANATIONS FOR TRENDS IN EDUCATION GRADIENT

45

§  Relationship between changes in college-wage gap and parental time investments across countries is weak

§  Other explanations based on safety concerns and parenting attitudes do not seem to adequately explain parental trends in education gradients in the UK (or elsewhere)

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