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Pan Africa News

Chief Editor:Kazuhiko Hosaka, Kamakura Womenʼs University, JapanDeputy Chief Editor:Michio Nakamura, Kyoto University, JapanAssociate Editors:Christophe Boesch, Max-Planck Institute, GermanyJane Goodall, Jane Goodall Institute, USATetsuro Matsuzawa, Kyoto University, JapanWilliam C. McGrew, University of Cambridge, UKJohn C. Mitani, University of Michigan, USAVernon Reynolds, Budongo Forest Project, UKYukimaru Sugiyama, Kyoto University, JapanRichard W. Wrangham, Harvard University, USATakeshi Furuichi, Kyoto University, JapanEditorial Secretaries:Noriko Itoh, Kyoto University, JapanKoichiro Zamma, Kyoto University, JapanAgumi Inaba, Mahale Mts. Chimpanzee Research ProjectEiji Inoue, Kyoto University, Japan

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news, essays, book reviews, letters to editor, and classified ads (restricted to non-profit organizations) on any aspect of conser-vation and research regarding chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bilias (Pan paniscus). Contributors are requested to write in English and the papers except forums, reviews and essays should usually be 1,500 words or less. Articles, notes and re-views will be peer-reviewed by at least one appropriate expert on request of the PAN editorial staff.

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The Newsletter of the Committee for the Care and Conservation of Chimpanzees, and the Mahale Wildlife Conservation Society

ISSN 1884-751X (print), 1884-7528 (online) mahale.main.jp/PAN/

JUNE 2013

Contents<ARTICLE>

The Population and Habitat Preferences of Chimpanzees in Non-Protected Areas of Tanzania Hideshi Ogawa, Midori Yoshikawa & Gen’ichi Idani 1

<NOTE>Well Digging by Semliki Chimpanzees: New Data on Laterality and Possible Significance of Hydrology William C. McGrew, Linda F. Marchant, Charlotte L.R. Payne, Timothy H. Webster & Kevin D. Hunt 5

<NOTE>Newly Observed Bird Consumption by a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) at Bossou, Guinea, West Africa

Lira Yu, Boniface Zogbila & Tetsuro Matsuzawa 8

<NEWS>The Process of Creation of a New Protected Area in the Democratic Republic of Congo: The Case of the Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve

Jef Dupain, Andrew Fowler, Phila Kasalevo, Tetsuya Sakamaki, Bongoli Lingomo, Theo Way, David Williams, Takeshi Furuichi & Charly Facheux 10

<BOOK INFO>Groups: The Evolution of Human Sociality 13

<FROM THE EDITORS> 13

<ARTICLE>The Population and Habitat Preferences of Chimpanzees in Non-Protected Areas of Tanzania

Hideshi Ogawa1, Midori Yoshikawa2 & Gen’ichi Idani3

1 School of International Liberal Studies, Chukyo University2 United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology3 Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University(E-mail: [email protected])

1

INTRODUCTIONTanzania is the most eastern region of the distribution

of eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) (Kano 1972). According to Kano’s survey in 1965–67 (Kano 1972), chimpanzees inhabited the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika: a) Gombe (Gombe National Park), b) Lilanshimba, c) Ugalla, d) Masito, e) Mukuyu, f) Mahale (Mahale Mountains National Park), g) Karobwa, and h) Wansisi. In addition, Ogawa and others (1997) found the most southern chimpanzee population in i) Lwazi in 1996 (Figure 1). The geographical distribution of chimpanzee beds (Yoshikawa et al. 2008) and DNA variation (Inoue

P. A. N. EDITORIAL STAFF

VOL. 20, NO. 1

2 Pan Africa News, 20(1), June 2013

et al. 2013) indicate that the chimpanzee population is continuous in c–h areas. This means that there are four local populations of chimpanzees in Tanzania: a) Gombe, b) Lilanshimba, so called “Greater Mahale” composed of c–h areas, and i) Lwazi, as well as an introduced popula-tion on Rubondo Island in Lake Victoria. Although chim-panzees still inhabit all areas in which they were found in 1960s (Kano 1972; Ogawa et al. 1997, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Hernandez-Aguilar 2006; Moyer et al. 2006; Yoshikawa et al. 2008; Ndimuligo 2008; Plumptre et al. 2010), the population density of chimpanzees in non-protected areas has been significantly reduced from 1960s to 2000s (Yoshikawa et al. 2008). Proper conservational planning is essential to protect chimpanzees (Plumptre et al. 2010). However, chimpanzees in such areas have been much less studied than those in two national parks, a) Gombe and f) Mahale. Therefore, in addition to our exten-sive field surveys in 1994–2008 (Ogawa et al. 1997, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Yoshikawa et al. 2008) and estima-tion of population densities of chimpanzees (Yoshikawa et al. 2008), we conducted further surveys in 2010–2011 and GIS analyses of chimpanzee habitats in non-protected areas of Tanzania.

METHODSFrom 1994 to 2011, we conducted transect bed cen-

suses in all chimpanzee habitats out of national parks: b, c, d, e, g, h, and i, (Ogawa et al. 1997, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Yoshikawa et al. 2008) (Figure 1, Table 1). As a control, we conducted bed censuses at j) Mishamo, k) Sabaga, and l) Niamansi in non-habitats of chimpan-zees (Figure 1, Table 1). We usually made a round trip from our base camp along the river to the top of a hill and walked on not only traditional paths, but also paths of wild animals and off-path. When we found a chim-panzee bed, we recorded location of the bed using GPS, vegetation of the bed site, and perpendicular distance between the bed and the census line. We chose the census lines whose tracks had been recorded by GPS and/or on 1/50,000 maps, and plotted the census lines on a vegeta-tion map using ERDAS Imagine (Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping) based on satellite images (ETM+). We then defined a census belt of 60 m width centered on the cen-sus line. This width was used, because the detection rate of a chimpanzee bed was constant within 30 m from the census lines. We further divided all of the census belts and defined 60 × 60-m quadrats along the census line. We then calculated (1) proportion of the area covered by ev-ergreen forests, (2) average ground slope, and (3) average altitude in each quadrat using a 90 m SRTM digital eleva-tion model. Using ArcGIS (ArcView 9.3.1) (ESRI), we calculated the distance between each bed cluster and the nearest evergreen forest with area ≥ 1 ha, and the distance between each study site and the nearest edge of the near-est human settlement with area approximately ≥ 10 ha.

RESULTSFor GIS analyses, we used a total of 1,026 km census

lines in chimpanzee habitats and 46 km in non-habitats, yielding 17,845 60 × 60-m quadrats along the census lines (Table 1). The area was occupied by savanna woodlands

(86.9%), evergreen forests (5.9%), and others such as grasslands, bamboo thickets, cultivated fields, and human settlements (7.2%).

In chimpanzee habitats, there were 665 beds in 186 quadrats, while there were no beds in 17,659 quadrats. Evergreen forests occupied more area, 25.0 ± 35.5% (mean ± SD) (range: 0–100), in the quadrats with beds than in the quadrats without beds, 5.7 ± 18.8% (0–100) (Figure 2(1), Mann-Whitney U test, n1 = 186, n2 = 17,659, z = 12.6, p < 0.05). The slope of the ground was steeper, 10.1 ± 7.1° (0.6–30.8), in the quadrats with beds than the quadrats without beds, 6.5 ± 22.8° (0.1–37.7) (Figure 2(2), z = 8.2, p < 0.05). The difference was not significant between the altitude in the quadrats with beds, 1,217 ± 154.8 m (797–1,814), and those in the quadrats without beds, 1,216 ± 182.0 m (780–1,876) (Figure 2(3), z = 1.5, ns.).

The ground slope and altitude of all quadrats with beds were between 0.6° and 30.8°, and between 797 m and 1,814 m. If we regard such quadrats as possible bed sites of chimpanzees, the possible bed sites were 97.4% in chimpanzee habitats and 100% in non-habitats (Table 1).

We recorded a total of 2,154 beds within and out of 30m from the census lines. Chimpanzees made 1,085 beds (50.4%) in forests, 1,020 beds (47.3%) in woodlands, and 49 beds (2.3%) in mixed vegetations (Table 1). Beds in woodlands were 0.15 km (0.01–0.64) from the nearest forest (Table 1).

The population density of chimpanzees was positively correlated with the proportion of forest in the area (Table 1, Kendall rank correlation test, n = 10: b-e, g-l areas, τ = 0.58, z = 2.3, p < 0.05), and with the distance between the area and the nearest human settlement (Table 1, τ = 0.71, z = 2.9, p < 0.05).

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DISCUSSIONMost of chimpanzee habitats in Tanzania are savanna

woodlands (locally called “miombo” woodlands) dominat-ed by deciduous trees of Brachystegia and Julbernardia with small proportion of evergreen riverine forests (Kano 1972). However, 47.3% of beds were in forests and all beds were within 0.64 km from a forest. In addition, the quadrats with chimpanzee beds had a greater propor-tion of forest than the quadrats without beds. Evergreen forests are indispensable for chimpanzees to make beds especially during the dry season, when most woodland trees lose their leaves (Hernandez-Aguilar 2006; Ogawa et al. 2007). In addition, forests provide chimpanzees with safe sleeping sites. Because forests have fewer grasses and more trees than woodlands, carnivores such as lions (Panthera leo) and hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are not able to hide themselves for hunting, and chimpanzees can more easily escape into trees (Hernandez-Aguilar 2006). In addition to forests, hilly areas are also critical for chim-panzees in Tanzania, as they prefer making beds in steep slopes (Kano 1972; Hernandez-Aguilar 2006; Ogawa et al. 2007). As a result, chimpanzee habitats in Tanzania had many evergreen forests and hilly areas.

However, the quality of chimpanzee habitats has be-come worse over time, caused by habitat destruction for cultivation, firewood, charcoal, and commercial use of timbers (Ogawa et al. 1997, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2007). The population density of chimpanzees shows that the number of chimpanzees outside national parks in Tanzania has been reduced from approximately 1,300 (Kano 1972) to 700 (Yoshikawa et al. 2008) during the last 40 years. Even including 100 chimpanzees in a) Gombe and its surrounding area (Moyer et al. 2006; Ndimuligo 2008; Plumptre et al. 2010) and 500 chimpanzees in f) Mahale (Kano 1972; Moyer et al. 2006; Plumptre et al. 2010), the total number of chimpanzees in Tanzania may be no more than 1,300 individuals. Although another survey estimated that 2,800 chimpanzees inhabited Tanzania (Moyer et al. 2006; Plumptre et al. 2010), both surveys showed that more than half of all Tanzanian chimpanzees inhabited non-protected areas. The estimated population of chimpanzees in Tanzania ranges from 1,300 to 2,800. However, similar methods of bed censuses in 1960s (Kano

1972) and 2000s (Yoshikawa et al. 2008) indicate that the population of chimpanzees in non-protected areas of Tanzania has been remarkably reduced.

A huge continuous habitat, Greater Mahale, is precious property of Tanzania. In e) Mukuyu and g) Karobwa, however, people originally from Burundi set many snares around the Mishamo settlement. Such poach-ers actually killed chimpanzees in these areas (Ogawa et al. 2006a). In b) Lilanshimba, the Lugufu settlement for Congolese refugees was established within chimpanzee habitat in 1997, and cultivation and poaching by these refugees have reduced chimpanzees (Ogawa et al. 2006b). Small isolated populations in b) Lilanshimba and i) Lwazi may be faced with extinction. It is urgently necessary to protect chimpanzees in these two areas, as well as chim-panzees in Greater Mahale.

We found that the population density of chimpan-zees is lower in areas close to human settlements. To make matters worse, more and more immigrant farmers cultivated fields except for steep hills in e) Mukuyu and g) Karobwa, and h) Wansisi (Ogawa et al. 2004, 2006a). Such haphazard deforestation reduces chimpanzee habi-tats and does not necessarily benefit future generations of Tanzanian people. It is necessary to adopt sustain-able management of trees and other natural resources. Effective conservation plans are possible, because chim-panzees prefer hilly areas which are not suitable for cultivation. Especially, c) Ugalla and d) Masito still have habitats where only a few local people temporally visit. In collaboration with researchers, the Tanzanian government has to make and conduct proper conservation planning to protect chimpanzees and their habitats in Tanzania.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe are grateful to: T Kano, HY Kayumbo, J Itani,

T Nishida, J Moore, ET Massawe, T Sakamaki, A Piel, F Stewart, A Hernandez-Aguilar, K Zamma, M Nakamura, M Koganezawa, S Araki, D Sprague, and T Nemoto. This study was permitted by the Tanzanian authorities (COSTECH and TAWIRI) and financially supported by a Grand-in-Aid for Scientific Research of MEXT, Japan (C06061064; B1257597; A17255005; C22570223; 11J07921), Global Environment Research Fund F061, the environment Research and Technology Development Fund (D-1007) of the Ministry of the Environment, Japan, the Advanced Studies on the Evolutionary

Figure 2. Conditions in quadrats containing chimpanzee beds in Tanzania.(1) Percentage of evergreen forest area, (2) slope of the ground, and (3) altitude are compared between 60×60-m quadrats containing chimpanzee beds and quadrats without beds. With beds: quadrats containing beds. Without beds: quadrats without beds. Area: b=Lilanshimba, c=Ugalla, d=Masito, e=Mukuyu, g=Karobwa, h=Wansisi, i=Lwazi, N=non-habitat: j) Mishamo, k) Sabaga, and l) Niamansi.

(2) Slope of the ground (°)(1) Proportion of evergreen forest (%) (3) Altitude (m)

5Pan Africa News, 20(1), June 2013

Origins of Human Nature (AS-HOPE), and International Training Program (ITP-HOPE), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

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of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Issa, Ugalla, Western Tanzania. Ph.D. thesis, University of Southern California.

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Moyer D, Plumptre AJ, Pintea L, Hernandez-Aguilar A, Moore J, Stewart F, Davenport TRB, Piel A, Kamenya S, Mugabe H, Mpunga N, Mwangoka M 2006. Surveys of Chimpanzees and Other Biodiversity in Western Tanzania. Unpublished report. Arlington, VA: United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).

Ndimuligo SA 2008. Assessment of Chimpanzee (Pan trog-lodytes) Population and Habitat in Kwitanga Forest, Western Tanzania. Master’s dissertation, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

Ogawa H, Kanamori M, Mukeni SH 1997. The discovery of chimpanzees in the Loasi River area, Tanzania: A new southern distribution limit. Pan Afr News 4:1–3.

Ogawa H, Moore J, Kanamori M, Kamenya S 2004. Report on the chimpanzees of the Wansisi and Makomayo areas, Tanzania. Pan Afr News 11:3–5.

Ogawa H, Moore J, Kamenya S 2006a. Chimpanzees in the Ntakata and Kakungu areas, Tanzania. Primate Conserv 21:97–101.

Ogawa H, Sakamaki T, Idani G 2006b. The influence of Congolese refugees on chimpanzees in the Lilanshimba area, Tanzania. Pan Afr News 13:21–22.

Ogawa H, Idani G, Moore J, Pintea L, Hernandez-Aguilar A 2007. Sleeping parties and nest distribution of chimpan-zees in the savanna woodland area, Ugalla, Tanzania. Int J Primatol 28:1397–1412.

Plumptre AJ, Rose R, Nangendo G, Williamson EA, Didier K, Hart J, Mulindahabi F, Hicks C, Griffin B, Ogawa H, Nixon S, Pintea L, Vosper A, McLennan M, Amsini F, McNeilage A, Makana JR, Kanamori M, Hernandez-Aguilar A, Piel A, Stewart F, Moore J, Zamma K, Nakamura M, Kamenya S, Idani G, Sakamaki T, Yoshikawa M, Greer D, Tranquilli S, Beyers R, Hashimoto C, Furuichi T, Bennett E 2010. Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2010-2020. ISBN978-2-8317-1246-8. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Yoshikawa M, Ogawa H, Sakamaki T, Idani G 2008. Population density of chimpanzees in Tanzania. Pan Afr News 15:17–20.

<NOTE>Well Digging by Semliki Chimpanzees: New Data on Laterality and Possible Significance of Hydrology

William C. McGrew1, Linda F. Marchant2, Charlotte L.R. Payne1, Timothy H. Webster3 & Kevin D. Hunt4

1 Dept . of Archaeology & Anthropology, Universit y of Cambridge, UK

2 Dept. of Anthropology, Miami University, USA3 Dept. of Anthropology, Yale University, USA4 Dept. of Anthropology, Indiana University, USA(E-mail: [email protected])

INTRODUCTIONThe wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schwein-

furthii) of Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda, are the only population of wild apes yet reported to dig wells for drinking water1. They dig holes by hand in sandy riv-erbeds, then drink the water collected there by mouth or with ‘sponges’ made of leaves. We previously reported that the excavated tailings of this digging were often ‘bi-lobed’ in distribution on the substrate, that is, clearly divided into separate piles of sand to the left and right sides of the hole (McGrew et al. 2007). Because these piles were symmetrical in volume, we inferred that the chimpanzees were manually ambilateral, that is, that they did not favour one hand or the other in digging. That is, we inferred that had their digging been right-biassed, then the rightside pile of sand would have been bigger.

However, our first report was no more than a pilot study, as it was done with only 2 days (July) of intensive etho-archaeological data collection over less than 1 km of riverbed, only in the dry season. Furthermore, it was done with only a single measure, ‘volume’. Here we report a longer study done over 6 months (May–Nov.) over more than 5 km of riverbed, done in both wet and dry seasons. The aim of the follow-up study was to replicate and ex-tend the pilot study’s findings, but in the process several unexpected factors were revealed, chiefly hydrological ones.

In the first study in 2006, flow of surface water in the bed of the Mugiri River had ceased, leaving only scat-tered, stagnant pools. In some places, the sandy substrate was still moist, but in others it was dry. In the second study in 2008, surface water flow never ceased, though it varied in depth and volume, and the sand in the riverbed was always moist. Thus, environmental affordance of drinking water for the chimpanzees showed marked inter-annual variation.

With regard to laterality, we expected (as in the pilot study) that if the chimpanzees were manually biased at population-level to one side or another, then overall either left or right piles of tailings (lobes) would be larger. If there was no bias in the pooled data, then we expected no difference in any left- versus right-side measurements.


METHODSFull details of the study site and methods are given

elsewhere (Hunt 2000; Hunt & McGrew 2002).We found 121 wells, but 67 were either too disturbed

by trampling to provide data or had a single, central tail-ing of excavated sand, so they could not provide data on laterality. For the remaining 54 wells that were bi-lobed (that is, had distinct left and right tailings), we recorded by tape measure (cm) the following variables: well length, width and depth; length, width and depth of water in well (if present); mean distance to nearest running wa-ter; mean distance to nearest well (if present within 5 m); presence/absence of leaf sponges. For each lobe, we recorded: length, wide, height (which multiplied gave

volume); weight (nearest 100 g, by spring balance). All variables except weight were for replication of 2006 data. Note that no data could be assigned to individuals, so data were pooled, which is usual practice for artefacts in archaeology.

RESULTSDespite intensive searching and monitoring over a

5-fold longer distance of riverbed and over a 6-fold longer period in 2008, we found wells at a much lower rate and had no direct observations of well digging. Thus, the study remained archaeological, that is, based on indirect evidence.

Table 1 compares left vs. right lobes of bi-lobed tail-ings left at wells. As in 2006, there was no difference in 2008 in volume between them. Similarly, the new vari-able, weight, also showed no difference between left vs. right. Table 2 shows the extent of contrast between volumes of left and right lobes, that is, the ratio of R/L when right lobes were bigger vs. L/R when left lobes were bigger. In both 2006 and 2008, there was no difference between these ratios.

Year N of wells

Mean volume (cm3) Mean weight (g)

L lobe R lobe p L lobe R lobe p2006 25 10,679 11,759 NS NA NA NA2008 54 7,030 5,854 NS 2,295 2,128 NSL vs. R = Sign Test, two-tailed, NS = not significant; NA = not available

Table 1. Left vs. right ‘lobes’ of excavated sand tailings of wells compared by volume for two years; weight of lobed tailings only for 2008.

YearN of wells

Dominant LobeLeft Right

Mean L/R p Mean R/L p2006 25 1.92 NS 2.22 NS

(n=31) (n=23)2008 54 2.00 NS 1.68 NSL vs. R: Mann-Whitney U, two-tailed, NS = not significant

Table 2. Extent to which volumes of left vs. right tailings (lobes) (R/L, L/R) differ, for two years.

Figure 2. Mugiri riverbed in 2008. Two researchers examine well on sandbar, with flowing water behind.

Figure 3. Measurement of water depth in well containing leaf ‘sponge’.

Figure 1. Dry Mugiri riverbed in 2006.


However, there were differences between years: Table 1 shows that wells were smaller in 2008: Volume of both left and right lobes was less. Table 3 shows that in 2008, only one leaf sponge tool was found at 121 wells, while in 2006, one or more sponge tools were found on average at every ninth well.

DISCUSSIONThe symmetry between left and right lobes was rep-

licated across study years, adding more data to the long list of studies that have failed to find handedness in wild chimpanzees (e.g. Marchant & McGrew 2013).

However, the unexpected inter-annual differences found require explanation. Overall rainfall seems not to suffice: Table 4 compares monthly rainfall totals over the study period in 2008 with average totals for a previous 10-yr period (1997–2006). Overall, 2008 was not an atypical year, although July was very wet (180 mm) and August very dry (50 mm). There was no correlation between

monthly rainfall and abundance of wells.Instead, the contrast may reflect hydrological differ-

ences, that is, the level of the water table in the riverbed. A high water table allows for shallower wells and so, less sand needs to be removed, while a low water table requires deeper wells and the removal of more sand. Similarly, water can be drunk directly with the lips from a shallow well, while sponge use facilitates drinking from a deeper well.

Such hydrological factors rarely, if ever, have been addressed in field studies of wild chimpanzees, but they may be crucial for explaining the presence or absence of potable drinking water in hot, dry and open habitats, es-pecially in the dry season. Further study is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thank: Uganda Wildlife Authority and Uganda Council

for Science and Technology for permission to do research at Semliki; UWA rangers for field assistance and Semliki camp staff for domestic assistance; Phineas Hodson and Samantha

Table 4. Relationship between rainfall (mm) and abundance of wells: Month-by-month comparison of 2008 versus 1997-2006 (median).

Rainfall (mm)Year(s) May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Total1997-2006 164 55 73 141 94 149 168 8442008 (73) 98 180 50 86 210 (182) 879Wells found 2008 0 29 25 48 19 0 0 121 Spearman’s rho, rs = -0.46, two-tailed, NS ( )= extrapolated figure based on partial data only

Table 3. Presence or absence of leaf-sponge tools at well, comparing two years.

WellYear Tool No Tool Total2006 11 80 912008 1 120 121

Chi-squared test, two-tailed, p < 0.01

Figure 4. Leaf ‘sponges’ for extracting water from wells. Top row: Intact leaves plucked from source. Middle row: Processed leaves with softer tissue removed and used but stiff veins discarded. Bottom row: Used sponges.


Russak for research collaboration; Rebecca Jeanne Andrew Memorial Fund, Miami University (THW) for funding for field work; Leverhulme Trust (WCM) for funding for analysis and writing up results.

Notes1. Another population of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) in

southeastern Senegal has been reported to dig wells (Galat-Luong & Galat 2000; Galat-Luong et al. 2009). The authors reported that apes used tools to dig their wells, but baboons as well as chimpanzees were said to dig wells, and no criteria were presented for distinguishing between the two species’ wells. The first report is an abstract, and the second was published in a non-peer-reviewed journal. Neither presented any systematic or quantitative data, nor observations of behaviour, so these claims must be taken as tentative until documentation is provided.

REFERENCESGalat-Luong A, Galat G 2000. Chimpanzees and baboons

drink filtrated water. Folia Primatol 71:258 (abstract).Galat-Luong A, Galat G, Nizinski G 2009. Une consequence

du rechauffement climatique: les chimpanzes filtrent leur eau de boisson. Geographia Technica. Numéro spécial, 2009:199–204.

Hunt KD 2000. Initiation of a new chimpanzee study site at Semliki-Toro Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Afr News 7:14–17.

Hunt KD, McGrew WC 2002. Chimpanzees in the dry habi-tats of Assirik, Senegal, and Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. In: Boesch C, Hohmann G, Marchant LF (eds) Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 35–51.

Marchant LF, McGrew WC 2013. Handedness is more than laterality: lessons from chimpanzees. Ann NY Acad Sci 1288:1–8.

McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Hunt K D 2007. Etho-archaeology of manual laterality: well digging by wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatol 78:240–244.

<NOTE>Newly Observed Bird Consumption by a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) at Bossou, Guinea, West Africa

Lira Yu1, 2, Boniface Zogbila3 & Tetsuro Matsuzawa1

1 Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan2 Japan Society for the Promotion of Science3 Institut de Recherche Environmentale de Bossou(E-mail: [email protected])

INTRODUCTIONBossou chimpanzees have shown low rates of meat

consumption compared to other communities (Sugiyama & Koman 1987; Hockings et al. 2012). Therefore, the ad-dition of data describing their prey repertoire is impera-tive for ecological and behavioral studies at this site. Here, we report a novel observation of bird consumption by one

adult female chimpanzee in the Bossou community.

METHODSBehavioral observations were conducted at Bossou,

one of the long-term research sites for chimpanzees lo-cated at the south-east corner of the Republic of Guinea, West Africa (Matsuzawa et al. 2011). The core area used by Bossou chimpanzees includes approximately 6 km2, dominated by primary and secondary forest and sur-rounded by cultivated or abandoned fields and shrub for-est. Consumption of the wild bird was observed by LY and BZ, who recorded all behavioral occurrences during the event ad libitum.

OBSERvATIONOn October 30, 2012, at 7:39 AM, we (LY and BZ)

observed four adult chimpanzees (JJ, TA, FF, and Jr) in the forest. At 7:47 AM, three adult male chimpanzees (JJ, TA, and FF) started to move. However an adult female chimpanzee Jr (estimated to be 54 years old) remained. For approximately ten minutes, Jr showed no movement. At 7:57 AM, shrubs began to rustle. We heard a typical call of coucal (a bird belongs to cuckoo family) from a nearby bush. The call consists of a series of ‘hoos’ which at first increase in rate and volume and die away at the end (Serle et al. 1990). A few seconds later, Jr suddenly moved toward the bush. We saw Jr capturing two nest-lings at once from a nest that had been constructed in the bush and located ca. 2 meters above the ground. Jr walked a few steps away holding the two nestlings one in each hand and sat on the ground. Jr started to take a bite of the nestling in her left-hand. Then Jr put the remainder of the nestling on the ground and consumed a few leaves from a nearby liana. We (BZ and TM) later identified the leaves as Clerodendrum silvanum. This liana is characterized by its needle-like spines that are derived from young stems and petioles but not on epidermis (Hawthorne & Jongkind 2006). For the next few minutes, the nestling and leaves were consumed in an alternating manner. Only the left-hand was used during consumption of both items, while the right-hand continued to hold the other nestling. At 8:07 AM, Jr stopped eating and put what remained of the consumed nestling on the ground. Jr stood up bipedally, moved a few steps and started slapping the other nestling on the ground. The nestling emitted some vocalizations when it hit on the ground. In response, Jr released the nestling from her hand and stepped back. Soon, Jr took the nestling again and continued to slap it on the ground. After several cycles of slapping and stepping away from the nestling, Jr picked the nestling up and moved out of sight.

At 9:09 AM, after we lost track of Jr, we returned to the bush and discovered a bird carcass on the ground amid scattered leaves that had been consumed (see Figure 1). We assumed this carcass was the first nestling that Jr consumed because it lacked some body parts; its head and legs were missing from the carcass while most of the body trunk remained intact. We could not find any detached body parts in the vicinity of the carcass, suggesting that these had all been consumed by Jr. Because of the emitted call and the carcass, it was identified as the black-throated


coucal (Centropus leucogaster), a species of cuckoo fam-ily (Cuculidae). While cuckoos are known to be parasitic in their nest habits, coucals construct their own nests and rear their young (Serle et al. 1990).

DISCUSSIONThis is the second confirmed species of bird preyed

upon by Bossou chimpanzees. Another species is the nocturnal West African wood-owl (Ciccava woodfordi) (Sugiyama 1989; Carvalho et al. 2010; Hockings et al. 2012). The prey reported here was a diurnal bird species, the black-throated coucal. Fujimoto & Shimada (2008) reported three cases of bird consumption at Mahale, Tanzania, and reviewed the predation of wild birds in chimpanzees including other study sites; Bossou, Ndoki, Kibale and Gombe. The current observation is in line with these reports: The chimpanzee captured nestlings oppor-tunistically upon detection and was solitary at the time.

After opportunistic prey-capture, chimpanzees are reported to display a variety of behaviors. At Mahale, where predation on birds is observed more frequently than at Bossou, chimpanzees show individual differences with regards to the captured birds: Some chimpanzees eat them and others not (Fujimoto & Shimada 2008). In this observation, the chimpanzee at Bossou consumed the first nestling immediately after capture, suggesting that the chimpanzee may have recognized coucals as a prey spe-cies. Unfortunately, we could not determine whether or not the second nestling was consumed.

The chimpanzee killed the second nestling more cau-

tiously by slapping over time. Similar to the previously observed predation of birds at Mahale, chimpanzees at Bossou also sometimes discard captured animals without consumption (Ohashi 2006), and sometimes is accompa-nied by toying (with the prey) behavior (Hirata et al. 2001; Carvalho et al. 2010). Here, we saw the chimpanzee car-rying the nestling after the slapping behavior. Hockings and others (2012) noted that accompanying behaviors, including grooming, plucking, rubbing, slapping, or car-rying a captured animal, rarely occurs in adult chimpan-zees at Bossou. Thus, the present observation added an interesting case of predatory and accompanying behavior by an adult female chimpanzee.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis research was financed by AS-HOPE of the Primate

Research Institute of Kyoto University and a JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientif ic Research (#244525) to L. Yu and MEXT #24000001 to T. Matsuzawa. We thank the Direction Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (DNRST) and the Institut de Recherche Environmentale de Bossou (IREB) for the collaboration and the permission to conduct the research at Bossou. Special thanks are due to S. A. Gaspard, the general director of IREB, and G. Yamakoshi of Kyoto University. Thanks are due to the local assistants, especially H. Camara, for the identification of the bird and the plant. Thanks are also due to M. Fujisawa who guided and helped L. Yu during the stay at Bossou. We are also grateful to M. Hayashi, Y. Yamanashi, M. Tomonaga, G. Ohashi, K. Hockings, T. Humle, S. Carvalho, C. Sousa and A. MacIntosh for helpful comments and edits on this manuscript.

Figure 1. Discarded coucal nestling carcass on the ground. Head and legs were missing from the carcass. (photograph by Boniface Zogbila)


REFERENCESCarvalho S, Yamanashi Y, Yamakoshi G, Matsuzawa T 2010.

Bird in the hand: Bossou chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) capture West African wood-owls (Ciccaba woodfordi) but not to eat. Pan Afr News 17:6–9.

Fujimoto M, Shimada M 2008. Newly observed predation of wild birds by M-group chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes sch-weinfurthii) at Mahale, Tanzania. Pan Afr News 15:23–26.

Hawthorne WD, Jongkind CCH 2006. Woody Plants of Western African Forests: a Guide to the Forest Trees, Shrubs and Lianes from Senegal to Ghana. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Hirata S, Yamakoshi G, Fujita S, Ohashi G, Matsuzawa T 2001. Capturing and toying with hyraxes (Dendrohyrax dorsalis) by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at Bossou, Guinea. Am J Primatol 53:93–97.

Hockings KJ, Humle T, Carvalho S, Matsuzawa T 2012. Chimpanzee interactions with nonhuman species in an an-thropogenic habitat. Behaviour 149:299–324.

Matsuzawa T, Humle T, Sugiyama Y (eds.) 2011. The Chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer, Tokyo.

Ohashi G 2006. Behavioral repertoire of tool use in the wild chimpanzees at Bossou. In: Cognitive Development in Chimpanzees. Matsuzawa T, Tomonaga M, Tanaka M (eds), Springer, Tokyo, pp. 439–451.

Serle W, Morel GJ, Hartwig W 1990. A Field Guide to the Birds of West Africa. Collins, London.

Sugiyama Y, Koman J 1987. A preliminary list of chim-panzees’ alimentation at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 28:133–147.

Sugiyama Y 1989. Description of some characteristic behaviors and discussion on their propagation process among chim-panzees of Bossou, Guinea. In: Behavioral Studies of Wild Chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Sugiyama Y (ed), Inuyama: Kyoto University Primate Research Institute, pp. 43–47.

<NEWS>The Process of Creation of a New Protected Area in the Democratic Republic of Congo: The Case of the Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve

Jef Dupain1, Andrew Fowler2, Phila Kasalevo2, Tetsuya Sakamaki3,4, Bongoli Lingomo5, Theo Way2, David Williams6, Takeshi Furuichi3,4, Charly Facheux2

1 African Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya2 African Wildlife Foundation, Kinshasa, DRC3 Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan4 Wamba Committee for Bonobo Research5 Foret des Bonobos, Iyondji, DRC6 African Wildlife Foundation, Washington DC, USA(E-mail: [email protected])

INTRODUCTIONGreat ape populations across Africa are in crisis.

Their original habitat is decreasing rapidly, and only an estimated 10% will be left undisturbed by 2030 if current trends continue (Stiles et al. 2013). The rate of suitable habitat loss for bonobos is particularly high, estimated at 29% between the 1990’s and 2000’s (Junker et al. 2012). The total bonobo range area is about 418,803 km², but only 97,975 km² is considered as suitable habitat (IUCN/SSC A.P.E.S. Portal http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/). An es-timated 42% of this suitable habitat is gazetted in protect-ed areas (Campbell et al. 2012), with most of this within

Figure 1. Iyondji and other Maringa-Lopori-Wamba landscape protected areas.


the one Salonga National Park. In order to maximize the conservation of the cultural, genetic and ecological di-versity of the bonobo, and to address the loss of critical habitat, it is imperative to establish a network of protected areas (PAs) that can sustain viable bonobo populations.

In 2012, as a next step towards such a network, the African Wildlife Foundation helped gazette a new bonobo protected area (PA), the about 1,100 km² Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve (Figure 1). The establish-ment of this bonobo PA and detailed information about bonobos living there were reported elsewhere (Sakamaki et al. 2012). This article describes the significance of this PA as a case study of the application of the Heartland Conservation Process (HCP) (Henson et al. 2009) in one macro zone in this landscape, and as a potential model for collaboration between local communities, researchers and a conservation NGO.

ID E NT IF ICATI ON OF THE PROPOSED PROTECTED AREA

The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) has worked in the 74,000 km² Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape (MLW, CARPE, USAID) within the bonobo distribution range since 2004 (Dupain et al. 2009). As a desired out-come in the MLW, AWF aims at the creation of a network of interconnected protected areas covering 15% of the landscape. To achieve this conservation goal, AWF uti-lizes an approach that was developed and implemented as part of the overall Heartland Conservation Process. The HCP balances science-based landscape scale conservation planning with the sustainable aspirations and needs of local people. Thus informed by a combination of habitat suitability analysis, assessment of human threats and vul-nerability to deforestation (Nackoney & Williams 2012), consideration of future population-driven demand for land (Nackoney & Williams 2013) and the outcomes of a de-fined public participation strategy, a conceptual model for a land use plan was developed (Dupain et al. 2008, 2010). The plan created a sustainable vision for the landscape featuring various management zones including a network of community conservation and PAs.

One PA zone targeted a forest block abutting the Luo Scientific Reserve (Furuichi et al. 1998). Local communi-ties were invited to a series of meetings as part of the pub-lic participation strategy for advancing the land use plan-ning process (Sidle et al. 2012). These local communities expressed their wish to realize this vision through the Japanese research team (Wamba Committee for Bonobo Research-WCBR) and requested help from the WCBR and AWF for the establishment of a bonobo community reserve (Sakamaki et al. 2012).

Initial qualitative surveys were conducted and the feasibility of the creation of a PA was evaluated (Likondo et al. 2007; Likondo 2008). Evaluation focused both on the biodiversity value and on the social context and the attitude and expectations of the local communities. Throughout the process, open consultation was organ-ized with the local communities (the villages Yokali and Yohala of the Groupement Iyondji). Land use and land tenure was looked at in more detail (Kasalevo & Lingomo 2010). Subsequently, a Land Use Planning Strategy

Document was developed and implemented (Kasalevo & Dupain 2010). The research team from Kyoto University’s WCBR provided technical expertise for implementation of large mammal surveys with a focus on bonobos.

THE PROCESS OF GAZETTEMENTOnce the surveys confirmed the biological value

and the local communities had reached agreement on objectives, AWF initiated and facilitated the the creation of the Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve (ICBR) by following the procedures as outlined in the Ministerial Decree of April 2008: Décret n° 08/08 du 08 avril 2008 fixant la procédure de classement et de déclassement des forêts, Journal Officiel de la République Démocratique du Congo, 49ième année, nr special, 1ière partie 10 mai 2008, 7pp.

L o c a l p o l i t i c o - a d m i n i s t r a t i ve a u t h o r i t i e s (Groupement, Secteur, Territoire) consulted with the lo-cal communities and validated the draft management plan (see Kasalevo 2010). Following the government statutes, a Provincial Consultative Council is expected to give its opinion on management plans. However, in absence of this council, the Provincial Governor gave his approval. A document for creation of the PA was developed and presented to the Ministry of the Environment and Nature Conservation. This document featured results of biologi-cal and socio-economical surveys, the formal consent of the communities, and the proposed geo-referenced limits of the future PA, and was evaluated by a committee of ex-perts assigned by the legal advisor of the Ministry. Upon validation of this document by the aforementioned com-mittee, the protected area was officially gazetted through the Ministerial Decree, signed on April 12th 2012 (Arrêté Ministériel N° 020/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/ JEB/012 du portant classement de la Forêt de d’Iyondji).

DISCUSSIONThe official gazettement of the ICBR in April 2012

brings the total area of bonobo habitat in formal pro-tected areas within the 74,000 km² MLW landscape to 9,247 km² or 12.5%. With the Luo Scientific Reserve and Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, ICBR contributes to a contiguous 5,627 m² bonobo conservation stronghold (see Figure 1). The process of creation of the ICBR is well documented and represents the first PA created follow-ing the Ministerial Decree of 2008. The process proved straightforward, feasible to replicate, and thus provides a model for gazettement of other suitable PAs.

The identification and subsequent establishment of the new PA in the MLW landscape combined science driven spatial modeling with the aspirations expressed by local communities. The latter is only possible if those communities are well informed on the processes to be applied. For this, the public participation strategy was of utmost importance. The transparent, collaborative effort between local communities, researchers and conservation NGO greatly improved the efficiency of this endeavor. For example, having researchers on the ground allowed for day to day monitoring of survey related activities, but also of the attitude of the local communities. For its part, AWF had the conservation expertise and network to facilitate


the official procedures and contacts with local, provincial and national authorities.

This new PA contributes to improved conservation of genetic diversity within the overall bonobo population (Kawamoto et al. 2013). The development of a network of PAs throughout the bonobo suitable habitat will maxi-mize the conservation of cultural, genetic, and ecological diversity of the species. The ICBR, while not large in size, advances these desired outcomes.

Going forward in the MLW landscape, AWF will fo-cus on two directions:

• Assure continuous connectivity between the anchor PAs to provide genetic linkages between the region’s wildlife populations. Connectivity zones will protect habitat between PAs from un-controlled land use and land cover change. AWF, in partnership with the University of Maryland, continues its support of participative micro zon-ing in community managed forest between the current PAs in the MLW landscape.

• Bring total surface of bonobo-habitat in PAs in the landscape to 15%. At the time of writing, an area has been identified through spatial modeling and consultations with the local communities has commenced.

Additionally, it is critical to support the management of the new PAs and assure their future sustainability/vi-ability. The WCBR continues to provide technical support for the habituation of bonobos at two field camps within the PA (Sakamaki et al. 2012). AWF continues to support the local NGO “Forêt des bonobos” and the DRC wild-life authority, the Congolese Wildlife Authority (ICCN) in the development and implementation of a manage-ment plan for the Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve. Initiatives with other organizations and donors, e.g. IUCN small grants program, are also taking shape. Through the process outlined herein, AWF hopes to mitigate the steady loss of habitat and habitat suitability in the MLW landscape and create a network of protected areas that can sustain bonobo populations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis project would not have been possible without the

partnership with the Wamba Committee for Bonobo Research. The same is true for the local NGO, Forêt des Bonobos, the local Iyondji communities of Yokala and Yofala, and the Centre de Recherche en Ecologie et Foresterie (CREF) of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Support is given by the Ministry of Environment and Nature Conservation and the Ministry of Scientific Research of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The present project was financially supported by the US Fish and Wildlife Service Assistance Award (96200-0-G017 to AWF), Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (2225507 to T. Furuichi), the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund of the Ministry of the Environment, Japan (D-1007 to T. Furuichi), and the JSPS Primate Origins of Human Evolution (HOPE) project (AS-22-027, ITP-23-006 to T. Sakamaki), the Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation, and Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund.

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2008. Draft of Integrated Land Use management plan. Report for USAID/CARPE.

Dupain J, Nackoney J, Kibambe J-P, Bokelo D, Williams D 2009. Chapter 23. Maringa Lopori Wamba Landscape. In: The Forests of the Congo Basin - State of the Forest 2008. de Wasseige C, Devers D, de Marcken P, Eba’a Atyi R, Nasi R, Mayaux Ph (eds), Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, pp. 329–338. http://www.observa-toire-comifac.net/docs/edf2008/EN/SOF_23_Maringa.pdf

Dupain J, Degrande A, De Marcken P, Elliott J, Nackoney J 2010. Landscape Land Use Planning : Lessons Learned from the Maringa - Lopori -Wamba Landscape; In: Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin : Lessons Learned from the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Yanggen D, Angu K, Tchamou N (eds). IUCN – USAID/CARPE. pp. 46–60. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lessons_learned_chap-ter1_case_study3.pdf

Furuichi T, Idani G, Ihobe H, Kuroda S, Kitamura K, Mori A, Enomoto T, Okayasu N, Hashimoto C, Kano T 1998. Population dynamics of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba. Int J Primatol 19:1029–43.

Henson A, Williams D, Dupain J, Gichohi H, Muruthi P 2009. The Heartland Conservation Process: enhancing biodiversity conservation and livelihoods through land-scape-scale conservation planning in Africa. FFI, Oryx 43:508–519.

Junker J, Blake S, Boesch C, Campbell G, du Toit L, Duvall C, Ekobo A, Etoga G, Galat-Luong A, Gamys J, Ganas-Swaray J, Gatti S, Ghiurghi A, Granier N, Hart J, Head J, Herbinger I, Hicks TC, Huijbregts B, Imong IS, Kuempel N, Lahm S, Lindsell J, Maisels F, McLennan M, Martinez L, Morgan B, Morgan D, Mulindahabi F, Mundry R, N'Goran KP, Normand E, Ntongho A, Okon DT, Petre C-A, Plumptre A, Rainey H, Regnaut S, Sanz C, Stokes E, Tondossama A, Tranquilli S, Sunderland-Groves J, Walsh P, Warren Y, Williamson EA, Kuehl HS 2012. Recent decline in suitable environmental conditions for African great apes. Diversity and Distributions 18:1077–1091.

Kasalevo P, Dupain J 2010. Iyondji Bonobo Community Forest. Land use planning strategy document. AWF. Report for USAID/CARPE.

Kasalevo P, Lingomo B 2010. Draft of Report on the Studies of Land Use and Land Patterns. AWF. Report for USAID/CARPE. http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS9_Maringa-Lopori-Wamba/9010006_PA_Extention_Luo-Scientific_Reserve/9010006_SE_Landuse_and_Tenure_Study_AWF_2010.pdf

Kasalevo P 2010. Draft of the Iyondji Bonobo Community Forest Management Plan. AWF. Report for USAID/CARPE. http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS9_Maringa-Lopori-Wamba/9010006_PA_Extention_Luo-Scientific_Reserve/9010006_SD_Extension_Luo-Scientif ic_Reserve_2010.pdf

Kawamoto Y, Takemoto H, Higuchi S, Sakamaki T, Hart JA, Hart TB, Tokuyama N, Reinartz GE, Guislain P, Dupain J, Cobden AK, Mulavwa MN, Yangozene K, Darroze S, Devos C, Furuichi T 2013. Genetic Structure of Wild Bonobo Populations: Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA and Geographical Distribution. PLoS ONE 8:e59660.

Likondo C, Ndunda N, Furuichi T 2007. Rapport d’études de faisabilité d’extension de la Réserve Scientifique de Luo dans le bloc forestier du Groupement Iyondji, Secteur de Luo, Territoire de Djolu, District de la Tshuapa. AWF.


on research into human beings and those studying non-human primates develop the debate about groups in the context of their own areas of expertise, at times in ways that extend beyond the boundaries of their fields.

Hardcover: 426 pagesPublisher: Trans Pacific Press (April 1,

2013)Language: EnglishHardcover $109.500ISBN-10: 1920901787ISBN-13: 978-1920901783

ContentsIntroduction—In Pursuit of an Evolutionary Foundation

for Human Society / Kaori Kawai

Part I: The Evolution of Sociality1. The Sociology of Anti-Structure: Toward a Climax of

Groups / Kaoru Adachi2. Assembly of Solitary Beings: Between Solitude and

“Invisible” Groups / Motomitsu Uchibori3. From Whence Comes Human Sociality? Recursive

Decision-making Processes in the Group Phenomenon and Classification of Others through Representation / Kōji Kitamura

4. The Function and Evolutionary History of Primate Groups: Focusing on Sex Differences in Locational Dispersal / Naofumi Nakagawa

Article 1—A Group of Chimpanzees: The World Viewed from Females’ Perspectives / Noriko Itoh

Part II: The Organization of Social Groups5. The Ontology of Sociality: “Sharing” and Subsistence

Mechanisms / Keiichi Omura6. Violence and the Autopoiesis of Groups: From the

Ethnography of Pirates and Feuds / Ikuya Tokoro7. Forming a Gang: Raiding Among Pastoralists and the

“Practice of Cooperativity” / Kaori KawaiArticle 2—Yesterday’s Friend is Today’s Enemy: The

Huli Society of Papua New Guinea / Masahiro Umezaki

Part III: The Formation and the Development of “We” Consciousness

8. From the “Here and Now Group” to the “Distant Group”: Hunter-gatherer Bands / Hideaki Terashima

9. Perceivable “Unity”: Between Visible “Group” and

Report for USAID/CARPE. http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS9_Maringa-Lopori-Wamba/9010006_PA_Extention_Luo-Scientific_Reserve/9010006_EC_SE_SP_Luo_Extension_Feasibility_Study_Likondo_2007.pdf

Likondo C 2008. Large mammals and human activities survey partial report. Report for USAID/CARPE. http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS9_Maringa-Lopori-Wamba/9010006_PA_Extent ion_Luo-Scient if ic_Reserve/9010006_EC_LargeMammals_HumanActivities_SurveyReport_Likondo_2008.pdf

Nackoney J, Williams D 2012. Conservation prioritization and planning with limited wildlife data in a Congo Basin forest landscape: assessing human threats and vulnerability to land use change. JCP 8:25–44.

Nackoney J, Williams D 2013. A comparison of sce-narios for rural development planning and conservation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Biol Cons (forthcoming).

Sakamaki T, Kasalevo P, Bokamba MB, Bongoli L 2012. Iyondji Community Bonobo Reserve: A recently estab-lished reserve in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Pan Afr News 19:16–19.

Sidle J, Dupain J, Beck J, Nackoney J, de Wasseige C, Biang JMD, Leprohon R, Malele S 2012. Forest zoning experience in the Central Africa. In: The Forests of the Congo Basin - State of the Forest 2010. de Wasseige C, de Marcken P, Bayol N, Hiol Hiol F, Mayaux Ph, Desclée B, Nasi R, Billand A, Defourny P and Eba’a Atyi R (eds). Publications Office of the European Union. Luxembourg. pp. 207–231.

Stiles D, Redmond I, Cress D, Nellemann C, Formo RK 2013. Stolen Apes – The Illicit Trade in Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Bonobos and Orangutans. A rapid response assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal. www.grida.no

<BOOK INFO>Groups: The Evolution of Human SocialityEdited by Kaori Kawai

This volume is the product of a collaborative pro-ject based at the Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa at the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Researchers primarily involved in three fields—primate sociology and ecology, ecological anthro-pology and socio-cultural anthropology—came together to discuss the shape and variations of groups as sympatric entities and the evolutionary historical foundations that have led to the orientation of groups in present-day hu-man society. To that end, the chapters in this volume turn to non-human primates for comparative purposes to con-sider the nature of the evolutionary historical foundations of sociality.

In place of the past objective of “reconstructing” the ecology and society of early humans, the works in this book instead aim to re-identify the creation and evolution of that which is social and challenge the prevailing theory of groups in socio-cultural anthropology. Specialists


Invisible “Category” / Toru Soga10. The Small Village of “We, the Bemba”: The

Reference Phase that Connects the Daily Life Practice in a Residential Group to the Chiefdom / Yuko Sugiyama

Article 3—The “Group” called the Kenya Luo: A Social Anthropological Profile / Wakana Shiino

Part IV: Towards a New Theory of Groups11. Collective Excitement and Primitive War: What is

the Equality Principle? / Suehisa Kuroda12. Agency and Seduction: Against a Girardian Model

of Society / Masakazu Tanaka13. Human Groups at the Zero-Level: An Exploration of

the Meaning, Field and Structure of Relations at the Level of Group Extinction / Takeo Funabiki

Conclusion—From “Groups” to “Inst it ut ions”: Summary and Prospects

Epilogue—The Legacy of Hitoshi Imamura: The Macro lies in the Micro / Ryōko Nishii

NotesBibliographyIndex

<FROM THE EDITORS>It is our pleasure to reach the 20th year of Pan Africa

News (PAN), which was founded in the summer of 1994. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to every-one who has generously supported us as readers, contribu-tors, and reviewers.

The late Professor Toshisada Nishida, the first Chief Editor, launched PAN in response to an idea gener-ated at the conference “Understanding Chimpanzees”, which took place in Chicago, in November 1986. Dr. Jane Goodall and other chimpanzee experts felt that they needed a newsletter in which fieldworkers studying wild chimpanzees at various sites could share their informa-tion and experiences. At that time, the Gombe and Mahale projects had accumulated research experience spanning more than two decades, and many other projects explor-ing the two Pan species had emerged across Equatorial Africa. However, researchers were not always familiar with on-going studies and the conservation status of chimpanzees at sites other than their own. All they could get was relatively limited information through papers published in certain journals with wider readerships. PAN was intended to serve as a forum where fieldworkers in-terested in the Pan species could communicate informally to facilitate their research and conservation efforts.

For the past two decades, PAN has successfully lived up to expectations, but its role seems to have expanded. In 1997, we adopted a new editorial system for managing the submission and peer-review process to meet the needs of fieldworkers wanting to publish small findings about the Pan species, given that other scientific journals, even primatology journals, tend not to publish papers based on

a single or rare observation. Subsequently, the diversity of wild chimpanzee behaviours in different areas became a hot topic, interesting many researchers. As a result, many good papers with invaluable findings, raising important issues, have appeared in PAN and, due to our open-access policy, have circulated within the scientific community and been cited frequently in other journals.

As we enter a new decade of PAN, we feel the need to change several of its elements so that we can maximize the niche that this journal has occupied. Such changes and improvements could include the guidelines for authors, editorial policy, publishing schedule, page layout, and journal title/description.

We might also widen the scope of this journal. Although we will keep our old policies regarding publish-ing information confined to chimpanzees and bonobos in the wild or in sanctuaries in Africa, it might benefit PAN readers if we publish papers on other species and news that is relevant to research and conservation of the Pan species. Next, we might start online publication on the day of acceptance, because the current biannual publica-tion can keep early contributors waiting for 5~6 months until they see their accepted papers. Third, we should define policies for research ethics that we should observe while studying wildlife in Africa. We want to make such improvements in time for the next issue. Any suggestions will be appreciated.

We will post an update of each change online, once it has been fixed. Please visit our website (http://mahale.main.jp/PAN/) before you submit your manuscript.

Some editing changes have been applied to this issue. We have changed the citation style. We have abandoned the original style of superscript numerical citations in the text and adopted the more common style of the author’s surname and publication year. References at the end of the paper should be listed alphabetically by the author’s surname.

From the next issue forward, the deadline for manu-scripts will be 1 month earlier; it has changed from the end of November to the end of October, which enables us to ask authors to correct their proofs. When you submit your manuscript, you can suggest two potential expert reviewers. You can also suggest researchers to whom we should avoid sending your manuscript for reason-able reasons. For further details, please see the online information.

Pan Africa News, Vol. 20, No.1Published in June, 2013Address: c/o Human Evolution Studies, Dept. of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Kyoto Univ., Kyoto, 606-8502, JAPANTEL: (+81)75-753-4093FAX: (+81)75-753-4115E-mail: [email protected]: http://mahale.main.jp/PAN/ISSN: 1884-751X (Print), 1884-7528 (Online)

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