Paper ID 18 Green Building Bricks Made with Clays and...

Material Sciences and Technology 7

1. INTRODUCTION Performances characteristics on the use of some secondary materials and waste types, as partial replacement for primary clayey soil in the manufacture of fired bricks, in order to reduce the energy and firing cost of the clay brick production process was conducted for a long period by Rahman [1], Tonnayopas and Na-Phattalung [2], Tonnayopas and Ponsa [3], Tonnayopas et al. [4,5,6,7,8], Kooptarnond and Tonnayopas [8], Weng et al. [9], and Lingling et al. [10]. Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) is generated as a combustion by-product from process of sugar, alcohol and electricity factories. Composed mainly of active silica, due to this by-product often be used as a pozzollanic material in mortar and concrete. Several studies have shown that the use of SCBA as partial Portland cement replacement can improve some properties of cementitious materials [11,12,13,14]. Growth amount of SCBA can be approximately 6% of the large sugar factories in central Thailand. It is used as alternative fuel in order to produce sugar in a factory operation. It needs to be disposed outside the factory premise otherwise it causes least disturbances to the obstacle factory operation. The optimistic solution of the disposal problem of SCBA is to decrease the quantity for disposal with utilization of waste in the industry. Hence, it was thought that using this waste in the production of clay bricks or tiles will not only remedy the environmental problems associated with it but also might improve the quality of bricks and/or lower the firing temperature leading to cost cuts. In fact,.use of wastes from different origins in brick manufacturing has lately attracted some attention [15,16,17]

Bauluza et al. [18] has used carbonate waste in tiles and brick in order to enhance the strength and water absorption, with good results. Tonnayopas and Na-Phattalung [2] have used of the powder marble by-product of quarry to enhance the properties of brick ceramic. Tonnayopas et al. [19] have used also oil palm fiber ash mixture to enhance the thermal properties of clay brick. Darweesh [20] used recovery of calcium carbonate from nepheline mud aiming to obtain wollastonite for increasing strength of the brick fired at 1,000ºC. The resulting products have specific structure composed of carbonates and new formations of MgO, calcium silicates and aluminates as one crystals or amorphous phases. The new structure of clay/dolomitic ceramics possess semihydraulic properties. Carretero et al. [21] studied the influence of three shaping techniques, pressing, extrusion and moulding and firing at 1,000 and 1,100C on ceramic properties of some Italian clay-brick with different contents of calcareous and non-calcareous illitic–chloritic clays. They correlated the results with unfired and fired products on parameters of modulus of rupture, linear shrinkage and porosity in both the dried and fired pieces. They found that the microstructure and technological parameters of the ceramic pieces vary greatly, depending on the clay composition and the processing techniques of melting of borax. Therefore, the target of this reaearch is to enhance the physico-mechanical properties and phase composition of local clay-bricks for construction purposes, keeping on actual manufacturing costs, by incorporating SCBA as the raw material without to

ABSTRACT Characterization in behavior of the clay material used in construction clay brick industry due to

additions of sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) was investigated. Mixtures of clayey soil and SCBA in proportions of 10-50wt.% were hydraulic uniaxially pressed and sintered at optimized temperature of 1,050C. Experimental results of partial replacement of the SCBA specimens were carried out on chemical and mineralogical analysis (X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction), thermal analysis (differential thermal analysis, TG), bulk density, water absorption and comressive strength. It is displayed that the SCBA can be directly affected on the properties of the sintered clay brick products. It influenced as a flux agent, becoming the energy efficiency of the lightweight clay brick and environmentally friendly brick.

KEY WORDS: Green clay brick / Industrial waste / Recycling materials / Sugar cane bagasse ash

D. Tonnayopas* Department of Mining and Materials Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand

* e-mail: [email protected]

PPaappeerr IIDD 1188 Green Building Bricks Made with Clays and

Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash


degrade their properties of brick based upon the Thai Industrial Standard (TIS) [22].

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials Clayey soil (CS) was used as raw material in the building fired clay brick. It was obtained from stockpile of a brick manufacturing plant in Ban Pru, Hat Yai, Songkhla province. Besides, SCBA obtained as moisture powder waste from sugar cane industrial factory in Lopburi province was also used as an alternative fluxing agent instead of CS in the recipe. These raw materials were dried at 110C, crushed by cone crusher and ground in a laboratory-scale ball mill for reducing the particle size. Sieving at 200 mesh (70 μm), and then homogenized in a plastic drum on rotary mill for 15 s. The chemical composition of CS and SCBA was carried out on the semiquantitative analysis of X-ray fluorescence techniques using Philips Model PW2400, is tabulated in Tab. 2. Loss on ignition was measured in accordance with ASTM C114 method. The mineralogical constitution of CS and SCBA were via X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns determined by Philips (X’Pert MPD) X-ray diffractometer, also differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetry was carried out using a Perkin Elmer, DTA7 and Perkin Elmer, TGA7, respectively. The particle size distributions of raw clay was analysed on a Laser Size Distribution Analyser (Beckman Coulter LS 230) and the true density was determined by the pycnometer method using according to ASTM C373 designation. The SCBA and brick clayey soil powder were conducted to obtain the plastic nature of the brick clay and according to Atterberg limits ASTM D4318 compact various proportions of SCBA and CS mixture to determine the optimum moisture content (OMC).

2.1 Preparation of specimens

The mixing process of the batches was carried out on the basis of dry weights in a mixer on two rolling of jar mill for 15 min in order to keep the mixture of all batches nearly the homogeneity. The SCBA-CS powder mixtures were homogenized for 15 min in a cylindrical dry mixer (Tab. 1) then prepared in batches and then uniaxially hydraulic pressed at about 100 MPa (10 bars) to prepare 140 6540 mm Thai small standard dimension. Plain CS was prepared as a reference specimen. The molded specimens were air-dried at room temperature for 24 h and then oven dried at 1055C for another 8 h to remove the water content, each of the molded mixture 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50wt.%. CS were sintered at appropriate temperature of 1,050C for fired clay brick [3,5,6] in an sintered in air muffle type electric furnace under a heating rate of 2C/min until 500C soaking time for 30 min and then

adjusted rate of 5C/min until the maximum temperature, followed by 1 h soaking before terminate process

2.2 Testing programmes

The specimens were cooled down to room temperature in the furnace closed overnight. Ten samples were measured for each test, and the mean value was considered, then they were visually examined for color and appearance, and tested for their water absorption, bulk density, volumetric shrinkage, weight loss, electrical resistance (ER), and compressive strength. The water absorption capacity was determined according to TIS procedure [22]. The bulk density was measured dividing the dry mass by the average external volume. Volumetric shrinkage was determined by the brick volume after drying at 110C and the brick volume after firing at a temperature stages using a Vernier caliper OKURA (precision 0.05 mm). Moreover, the ER was measured by Mega-Ohmmeter (C.A 6525). The crushing strength using a ELE International test machine of 272 t capacity at 85.5-208.2 5–6 kg/cm2/s loading rate. In addition, providing the textural evolution of the selected specimens and the changes in the components of the prograde phases were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), using a model JSM-5800LV, JEOL equipment and were identified by XRD.

Tab.1. Elaborated raw materials mixtures and moisture

Mixture Items Raw materials (wt%) OMC (%) CS SCBA

CS or SCBA0 100 0 20.81 SCBA10 90 10 21.21 SCBA20 80 20 21.98 SCBA30 70 30 21.23 SCBA40 60 40 22.15 SCBA50 50 50 21.30

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Raw materials characteristics

The particle size distribution of SCBA and CS are relatively same significant and somewhat uniform with uniformity coefficient (Cu) of 2.16 and 3.67, respectively (Fig. 1). The uniform distributions are rather similar and the main feature significance is the generally larger particle sizes in the SCBA (between

1 and 34 m, with average particle size of 25 m), whereas in the CS of 1-31 m with average that is 20 m. It can be noticed that similar in particle size distribution, particularly for high SCBA contents, might introduce more pore in the compaction and forming process temperature [27]. Due to its own nature, the SCBA powder is a non plastic material like as fired brick powder [28]. Consequently, the Atterberg limits of clay were


0

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0.1 1 10 100Diameter (Micron)

Cum

ulat

ive

Pass

ing

(%) Clayey Soil

Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash

Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of raw materials. higher than those of the CS-SCBA mixture used in this study. As expected, there is 21.39% in the plasticity index. The same behavior is observed for liquid limit of clay is 46.50% and plastic limit is 25.10%. However, providing that it is mixed to the CS for molding the red brick, it was found important to verify the influence of addition of SCBA powder in the CS plasticity. This seems to be important because the Atterberg limits are closely related to the optimum pressing moisture content of the CS mass. This is also of crucial importance on the quality of the final product duet to the drying shrinkage can distort the brick body manufactured with high water content. As can also be seen in Tab. 2, the CS used as matrix for the bricks, has content of SiO2 and Al2O3 greater than 58% and 17%, respectively, indicating its suitability for use in fired ceramic body. According to the results shown in Tab. 2, it can be emphasized that the CaO content is less than 11% and MgO content is about 2.14% indicating that this powder comes from a silicate-type as confirmed latter by XRD tests. However, as a shortcoming, it can be highlighted the small amount of sintering components (MgO, P2O5 and K2O), which can make difficult the formation of liquid phase at temperatures around 1,000C [3,5,6] It seems worth to stress the high values of loss on ignition (LOI) of the SCBA, which has reached values around 40%. This is credited to the dissociation of calcite (CaCO3) that partially transform themselves into carbonic gas (CO2) as can be noticed in XRD analysis presented in Fig. 2 a) for the spectra related to temperatures higher than 750C. The SCBA used for determination of the chemical composition were calcined further to become desirable substances, such as pozzolanic materials [24,25,26]. The XRF analysis shows that the major components in the CS were SiO2 (58.11%), Al2O3 (17.88%) and Fe2O3 (8.58%) (Tab. 2), were in range of refractory materials (ASTM C 618). The next most abundant components were K2O (5.98%), TiO2 (1.86%) and MgO (1.22%). Another the major components observed in the SCBA were active silica SiO2 (38.31%), CaO(10.76%) and Fe2O3 (3.36%).

Tab. 2 Chemical composition of materials (in mass). Chemical composition CS (%) SCBA (%) SiO2 58.11 38.31 Al2O3 17.88 2.84 CaO 0.13 10.76 Fe2O3 8.58 3.36 K2O 5.98 1.77 TiO2 1.86 0.21 MgO 1.22 0.94 P2O5 - 0.90 SO3 - 0.45 MnO2 0.30 0.23 LOI 0.28 40.21 Surface area, m2/g 2.214

The next most components were Al2O3 (2.84%), K2O (1.77%) and P2O5 (0.90%). SCBA and CS had been a pH of 12.33 and 3.40, respectively. The high alkaline earth and alkaline oxide content (particularly CaO, MgO and K2O), this confirm the flux potential of the SCBA. The significant amount of Fe2O3 in CS (8.58 %) is influenced the reddish color of the fired brick specimens. According to Fig. 2a), the XRD analysis carried on powder SCBA presents some peaks of calcite and a discrete presence of quartz and traces of microcline. As to CS, the XRD analysis (Fig. 2b) shows, as expected, intense peaks of quartz and kaolinite as the main clay minerals. Some traces of mixture of muscovite and leucite were detected. This is an important characterization, provides the CS significantly increases the plasticity of the material.

Fig. 2 X-ray diffractograph on raw materials a) SCBA and b) CS.

Q- Quartz C-Calcite

Mi-Microcline

Q- Quartz K-Kaolinite

Mu-Muscovite L-Leucite

a)

b)


The studies were complemented by scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation of the morphology of the raw materials. Fig. 2 shows an SEM photomicrograph of a SCBA sample in which the porous structure of the ash can be observed clearly method. The SEM micrograph of CS particles sub-angular corners and smooth round surface as well as some other show angular corners (Fig. 3a). Regarding, SCBA particles exhibit with irregular form and rough surface and some others with pores and show irregular forms (Fig. 3b)

Fig. 3 SEM photomicrographs on a) CS and b) powder SCBA. The differential thermal analyses (DTA) were carried out on powder SCBA and on CS samples and the results can be seen in Fig. 4 a). Regarding the CS, three sharp endothermic peaks in the temperature at 125C and 488.27C are mainly due to the dewatering and de-hydroxylation of clay minerals (aluminum and iron hydroxyl), while the another endothermic peak at the temperature range of 1,102.15°C is principally due to α-β-quartz transformation. The SCBA powder sample is identified the two endothermic peaks in the temperature at 757.32C is essentially due to the decarbonation of calcite like as 742.87C of Para rubber wood ash [7] and resulting in a mass loss of 40.21% at 1,027.95C in accordance to the results obtained for LOI.

3.2 Mineralogical identification

According to XRD phase analysis carried on the brick SCBA30 fired at 1,050C (Fig. 5). It is clear that CS sample is composed mainly of quartz, muscovite, kaolinite and leucite as major elements as well as quartz, feldspar and calcite, as major components in SCBA. The amount of calcite in the brick specimens increased when the percentage of the added SCBA was increased. sintered temperature increased (Fig. 3). A possible explanation is that, due to the higher driving force and the increasing crystal growth rate. This allowed fine grains to form, which caused an increase in the grain boundary area. Therefore, the physical and mechanical properties yielded better characteristics. There was an increase in new phases of albite (12.44%KAlSi2O6) and hematite (4.62%Fe2O3) peaks, which indicates that leucite increasing amounts were crystallized 53.93%. A SCBA–CS brick mixture, sintered at 1,050C, can be considered to be a material which may have potential for use in the ceramic industry.

Fig. 4 DTA patterns of raw materials of a) CS and b) SCBA.

Fig. 5 X-ray diffraction patterns of brick SCBA30.

3.3 Weight loss

The weight loss on ignition of brick and the amount of SCBA added to the mixture at fixed firing temperatures (Fig. 6). For a normal clay brick, the weight loss after heating to a temperature of 1,050C attributed to the organic matter content in the clay is 7.5%. The results show that the addition of SCBA resulted in rather an apparent increase in the weight loss on ignition (9-13%). It is assumed that as the proportion was increased, the carbonate (CaO) in SCBA-CS mixture decomposed into CO2, contribute the weight loss in the brick was reduced. This observation indicates that CS and SCBA are compatible ingredients, so that SCBA can be used as a filler clay substitute as well as in cement material.

a)

a)

b) b)

Q- Quartz A-Albite

H-Hematite L-Leucite

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L

L L L L

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Q Q Q A H A


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0 10 20 30 40 50Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash Content (%)

Wei

ght L

oss (

%)

Fig. 6 Variation of weight loss of SCBA bricks.

3.4 Linear shrinkage

The quality of brick can be further considered by examining the shrinkage of brick. The shrinkage of a studied normal clay brick is 1% after heating to temperatures of 1,050C (Fig. 7). While the SCBA content in the mixture varied from 10 to 50%, the brick shrinkage changed about from 0 to 4% with firing temperatures of 1,050C. It is indicated that addition of 10-20%SCBA should apparently increase the shrinkage and decreased after that, by sintered at the five mixture proportions. However, based on the regulation of the Thai industrial standard, the weight loss and shrinkage of brick are not yet specification requirement.

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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash Content (%)

Line

ar S

hrin

kage

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Fig. 7 Variation of linear shrinkage of SCBA bricks. 3.5 Water absorption

The results of the water absorption tests for six SCBA–CS mixtures fired at 1,050C as shown in Fig. 8. The water absorption was varied from 11 to 18%, with respect to proportion of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%, respectively. The control specimen (none SCBA), almost met the entire TIS water absorption standard. The results indicate that this high water absorption values indicate that most of the pores of the specimens are open to outside. Cultrone et al. [26] concluded influence of mineralogy and firing temperature on the porosity of bricks. However, when the amount of SCBA was lower than 30%, the water absorption of the brick can be met the water absorption criteria for second-class brick (15%).

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0 10 20 30 40 50

Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash Content (%)

Wat

er A

bsor

ptio

n (%

)

Fig. 8 Variation of water absorption of SCBA bricks.

3.6 Bulk density

On the contrary, bulk density ranged from 1,400 kg/m3 (SCBA50) up to a maximum of 1,900 kg/m3 (CS). The increase in the amount of SCBA addition causes a reduction in the brick bulk density (Fig. 9). The main reason for such a result is the burning of SCBA addition as an organic material which can easily burn out during the sintering period, open and closed pores are usually formed. Therefore, the minimum density corresponds to the maximum volume of closed pores in the specimen. On the contrary, densification is a pore-filling process that occurs during the liquid-phase flow and by pore shrinkage.

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Bul

k D

ensi

ty (k

g/m

3 )

Fig. 9 Variation of bulk density of SCBA bricks.

3.7 Electrical resistance

It can be observed that the increase in SCBA increases the electrical resistance or electrical resistivity (Fig. 10). Therefore, the increase in water absorption, weight loss and electrical resistance as well as the decrease in bulk density and linear shrinkage with SCBA addition are consequence of the higher flux content. Regarding correlation between the electrical resistance and the water absorption test result exhibits same manner. Eventuality, the electrical resistance and electrical conductivity are considered usefully to the rapid evaluation of pozzolanic activity of materials [29,30]. However, in this study fired SCBA brick is doubt in further discussion for asessment quality.


0

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Elec

trica

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ista

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(Meg

aOhm

-cm

)

Fig. 10 Variation of electrical resistance of SCBA bricks. 3.8 Compressive strength

On the other hand, the compressive strength or cold crushing strength of the bricks made from SCBA–CS mixtures all met the TIS-77 standards: 3.5 MPa for a first-class brick and 15 MPa for a second-class brick. The compressive strength test results on the brick indicated that the strength is greatly dependent on the amount of SCBA in brick (Fig. 11). All proportions, the strength achieved at fixed 1,050C can be as high as or more that of specific clay bricks. In addition, the optimum proportion at which maximum compressive strength occurred was 30%. However, all of proportion SCBA met the TIS 77 [22] for both classes building brick requirement. Comparing the mixture proportion increased between 10 to 30%, the compressive strength of the brick gradually increased. At high volume ratio of 40% and 50% SCBA, the strength was droped sharply curve (Fig. 11).

18

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38

43


Col

d Cr

ushi

ng S

treng

th (M

Pa)

Fig. 11 Variation of cold crushing strength of SCBA bricks.

3.9 Microstructure

Moreover, SEM investigations were conducted on the fracture surface of specimen SCBA30 sintered at 1,050C. (Fig.12). It was found that the evolution of the sintering process with the rise in the mixture proportion. At 30%, there are signs of transgranular fracture (strong interface, glassy bonds between grains) and well defined grain boundaries between SCBa and CS (Fig 12a), and many isolated rounded pores can be observed, the brick texture reached the

final sintering stage at this temperature (Fig. 12b). The specimen presented a structure with and the contemporary CO2 degassing that takes place in the few pores (P) and signs of vitrification correspondent with the physical (Figs. 6-10) and mechanical (Fig. 11) properties.

Fig. 12 SEM photomicrographs of the fracture surface of specimen SCBA30 sintered at 1,050C a) SCBA residue with CS matrics and b) varied irregular pores in texture.

4. CONCLUSIONS Regarding to the advantages of less firing shrinkage, less weight loss on ignition and greater compressive strength of SCBA–CS brick should stimulate the use of SCBA as a brick additive in the green material. It indicates that SCBA has potential as a material for brick components. Based on the point of view, the energy-saving and maximum use of ash, it is apparent that mixture with 30% SCBA fired at 1,050C was optimal for meeting the brick quality of Thai standard [22]. The fired bodies after hydraulic hardening at a dried environment possess the highest values of mechanical strength. The resulting products have specific structure mainly composed of carbons and new formations of FeO, potassium and sodium silicates and aluminates as one crystals or amorphous phases. The new structure of CS/SCBA ceramics possess semihydraulic properties.

a)

b)

SCBA

CS

P

P


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been supported by a grant Promotion of Energy Conservation Fund at 95/2547 under contract number Project 03-178-47-71 of the Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO), Ministry of Energy, Thailand. A thanks is also to the Geotechnique and Innovative Construction Materials Research Unit (GICMRU) or former the Recycling Materials Research Group (RMRG), Department of Mining and Materials Engineering for providing laboratory equipments.

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