Papermaking Science and Technologya book seriescovering the latesttechnology andfuture trends

Book 2

Second Edition

Totally updated version

Book editorSeppo Kellomäki, Dr., Professor, Faculty of Forest Sciences, University of Joensuu

PublisherPaper Engineers’ Association/Paperi ja Puu Oy

Paperi ja Puu Oy

Forest Resources and Sustainable Management

8

Table of Contents1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................9

2 Trees, forests and forest ecosystems .....................................................................................14

3 Global forest resources ...........................................................................................................97

4 Structure and properties of wood and woody biomass .......................................................133

5 Forest inventories and planning ...........................................................................................216

6 Management of forest ecosystems .......................................................................................252

7 Timber procurement ..............................................................................................................374

8 Timber measurement ............................................................................................................432

9 Wood markets and the cost of wood ....................................................................................475

10 Global forest related policies and governance .....................................................................490

11 The forest sector in a local and global context ....................................................................547

Appendix ................................................................................................................................561

Conversion factors .................................................................................................................562

Index .......................................................................................................................................564

9

Introduction

Forests — resources for many purposes 1 ..........................................................................10

Sustainability — challenges for management and use of forest land2 ..............................11

Objectives and scope of this book3 ......................................................................................12

Chapter 1

14

Chapter 2 Trees, forests and forest ecosystems

Introduction1 ..........................................................................................................................16

Concepts1.1 ...............................................................................................................................16

tree taxonomy1.2 .......................................................................................................................17

Structure of a tree2 ................................................................................................................24

Concepts2.1 ...............................................................................................................................24

Structure of wood2.2 ..................................................................................................................25

Bark2.3 .......................................................................................................................................26

Leaves and needles2.4 ...............................................................................................................27

roots2.5 .....................................................................................................................................28

Functioning of a tree3 ............................................................................................................29

Concepts3.1 ...............................................................................................................................29

photosynthesis3.2 .......................................................................................................................30

Biochemistry3.2.1 ..............................................................................................................30

photosynthetic production of trees3.2.2 .............................................................................32

transpiration3.3 ..........................................................................................................................34

respiration3.4 ............................................................................................................................35

Growth3.5 ...................................................................................................................................38

Concepts and components of growth3.5.1 .........................................................................38

height and radial growth3.5.2 ............................................................................................38

height and diameter growth under climate change3.5.3 .....................................................41

Growth over life span3.5.4 .................................................................................................43

Distribution of growth in a tree and the allometry of a tree3.5.5 .........................................44

Mortality3.6 ................................................................................................................................45

reproductive processes3.7 .........................................................................................................48

Trees in ecosystems and dynamics of the forest ecosystem4 ............................................49

Concepts4.1 ...............................................................................................................................49

15

Trees, forests and forest ecosystems

Functioning and structure of ecosystems4.2 ...............................................................................51

Feedback through energy fixation4.3 ..........................................................................................52

Feedback through nutrient cycles4.4 ...........................................................................................55

Nutrients in tree biomass4.4.1 ...........................................................................................55

Geobiotic cycles affecting availability of nutrients4.4.2 .......................................................55

Decay of organic matter and availability of nutrients4.4.3 ...................................................57

Feedback through hydrological cycle4.5 ......................................................................................62

Succession of ecosystem over time4.6 .......................................................................................66

productivity of the forest ecosystem 4.7 ......................................................................................71

Concepts4.7.1 ....................................................................................................................71

Carbon exchange between atmosphere and forest ecosystem4.7.2 ....................................71

Growth and yield4.7.3 ........................................................................................................75

Trees in ecosystems under climate change 5 ......................................................................79

Global climate change5.1 ............................................................................................................79

Concepts5.1.1 ....................................................................................................................79

Global changes in atmospheric properties5.1.2 ..................................................................79

Observed changes in global climate5.1.3 ...........................................................................79

Future expectations5.1.4 ....................................................................................................80

Impacts of global climate change on vegetation 5.2 ....................................................................82

Mechanisms in short term5.2.1 ..........................................................................................82

Mechanisms in long term5.2.2 ...........................................................................................83

Global impacts on structure and functioning of forests5.3 ...........................................................85

Local impacts on structure and functioning of forests5.4 .............................................................87

Outlines for a case across managed boreal forests5.4.1 .....................................................87

Changes in temperature and precipitation5.4.2 ..................................................................87

Impacts on growth5.4.3 .....................................................................................................88

Impacts on tree species composition5.4.4 ..........................................................................90

Impacts on potential cutting drain 5.4.5 .............................................................................91

Impacts on carbon sequestration 5.4.6 ...............................................................................91

references ............................................................................................................................93

97

Chapter 3 Global forest resources

Biosphere, vegetation zones and forest formations1 ...........................................................98

Biosphere1.1 ..............................................................................................................................98

Vegetation zones 1.2 ...................................................................................................................99

Forest formations1.3 .................................................................................................................100

Boreal forests1.3.1 ...........................................................................................................100

temperate forests1.3.2 ....................................................................................................100

tropical forests1.3.3 ........................................................................................................101

Forest biomass and productivity2 .......................................................................................102

State of global forest resources3 ........................................................................................104

Concepts3.1 .............................................................................................................................104

Forest cover3.2 .........................................................................................................................104

Growing stock and removals3.3 ................................................................................................107

production and consumption of roundwood3.4 ..........................................................................110

Conservation of forests3.5 ........................................................................................................113

Forest health and vitality3.6 ......................................................................................................115

Wood energy3.7 ........................................................................................................................117

Climate change3.8 ....................................................................................................................118

Forest plantations3.9 ................................................................................................................121

the concept of forest plantations3.9.1 .............................................................................121

Global plantation resources3.9.2 ......................................................................................122

Future role of forest resources4 ..........................................................................................124

Future development and utilisation of forest resources4.1 .........................................................124

role of forest plantations in biomass and timber supply4.2 .......................................................126

trends in plantation development4.3 .........................................................................................127

references ..........................................................................................................................130

133

Chapter 4 Structure and properties of wood and woody biomass

Biomass components of trees1 ...........................................................................................134

Introduction1.1 .........................................................................................................................134

Crown mass1.2 .........................................................................................................................135

Stump and root wood1.3 ...........................................................................................................138

Wood as a raw material for pulp and paper2 .....................................................................139

Macroscopic characteristics of wood2.1 ...................................................................................139

Formation of wood2.2 ...............................................................................................................142

Chemical composition of wood2.3 .............................................................................................145

Concepts 2.3.1 .................................................................................................................145

primary cell wall constituents2.3.2 ...................................................................................148

extractives2.3.3 ...............................................................................................................150

Inorganic components2.3.4 ..............................................................................................153

Structure of the cell wall2.4 ......................................................................................................155

Woody cells2.5 .........................................................................................................................158

Concepts2.5.1 ..................................................................................................................158

Softwood cells2.5.2 .........................................................................................................161

hardwood cells2.5.3 ........................................................................................................164

Irregularities in wood2.6 ...........................................................................................................168

Juvenile wood2.6.1 ..........................................................................................................168

reaction wood2.6.2 .........................................................................................................171

heartwood2.6.3 ...............................................................................................................175

Knots2.6.4 .......................................................................................................................178

Moisture content of wood2.7 .....................................................................................................182

Basic density of wood2.8 ..........................................................................................................184

Bark2.9 .....................................................................................................................................196

Wood as a raw material for energy3 ...................................................................................200

Wood-based energy3.1 .............................................................................................................200

heating value3.2 of wood and bark ...........................................................................................202

Recycled wood fibres4 and non-wood fibres as raw materials for pulp and paper .........204

references ..........................................................................................................................209

216

Chapter 5 Forest inventories and planning

Forest inventories1 ..............................................................................................................218

Concepts 1.1 ............................................................................................................................218

tree measurement1.2 ...............................................................................................................218

Measurement of a forest stand1.3 ............................................................................................220

Stand and compartment1.3.1 ...........................................................................................220

Stand characteristics1.3.2 ................................................................................................221

Site characteristics1.3.3 ...................................................................................................222

Forest stand plot1.3.4 ......................................................................................................222

Compartment inventory1.3.5 ............................................................................................223

Large area inventory1.4 ............................................................................................................224

Sampling concepts1.4.1 ...................................................................................................224

Simple random sampling1.4.2 ..........................................................................................225

Systematic sampling1.4.3 ................................................................................................227

Stratified sampling1.4.4 ...................................................................................................227

Cluster sampling1.4.5 ......................................................................................................228

two-phase sampling1.4.6 ................................................................................................230

Use of remote sensing in forest inventories1.5 ..........................................................................230

aerial photographs1.5.1 ...................................................................................................230

Satellite images1.5.2 .......................................................................................................231

Laser scanning1.5.3 .........................................................................................................232

Forest management planning2 ...........................................................................................233

Concepts2.1 .............................................................................................................................233

Cutting budget methods2.2 .......................................................................................................233

planning based on stand economy2.3 .......................................................................................234

217

Forest inventories and planning

Mathematical programming2.4 .................................................................................................235

Optimisation techniques available2.4.1 ............................................................................235

Linear programming2.4.2 .................................................................................................236

Goal programming2.4.3 ...................................................................................................237

heuristics methods2.5 ..............................................................................................................238

problem formulation2.5.1 .................................................................................................238

Outlines of numerical heuristics2.5.2 ...............................................................................240

Simulated annealing 2.5.3 ...............................................................................................240

tabu search2.5.4 .............................................................................................................242

Genetic algorithms2.5.5 ...................................................................................................242

Cellular automata2.5.6 .....................................................................................................243

Including non-timber benefits into forest planning2.6 ................................................................245

Non-timber products2.6.1 ................................................................................................245

recreation amenities2.6.2 ...............................................................................................246

hunting and game2.6.3 ....................................................................................................248

Biodiversity2.6.4 ..............................................................................................................248

environmental services 2.6.5 ...........................................................................................249

risks2.7 ...................................................................................................................................250

references ..........................................................................................................................251

252

Chapter 6 Management of forest ecosystems

I1 ntroduction........................................................................................................................256

ecosystem services in forest production1.1 ...............................................................................256

Management and forest succession1.2 .....................................................................................256

Forest structure and ecosystem services1.3 ..............................................................................257

Management measures1.4 .......................................................................................................259

Processes and measures to establish tree populations2 ..................................................262

Concepts 2.1 ............................................................................................................................262

Measures for natural regeneration2.2 .......................................................................................262

Factors affecting the regenerative process2.2.1 ...............................................................262

Factors affecting the success of the regeneration process2.2.2 ........................................264

techniques and applications2.2.3 ....................................................................................265

Measures for regeneration through planting2.3 .........................................................................267

Factors affecting the regeneration process2.3.1 ...............................................................267

tree species selection2.3.2 ..............................................................................................268

provenance selection2.3.3 ...............................................................................................269

Seedlings for planting2.3.4 ..............................................................................................269

techniques and applications2.3.5 ....................................................................................270

Genetic improvement and tree breeding for forest plantations2.4 ..............................................271

Concepts 2.4.1 .................................................................................................................271

tree breeding 2.4.2 ..........................................................................................................273

traits applied in breeding2.4.3 .........................................................................................277

rules to control the trade in seeds and seedlings 2.4.4 ....................................................279

results obtained in improving genotypes for reforestation2.4.5 ........................................281

Future challenges for tree breeding 2.5 .....................................................................................282

Climate change2.5.1 ........................................................................................................282

Genetic diversity2.5.2 ......................................................................................................283

Use of biotechnology 2.5.3 in tree breeding .......................................................................283

253

Management of forest ecosystems

Processes and measures to promote the growth of established tree populations3 ........284

Growth and need for growing space3.1 .....................................................................................284

Space, growth and mortality3.1.1 .....................................................................................284

Mass and density in tree populations3.1.2 .......................................................................286

Space and differentiation of tree size3.1.3 .......................................................................287

thinning and impacts on availability of resources3.2 .................................................................288

Concepts3.2.1 ..................................................................................................................288

Impacts on radiation in canopy and crowns3.2.2 ..............................................................289

Impacts on soil water3.2.3 ...............................................................................................291

Impacts on nutrient availability 3.2.4 ................................................................................292

thinning regimes 3.3 ................................................................................................................293

Concepts 3.3.1 .................................................................................................................293

Growth of trees and productivity of a tree population3.3.2 ................................................294

thinning rules 3.4 .....................................................................................................................296

Outlines3.4.1 ...................................................................................................................296

timing and intensity of thinning3.4.2 ...............................................................................296

Length of rotation3.4.3 .....................................................................................................297

thinning programme over a rotation3.4.4 .........................................................................298

Management of tree species mixtures3.5 ..................................................................................298

Management for mitigation of climate change and its impacts 3.6 ............................................299

Management to sequestrate carbon for mitigating climate change3.6.1 ...........................299

Management to adapt to climate change3.6.2 ..................................................................302

Processes for improving timber quality 4 ..........................................................................304

effect of spacing and thinning on knots in wood4.1 ...................................................................304

effect of pruning on knots in wood4.2 .......................................................................................307

effect of spacing on basic density of wood4.3 ...........................................................................308

effects of climate change on properties of wood4.4 ..................................................................308

Management of nutrient resources and site fertility5 .......................................................309

Concepts5.1 .............................................................................................................................309

Site preparation in managing site fertility5.2 .............................................................................310

Mechanical preparation 5.2.1 ...........................................................................................310

Ditching5.2.2 ...................................................................................................................311

prescribed burning5.2.3 ...................................................................................................311

254

ChaPter 6

Use of fertilization in managing site fertility5.3 ..........................................................................313

Impact mechanisms on growth5.3.1 ................................................................................313

Growth responses5.3.2 ....................................................................................................315

timber harvesting and impacts on nutrient resources 5.4 .........................................................316

Impacts 5.4.1 ...................................................................................................................316

Nutrient management and sustainable forest production — a case5.4.2 ..........................317

Management of abiotic risks6 ............................................................................................320

Concepts6.1 .............................................................................................................................320

risks of wind damage6.2 ..........................................................................................................321

Mechanisms6.2.1 ............................................................................................................321

Wind risks under current climate 6.2.2 .............................................................................324

Wind risks under climate change 6.2.3 .............................................................................326

risk of snow damage6.3 ...........................................................................................................327

Mechanisms6.3.1 ............................................................................................................327

Snow risks under current and changing climate6.3.2 .......................................................328

risk of wild fire 6.4 ...................................................................................................................330

Mechanisms 6.4.1 ...........................................................................................................330

Fire risk under current and changing climate 6.4.2 ...........................................................332

risk of frost damage6.5 ............................................................................................................332

Management of biotic risks7 ..............................................................................................332

Concepts 7.1 ............................................................................................................................332

Forest herbivores 7.1.1 ....................................................................................................332

Characteristics of pest outbreaks7.1.2 .............................................................................334

herbivorous species attacking trees7.2 .....................................................................................335

herbivore abundance related to tree species7.2.1 ............................................................335

host plant size and growth form7.2.2 ...............................................................................335

taxonomic affinities of host plant7.2.3 .............................................................................336

Insect recruitment by introduced plants7.2.4 ....................................................................336

role of introduced herbivores in forest ecosystems7.2.5 ..................................................337

resistance mechanism of trees against herbivores and pathogens7.3 ......................................338

Constitutive resistance7.3.1 .............................................................................................338

Seasonal variation of constitutive resistance7.3.2 ............................................................339

Induced defence7.3.3 ......................................................................................................340

255

Management of forest ecosystems

Models explaining variation in chemical defence between plants7.4 .........................................345

Management of forest pests7.5 .................................................................................................347

tree resistance7.5.1 .........................................................................................................347

effect of environmental factors on tree resistance7.5.2 ....................................................348

Biological control of pest management7.5.3 .....................................................................349

Viruses in pest management 7.5.4 ...................................................................................350

Bacteria in pest management 7.5.5 ..................................................................................351

Fungi in pest management7.5.6 .......................................................................................351

Chemical control in pest management7.5.7 .....................................................................352

Signalling chemicals in pest management 7.5.8 ...............................................................353

effects of forest management and structure on forest pests7.5.9 .....................................355

Climate change and forest pests7.6 ..........................................................................................357

Management for adaptation to climate change8 ...............................................................359

Concepts 8.1 ............................................................................................................................359

adaptation in forestry and adaptive management8.2 .................................................................360

assessment of needs8.2.1 ...............................................................................................360

Framework for adaptive management8.2.2 ......................................................................362

Management for adaptation — a european example8.2.3 ................................................363

references ..........................................................................................................................366

374

Chapter 7 Timber procurement

Introduction1 ........................................................................................................................376

timber assortments1.1 .............................................................................................................378

Harvesting and timber transport2 .......................................................................................381

harvesting methods and systems2.1 .........................................................................................381

Logging machinery2.2 ..............................................................................................................385

harvesting woody biomass for energy2.3 ..................................................................................393

harvesting of logging residues in connection with final fellings2.3.1 .................................394

harvesting of forest energy biomass from early thinnings2.3.2 .........................................395

Chipping2.3.3 ..................................................................................................................396

Opening forest areas for logging by constructing roads2.4 ........................................................396

Storing timber2.5 ......................................................................................................................399

Organising and planning harvesting operations3 ..............................................................400

Organising timber harvesting3.1 ...............................................................................................400

planning and monitoring of timber procurement3.2 ...................................................................401

Harvesting in industrial plantations4 ..................................................................................406

harvesting conditions4.1 ...........................................................................................................406

Logging technology4.2 ..............................................................................................................408

Debarking of wood during logging4.3 .......................................................................................409

Damage to timber5 ..............................................................................................................409

Causes of damage5.1 ...............................................................................................................409

abiotic damage5.2 ....................................................................................................................410

Fungal decay5.3 .......................................................................................................................411

Comparison of rot types and prevention of rot5.4 ......................................................................412

attack by insects and aquatic organisms5.5 .............................................................................413

Decay caused by bacteria and biological reactions5.6 ...............................................................414

Influence of storage on mill processes5.7 .................................................................................414

375

Timber procurement

Decay in chip storage5.8 ..........................................................................................................415

Storage of bark5.9 ....................................................................................................................419

Environmental impacts of timber harvesting6 ...................................................................419

Common conceptions6.1 ..........................................................................................................419

energy consumption and emissions6.2 .....................................................................................421

Impacts on forest site in thinnings6.3 ........................................................................................422

Impacts on biodiversity, multiple-use of forests, and landscape6.4 ............................................423

Timber trade7 .......................................................................................................................424

purchasing timber on domestic markets7.1 ..............................................................................424

International timber markets7.2 ................................................................................................425

references ..........................................................................................................................427

432

Chapter 8 Timber measurement

Principles and concepts1 ....................................................................................................434

Aims of measurement2 .......................................................................................................436

Measurement of standing trees3 ........................................................................................437

Timber measurement during logging4 ...............................................................................439

Mechanised logging4.1 .............................................................................................................439

Method description4.1.1 ..................................................................................................439

Self-control and calibration of measuring device4.1.2 ......................................................441

Controlling timber measurement4.1.3 ..............................................................................442

accuracy of measurement4.1.4 ........................................................................................443

Optimisation of crosscutting4.1.5 .....................................................................................444

Motor-manual logging 4.2 .........................................................................................................444

Weighing timber with forwarder’s grapple-mounted scales4.2.1 ......................................444

Other methods4.2.2 .........................................................................................................445

Timber measurement at roadside5 .....................................................................................446

Saw and veneer logs — softwoods 5.1 .....................................................................................446

Saw and veneer logs — hardwoods and special timber assortments5.2 ...................................447

Measurement of stacked timber — concepts5.3 .......................................................................448

Measurement of frame volume of stacked timber5.4 ................................................................448

Measurement of stack density of stacked timber5.5 .................................................................449

Weighing timber stacks with grapple-mounted scales on timber trucks5.6 ...............................451

Timber measurement at mill6 .............................................................................................452

Concepts 6.1 ............................................................................................................................452

Weight measurement of timber6.2 ............................................................................................453

Measurement of stack volume of pulpwood on the vehicle6.3 ...................................................454

Frame-scanning of pulpwood volume6.4 ...................................................................................454

Sampling-based frame and bundle measurement of pulpwood6.5 ............................................457

433

Timber measurement

automatic pulpwood measurement and grading stations6.6 ......................................................457

Measurement of volume of saw and veneer logs6.7 ..................................................................458

Measurement of by-products from mechanical wood processing6.8 .........................................459

Detection of timber quality and moisture content7 ...........................................................460

Concept of timber quality7.1 .....................................................................................................460

Quality measurement methods7.2 .............................................................................................460

harvesting and transportation7.2.1 ..................................................................................460

pulpwood at mills7.2.2 .....................................................................................................460

Saw and veneer logs at mills7.2.3 ....................................................................................461

Determination of moisture content7.3 .......................................................................................462

Concept and uses7.3.1 ....................................................................................................462

Selected methods7.3.2 ....................................................................................................462

Development potential7.3.3 .............................................................................................463

Costs involved in timber measurement 8 ...........................................................................464

Concepts8.1 .............................................................................................................................464

harvester-based measurement8.2 ............................................................................................464

truck- or forwarder-based measurement8.3 .............................................................................465

Measurement at roadside8.4 ....................................................................................................465

Measurement at the mill8.5 ......................................................................................................466

Further development of timber measuring methods9 .......................................................466

references ..........................................................................................................................470

475

Chapter 9 Wood markets and the cost of wood

Introduction1 ........................................................................................................................476

Economic structures in wood procurement2 .....................................................................476

Non-industrial, 2.1 private forest ownership ...............................................................................476

Industrial private forest ownership2.2 .......................................................................................477

public ownership2.3 .................................................................................................................478

Economics of forest management and wood production3 ................................................479

Ownership goals3.1 ..................................................................................................................479

revenues from timber sales3.2 .................................................................................................479

Costs3.3 ...................................................................................................................................480

Financial analysis of wood production3.4 ..................................................................................481

Roundwood markets4 .........................................................................................................484

Summary5 ............................................................................................................................486

references ..........................................................................................................................488

490

Chapter 10 Global forest related policies and governance

Background 1 .......................................................................................................................492

Main issues on the global forest agenda2 ..........................................................................492

Deforestation, degradation and desertification2.1 ......................................................................492

Challenges of multi-dimensional sustainable forest management2.2 .........................................492

Climate change and bioenergy2.3 .............................................................................................494

Biodiversity2.4 ..........................................................................................................................494

Other forest benefits and ecosystem services2.5 ......................................................................494

Forests and poverty reduction2.6 ..............................................................................................495

Future, competitiveness and performance of forest-based industries and products2.7 ..............495

Governance2.8 ..........................................................................................................................496

International regimes, nation states and global governance 3 .........................................497

Global forest-related processes and sustainable management of 4

world forest resources ......................................................................................................498

two forerunners4.1 ...................................................................................................................498

FaO Forestry — six decades of information, collaboration and 4.1.1

capacity development ..............................................................................................498

IttO and Itta4.1.2 — can trade save tropical forests? ....................................................501

UNCeD environmental conventions4.2 .......................................................................................503

Convention on Biological Diversity and its expanded forest programme4.2.1 ....................503

Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and forest issues4.2.2 ........................505

Convention to Combat Desertification — the Issue of africa and Central asia4.2.3 ...........507

UNCeD-initiated forest processes4.3 .........................................................................................508

regional forest processes and the development of criteria and indicators for 4.3.1

sustainable forest management ..............................................................................508

From UNCeD to UNFF: continuing forest dialogue and search for 4.3.2

the Forest Convention ..............................................................................................512

491

Global forest related policies and governance

Market-based and market-oriented actors and processes5 .............................................517

World Bank and strategic forest financing5.1 ............................................................................517

World trade organization (WtO): free trade and forest sustainability?5.2 ....................................519

Forest industry federations — between bark and wood5.3 .......................................................521

Forest owners’ federations raising the profile of non-industrial private forestry5.4 ....................522

Forest certification — a battle for market shares5.5 .................................................................523

Forest law enforcement governance to combat illegal logging5.6 ..............................................525

Civil society related actors and processes 6 ......................................................................527

eNGOs and market campaigns 6.1 ............................................................................................527

Labour unions in a defence battle6.2 ........................................................................................530

Other civil society actors and processes6.3 ...............................................................................531

Indigenous peoples6.3.1 ..................................................................................................531

World Social Forum6.3.2 ..................................................................................................531

Towards improved global governance of forests?7 ...........................................................533

Diagnosis of the state of global forest governance: between a regime, governance 7.1

and non-governance? ..........................................................................................................533

reasons for weak global forest governance7.2 .........................................................................535

Improved forest governance: a log-jam or slow progress?7.3 ....................................................538

references ..........................................................................................................................541

547

Chapter 11 The forest sector in a local and global context

The forest sector and national economy1 ..........................................................................548

Concepts 1.1 ............................................................................................................................548

Input-output tables1.2 ..............................................................................................................548

production model1.3 .................................................................................................................549

total output1.4 ..........................................................................................................................551

Value added1.5 .........................................................................................................................553

employment1.6 .........................................................................................................................554

Forest industries, forestry and forest clusters in the world economy2 ............................555

Concepts 2.1 ............................................................................................................................555

european forest cluster as an example of international forest clusters2.2 ..................................555

Globalisation of forestry and forest industry 3 ...................................................................556

pulp industry is becoming more global and paper industry more local 3.1 .................................556

Focus of pulp production shifting to fast-growing plantations3.2 ...............................................557

pulp industry based on fast-growing plantations is competitive both in terms of 3.3

cost and quality ...................................................................................................................557

Global forest industry as an example of a sustainable industry3.4 .............................................558

references ..........................................................................................................................560

appendix .............................................................................................................................561