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Transcript of PANEL 2B Logistics and Integration into Global Supply Networks.
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PANEL 2B
Logistics and Integration into Global Supply Networks
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Knowledge Economy Forum IV
Logistics and Integration into Global Supply Networks
Global Industrial Context
Prof. M.J. Gregory
Institute for Manufacturing
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Overview
• Industrial ideas
• Global context
• Emerging capabilities
• Working in networks
• Implications
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Industrial Ideas
• Products – ARM – Microcircuit design
• Production – Zara – Fashionable clothes
• Distribution – Dell – Personal computers
• Services – Rolls-Royce – Aero-engines
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• ARM designs used in 75%of
mobile phones
• Close to global customers and
OEMs
• ‘Fabless’ business model
• Substantial process
knowledge
ARM – microchipsmarketing>design>production>distribution>service
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Zara - clothesmarketing>design>production>distribution>service
• Spanish clothes maker Zara
owns all production capability
• Products in own shops change
every 2 weeks
• Production can be flexed to
respond to demand
• Competitors can’t follow!
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Dell – personal computers marketing>design>production>distribution>service
• Dell pioneered large scale direct selling.
• Their model allows on-line customisation of products
• Production and delivery status can be tracked by the customer
• On-line diagnostics and after sales service minimise support costs
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Rolls-Royce – Aeroenginesmarketing>design>production>distribution>service
• Responding to customer needs
• Rapid growth in market share
• ‘Totalcare’ service model ~60%
of revenues
• Implications for design and
production
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Innovation, Value Chain & Business Models
Innovation can occur within and between each
stage along the value chain
Marketing>Design>Production>Distribution>Service
but the stages often have different ‘owners’ and the
interfaces and interdependencies between them are
often poorly understood.
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…and the context is changing rapidly
• Global demand for products is rising
• ‘Disintegration’ of stages in some value chains
• Value-adding opportunities at each stage
BUT
• Globalisation is changing industry configurations
• Industrial capabilities are evolving rapidly
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USA – they say…
• Growing economy
• Strong in research and
some production
• Emphasis on education
BUT
• Falling share of
production
• Economic imbalances
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Europe – they say…
• Increasingly ‘high-tech’
• Spectrum of large and
small businesses
• Good global connections
BUT
• Some countries thought
to be inflexible
• Intense competition
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Japan – they say…
• Continuing strength in
production
• Capable global networks
• New investments in
local production
BUT
• Ageing population
• Rigid structures
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India – they say…
• Growing capability in
software
• Highly educated population
• Growing interest in
manufacturing
BUT
• Infrastructure limited
• Production has not been a
priority
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China – they say…
• Growing production
scale and capability
• Dominant position in
some products
• Growing R&D
• BUT
• Imbalance between
production and services
• Shortages of energy
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Globalisation – the case of China
• China is emerging as an industrial powerhouse
• It has received massive inward investment
• Industrial development has been systematic
• ‘High-tech’ capabilities are increasing rapidly
• Growth impacts global industrial structures
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Growth
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
Average annual growth rate was morethan 10% between 1980 and 2004
Source: Chinese National Statistics Annual Report (2005)
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Foreign Direct Investment
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Total FDI
Source: http://www.china.org.cn
Bill
ion
US
Dol
lars
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New Workshop of the World- Pearl River Delta
• 70% of the world’s photocopiers
• 60% of the world’s microwaves
• 160,000 people in single factory for running shoes
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New Workshop of the World - Yangtse River Delta
• 30% of the world’s ties
• 70% of the world’s lighters
• fastest growing car production location
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Domestic appliances - Galanz
• Largest microwave
oven production base
in the world
• Annual production
capacity of 15 million
units 11,000 employees.
• Turnover $700m
• 70% of China market,
• 40% of global market.
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Clothing - Meters/Bonwe
• Virtual company in Garment Industry
• Grown dramatically from a shop into a regional brand and into the leading national brand
• Over 1000 retail outlets in China
• Sales of US$250 million in 2003.
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So how do they do it?
• Cheap labour
• Foreign Direct Investment
• Natural resources
But also
• Systematic development of infrastructure
• Strategic development of industries
• Increasing focus on innovation and service!
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So what are the underlying patterns?
• Attraction of ‘service-oriented’ business models
• Networks a source of innovation*
• Competition increasingly between networks rather
than firms
• Increasing role of ‘contract’ production!*
...all of which require new skills and capabilities
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Networked Innovation – P&G
• Entrepreneur spotted a
rotating sweet!!
• Healthcare professionals
designed the product
• Production outsourced
• Leading P&G brand Crest
distributes.
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Contract Production - Hon-Hai marketing>design>production>distribution>service
• Global electronics production
capability
• Developed strongly from
component production
• Value capture through economies
of scale and flexibility
• Moving to design and service
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..and is extending its scope
For example Hon-Hai’s strategy reads:
• ‘Focus on global logistic capabilities …’
• ‘Expand production capacity …’
• ‘Achieve further vertical integration …’
• ‘Maintain technologically advanced and flexible production
capabilities…’
‘… will leverage off its manufacturing expertise and
continue to move tirelessly into new areas of related
business’
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and as for brand…
• We have no brand
• but, our quality is the
“brand”
• our technology is the
“brand”
• our people are the
“brand”
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..and then the ODMs…
Original Design and Manufacturing businesses
• Execute the whole manufacturing cycle
• Ask you (the brand owner) if you would like some
• Sell the surplus under their own brand and
• Develop proprietary design, product and process
technologies!
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QCI - Quanta computer Inc.
Established - May 1988
Market Cap - US$7B
Revenue (04) - US$ 10.14B
Employees - 25,000
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Strong and diverse customer base
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Modern manufacturing involves
“The full cycle from understanding markets
through R&D, product design, production, supply
and services within an economic and social
context”
and is increasingly
Global, Connected, Multi- partner, Multi-business
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B&Q China
• B&Q is the leading DIY chain in
China
• It commissions designs,
outsources production,
distributes, sells and services
• These activities are orchestrated
from the UK
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Implications for emerging economies
Need to
• Understand the ‘maps’, capabilities and
trajectories of key industries
• Identify points of entry – potentially via major
multinational businesses
• Anticipate local demand and changing global
context
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which needs need a better understanding of
• Value creation and appropriation – which requires
knowing what it is and how it can be captured
• Partner identification and evaluation - which
requires sophisticated ‘due-diligence’
• Production ramp-up - which requires sophisticated
technical capabilities
• Management of dynamic relationships - while making
sure they don’t eat your lunch!
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Conclusions
• The structures and dynamics of global industries
are changing rapidly
• Product supply chains rapidly evolving to
networks of knowledge and services
• Many opportunities to access global networks
BUT
• Visibility of capabilities & trajectories essential
• Product-service systems an emerging theme
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Enterprise Logistics & Integration into Global Supply Networks
Nimish JhaveriConsultant
CARANA Corporation
World Bank Knowledge Economy Forum VIApril 2007
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Overview
• The Relevance of Transport & Logistics
• Challenges
• Successes
• Considerations
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Trade liberalization creates new opportunities for exporters
Industrial Country Average Import Tariffs Before and After the Uruguay Round
Source: Marcelo Paiva Abreu (2004), "Trade in manufactures: the outcome of the Uruguay Round and developing country interests"
0 . 0 % 1 0 . 0 % 2 0 . 0 % 3 0 . 0 % 4 0 . 0 % 5 0 . 0 % 6 0 . 0 % 7 0 . 0 % 8 0 . 0 %
A l l i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s ( e x c l . p e t r o l e u m )
T e x t i l e s a n d c l o t h i n g
M i n e r a l p r o d u c t s
T r a n s p o r t e q u i p m e n t
F i s h a n d f i s h p r o d u c t s
L e a t h e r , r u b b e r , f o o t w e a r , t r a v e l g o o d s
C h e m i c a l s a n d p h o t o g r a p h i c s u p p l i e s
E l e c t r i c a l m a c h i n e r y
O t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e d a r t i c l e s
W o o d , p u l p , p a p e r , a n d f u r n i t u r e
N o n e l e c t r i c a l m a c h i n e r y
M e t a l s
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Transportation and logistics efficiency plays a critical role in export competitiveness
Freight Costs as % of Import Value
Source: UNCTAD, “Review of Maritime Transport, 2005,” Chapter 4, based on data supplied by the IMF.
3.9%
9.1%
11.9%
9.8%
8.6%9.1%
12.3%
5.4%
0.0%
2.0%
4.0%
6.0%
8.0%
10.0%
12.0%
14.0%
Develo
ped
coun
tries
Develo
ping
coun
tries
Africa
Latin
Am
erica
Asia
Europ
e
Ocean
ia
Wor
ld Ave
rage
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Example: Nicaraguan CoffeeManagua to Miami via Puerto Cortes
Drive Time (18%)
Border Crossing (3%)
Load & Discharge (2%)
SecurityCurfew (50%)
Productive Time (23%)
Idle Time (27%)
• Planning and scheduling inefficiencies
• Documentation errors cause delays at the border
• Lack of fleet management technologies
• Regional border customs not consistent
TRANSPORTATION UTILIZATION
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0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Banana
Cheese
Coffee (A)
Coffee (B)
Coffee (C)
Coffee (D)
Hard Cheese (A)
Beans (A)
Hard Cheese (B)
Beans (B)
Apparel (A)
Sweet Onion
Apparel (B)
Result: Logistics costs for Nicaraguan exports are competitive regionally, but not internationally
INTERNATIONAL MARKETS
REGIONAL MARKETS
Logistics Costs as Percentage Of Market Value
International averages for developed and developing countries
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Impact: Curtailed access to higher value markets
Fertilizer
Bags
Smallholders
Wet Mill
ExporterImporter/Broker
Distributor
Local/MicroRoasting Company
Office Coffee Service
Consumer
Regional/National Roasting Company
Large Producer& Wet Mill
International Trader
Dry Mill Restaurant/Café’s
Retailer/SupermarketFertilizer
Bags
SmallholdersSmallholders
Wet MillWet Mill
ExporterImporter/Broker
Distributor
Local/MicroRoasting Company
Office Coffee Service
Consumer
Regional/National Roasting CompanyRegional/National Roasting Company
Large Producer& Wet Mill
International TraderInternational Trader
Dry MillDry Mill Restaurant/Café’s
Retailer/Supermarket
REGIONAL GLOBAL
Ad hoc transactions with intermediaries
Compete on price, labor
Independent operators
Long term relationships with end-customers, transportation providers and value chain partners
Compete on higher service and value
Efficient supply chain
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Transport costs are just one element of logistics efficiency…
100 156
69
62
1510 Administrative
Order Processing
Inventory Carrying
Warehousing
TRANSPORT COSTS
OTHERCOSTS
MANAGE TIME, INFORMATION & PROCESS
MANAGE MOVE
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… and logistics efficiency has a direct impact on trade
A 10% reduction in…
Shipping costs
Trade related processing costs
Trade related processing time
Variation in processing time
Results in a…
14.2% increase in trade
2.5% increase in trade
1.4% increase in trade
3.1% increase in trade
Adapted from Study of 80 countries by Hausman, Lee and Subramanian, World Bank and Stanford University, 2005
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• Transportation Network Efficiency
• Logistics Infrastructure Availability
• Customs and Border Requirements
• Banking & Financial Services
• Logistics Service Intermediaries
The constraints imposed by the logistics environment varies widely by country and industry
Argentina
Kenya Brazil
Poland
Romania
BelarusUkraine
Belgium
Australia
Canada
Japan
SingaporeUnited States
Lo
gis
tics
Co
sts/
GN
P
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SUPPLIER
CUSTOMER
• Efficient Transportation Networks
• Logistics Infrastructure
• Customs and Border Requirements
• Banking & Financial Services
• Logistics Service Intermediaries
Moving up the value chain requires business innovation
• Supply chain excellence
• Higher service levels
• Smaller, just in time shipments
• Shorter delivery lead times
• Global competitors with lower costs
Limitations of logistics environment
More demanding business environment
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Case Study: Bulgarian Apparel Manufacturers
ASIAN PRODUCERSVOLUME ORDERS
HIGHER EFFICIENCYLOWER CAPITAL COSTS
LOWER WAGES
LOW COST PRODUCTION HIGHER VALUE DIFFERENTIATORS
SUPPLIERS
INTERNATIONAL CUSTOMER
INFRASTRUCTURE & FACILITIES
CUSTOMS & BORDER CROSSING PROCEDURES
ACCESS TO FINANCING, INSURANCE
AVAILABILITY OF TRANSPORTATION & WAREHOUSING
CAPABILITY AND CAPACITY OF INTERMEDIARIES
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS & POLICY
BARRIERS
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<Process Name>
International MoveOrder International Move Pre-shipment Domestic MovePre-Shipment Domestic Move
Containers Loaded unto
ship
Container/Truck/Van Stuffed
Equipment repositioned
Supplier produces inputs (fabric, components)
Procurement/Scheduling of T&L Services
Buyer, Buyer’s Agent of Producer
order inputs
Preparation of documentation
Buyer and Producer
Maker Deal
Inland Transport to International
Gateway
Ocean Transit
If by Sea:
Preparation of documentation for
inland move
Producer Manufactures
goods
Equipment repositioned
Delivery to Producer’s
Factory
Goods De-consolidated and consolidated at
warehouse
Container Unloaded
Customs/Inspection
at port
International Inland Transit
Border Stop #1(EU/Regional)
Border Stop #2(Regional/Bulg)
Domestic Inland Transit
If LCL:
Preparation of documentation for domestic inland
move
Customs/Inspection
Inland Transit to Producers Regional
Customs Office
Customs/Inspection at regional customs
office
If F
CL
Procurement/Scheduling of T&L Services
Preparation of documentation
Container/Truck/Van
Stuffed
If LCL:
Inland Transit to Warehouse
Goods De-consolidated and consolidated at
warehouse
Customs clearance/inspection
Preparation of documentation
IF F
CL
Inland Transport to International
Gateway
If by Land, or Land/Sea via Regional Port
Border Stop #1(Bulg./Regional)
Border Stop #2(Regional/EU)
Containers Loaded unto
ship or airplane
If Sea via Bulg. Port, or Air
Customs clearance/inspection
International Inland Transit
If Land/Sea via Reg. Port
Customs clearance/inspection
Containers Loaded unto ship
International Air or Ocean Transit
Preparation of documentation
Container Unloaded at Destination
If by Land, or Land/Sea via Regional Port
Inland distribution to buyer’s warehouse or
retail outlet
Customs clearance/inspection
Arrival at Destination
Export of Finished GoodsImport of Inputs
• 50+ Steps (lead participant)
• 20 – 40% of value of delivered product
• Up to 50% local/regional origin
• Few long term contracts
• Efficiency & price before service
• Low visibility to total costs
Bulgarian Apparel Manufacturers:Transport & Logistics Process
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Bulgarian Apparel Manufacturers:Logistics innovation captures greater value
SUBCONTRACT CUT MAKE TRIM FULL PACKAGEBRAND
MANAGEMENT
None
None
QC, Packaging
Subcontractors
Buyer
QC, PackagingConsolidation
Customs
SubcontractorsDomestic suppliers
Buyer International supplier
QC, PackagingConsolidationWarehousing
Customs
SubcontractorsDomestic suppliers
International suppliersDistribution centers
International retailers
QC, PackagingConsolidationWarehousing
CustomsDistribution
DOMESTIC TRANSPORT
INTER-NATIONAL
TRANSPORT
SERVICES
Increasing Importance of Logistics
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Bulgarian Apparel Manufacturers:Exporters increase value through better logistics
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Transferring Knowledge and Technology for ChangeEnterprise Level Challenges
• Enterprise culture– High dependence on few senior managers– Tactical, conservative mindset– Confident, entrepreneurial
• Available Resources– Limited investment in plant, equipment, IT– Human resources
• “Don’t know what you don’t know”– Limited exposure to leading management solutions– Limited demand for new knowledge
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Transferring Knowledge and Technology for ChangeApproaches we have successfully applied
Awareness Building
Publications
1-day, industry specific seminars
Seminars for educators
Case for Change
Supply chain benchmarking
Operations modeling & simulations
Value chain analysis
Education & Engagement
Supply Chain Leadership Programs for executives
Guided implementation of change projects
Practitioner network
Industry Resources
Customer partnershipsLogistics intermediaries
Supplier integrationIT vendors
Funding
EU FundsPPP
Venture Capital
Local Proof Points
Industry specific success stories
Quantification of benefits
Local “champions”
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• Lost sales, obsolescence, discounts
• High Inventories & cash requirements
184
112
0
50
100
150
200
TIME CASHTIME CASH
Case: Bulgarian exporter of industrial equipmentValue Chain Improvement
SUPPLIERSSUB
ASSEMBLYASSEMBLY DISTRIBUTION CUSTOMERS
Value Chain
• € 25 million in 49 countries
• Seasonal products, 1000’s models
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Case: Bulgarian exporter of industrial equipmentValue Chain Improvement
SUPPLIERSSUB
ASSEMBLYASSEMBLY DISTRIBUTION CUSTOMERS
NEW PARTNER
Reduced inventory by 2% of sales
Increased sales by 4%
• Manufacturing- Outsourced low tech- Increased capacity- VMI & delayed assembly
• Product Design & Engineering
Actions
• Procurement- Reduced suppliers- Collaborative planning, QC
184
112
140
40
0
50
100
150
200
TIME CASHTIME CASH
Reduced cash requirements
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Case: Argentinean fruit producers Logistics Cooperative
SITUATION
• 1997 – fruit producers in Rio Negro Valley need to lower prices, increase delivered quality
• Transportation infrastructure not adequate – both in terms of cold chain, and land transport services
IMPLICATION / CHALLENGES
• Individual producers not able to negotiate on volume
• High loss rates in produce during land transport (16yr fleet age avg.)
• Unable to meet increasingly rigorous quality demands by market
SOLUTION SELECTED
• 24 producers (75% of Exports) - Logistics Management Company
• 65% ownership of Port Terminal with Port Operator Partner
• Joint negotiations on land and maritime transport costs, rigorous infrastructure improvement
RESULTS
• Price negotiations with trucking companies – profitable service, reduced damage
• Consolidated shipping freight rates• Efficient T&L costs, compete on
supply and quality, traceability
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Final Thoughts
• Existing logistics infrastructure impacts the competitiveness of every export product
• Export competitiveness can be improved by reducing logistics cost, time, and uncertainty
• Assess logistics infrastructure challenges and identify ways to enhance
• Knowledge & know-how
• Supply chain partnerships
• Laws & Regulations
• Customs & border crossings
• Industry structure
• Physical Infrastructure
• Access to capital
• Trade procedures
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Questions?
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Judge Business School
Creating World-Class Supply ChainsCreating World-Class Supply Chains
Matthias Holweg Ph.D.Judge Business School
University of Cambridge
Email: [email protected]
World Bank - Knowledge Economy Forum VI
Cambridge, April 17 2007
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Outline
Supply chain mangement Why is it important? Features of high-performing supply chains The role of technology
The automotive industry Global trends The case of Slovakia
Conclusions Policy recommendations
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Outline
Supply chain mangement Why is it important? Features of high-performing supply chains The role of technology
The automotive industry Global trends The case of Slovakia
Conclusions Policy recommendations
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Why do we talk about it?Traditional thinking: competition is driven by the 4P’s
Today: supply chain capabilities determine competitiveness!
Wal-Mart versus K-Mart
Compaq/HP versus Dell
A final product is not the sole achievement of the OEM
Customer experience is determined by supply chain: quality, cost, delivery
Significant proportion of value sourced from suppliers!
Supply chains are connected systems:
Competitiveness of one tier is a function of the supply and distribution functions, i.e.
surrounding tiers.
“Value Chains compete, not individual companies!”
(Christopher 1992)
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“Islands of Excellence” or Optimal Supply Chain?
0
50
100
Raw
Mat
eria
l
Bo
ug
ht-
in P
arts
In-h
ou
se P
arts
Pre
-Ass
emb
ly W
IP
Ass
emb
ly W
IP
Fin
ish
ed P
arts
Inb
ou
nd
Tra
nsi
t
On
-sit
e P
arts
Ass
emb
ly W
IP
Dis
pat
ch
Ou
tbo
un
d T
ran
sit
Dis
trib
uti
on
Cu
sto
mer
Da
ys
of
Inv
en
tory
Max
Average
Min
Source: Holweg and Pil, “The Second Century”, MIT Press 2004
Raw Materials and components
21%
Raw Materials and components
21%
AssemblyPlant6%
AssemblyPlant6%
Distribution
73%
Distribution
73%
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Features of High-performing Supply Chains
1. Long-term collaborative relationships
Trust and commitment, respect of the right of mutual existence
2. Single or dual sourcing
Component volume is adjusted according to performance Constant positive pressure by dual sourcing
3. Improvement
Collaboration with suppliers on operational improvement; example: Toyota’s Supplier Support Center (TSSC) in Kentucky
Annual cost reductions are realised in collaboration, not isolation
4. Operations and logistics
Level production schedules to avoid spikes in the supply chain Milk-round delivery systems that can handle mixed-load, small-lot
deliveries Disciplined system of JIT delivery windows at the plant; suppliers deliver
only what is needed, even if this compromises load efficiency in transport
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The Role of Technology
The ‘Holy Grail’ in curing supply chain ills?
Example: ‘Bullwhip problem’
Demand visibility is key: RFID / AutoID, EDI, EDIFACT, EPOS, CPFR
…yet they only work if the planning systems use this information!
Example: transaction costs in automotive
COVISINT (est. 2000) and the B2B/e-commerce revolution
Predicted savings of $1,000 per vehicle in transaction costs!
The Role of Technology
Technology alone is not a sufficient, it can assist problem solving
If the underlying processes are not capable, technology will fail
It is a means to an end, not an end in itself!
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Outline
Supply chain mangement Why is it important? Features of high-performing supply chains The role of technology
The automotive industry Global trends The case of Slovakia
Conclusions Policy recommendations
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Production by Region 1975-2005
0
10,000,000
20,000,000
30,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
197
5
198
1
198
3
198
5
198
7
198
9
199
1
199
3
199
5
199
7
199
9
200
1
200
3
200
5
Ann
ual
Ca
r P
rodu
ctio
n in
Uni
ts
North America Latin America W Europe E Europe
Russia Japan S Korea China
India Rest of Asia S Africa Other
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Auto Industry: Major Trends
1. Overall global growth by 1.85% CAGR since 1975
2. Substitution of production with adjacent low-cost regions
3. Major growth of production in China (2000-05: x5.2), and India (2000-05: x1.7), - 4% in Western Europe
Auto industry is regionalising, not globalising!
What does this mean for the dynamics of competition?
Competing in a global, distributed industry: Future competition on cost is a futile battle.. Rely on quality? Brand? Design? Proximity to customer?
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Continuous Window of Opportunity
Time
ProductFeatures
Established Player
MarketDemand
New Entrant
Source: adapted from Christensen (1997)
Any labour cost advantage is temporary!Any labour cost advantage is temporary!
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The Auto Industry in Emerging Countries
Automotive industry very attractive Job multiplier of 5-7 for every assembly job Technology transfer
Many subsidies, but questions of long-term viability!
The case of Slovakia’s auto industry VW Bratislava, PSA Trnava, Kia Zilina, growing cluster CZ, PL, HU 5m inhabitants, c.900k production, domestic sales of <80k units
Challenges Logistics: lead-time to customer, reliability of supply Labour shortage, migration and rising compensation
Migration further east is inevitable Domestic demand in Russia, growing labour cost differential
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Outline
Supply chain mangement Why is it important? Features of high-performing supply chains The role of technology
The automotive industry Global trends The case of Slovakia
Conclusions Policy recommendations
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Conclusion: Supply Chain ‘Enemies’
Common logic behind all SCM initiatives!
Inventory & delays
Time worsens ‘swing’ of amplification
Decision delays require stock
Safety stock decisions send false signals
Unreliability or uncertainty
Any kind of uncertainty needs to be covered with inventory
Unreliable processes cause unreliable delivery
Hand-offs or decision points
Every hand-off or tier in the system bears danger of distortion!
‘Inventory is a substitute for information’
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Policy Recommendations
Infrastructure is a always a concern..
…but uncertainty is a sure killer of any location decision!
Customs clearance
Currency
Regulation (labour, traffic, taxation)
Crime & bribes
Supply chains are connected systems:
Labour cost differential is only a short-term advantage
Strong need to attract suppliers, not just manufacturers!
Need to build local competencies, rather than “screw-driver factories”
Domestic demand is not essential if logistics systems work
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Judge Business SchoolCentre for Competitiveness and Innovation,Judge Business School, Univ. of Cambridge http://www-innovation.jbs.cam.ac.uk
International Motor Vehicle ProgramMassachusetts Institute of Technologyhttp://imvp.mit.edu
Email: [email protected]
Centre for Competitiveness and Innovation,Judge Business School, Univ. of Cambridge http://www-innovation.jbs.cam.ac.uk
International Motor Vehicle ProgramMassachusetts Institute of Technologyhttp://imvp.mit.edu
Email: [email protected]