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State

A state is an organized political community . Gettel has said, "Political Science is the science of state". State is the central focus of Political Science.

Forms of State

Unitary state: A system in which all powers are centralized in the hands of a

central Government. Centre Government has the power to change, features of the system of local governments. Britain, France, Japan, Italy, China and unitary

states. 

Characteristics of Unitary Form of Government

Centralization of Powers

In Unitary System, all powers are centralized in the hands of a central Government. There is no other institution to share governmental powers with the central government.

Uniformity of Laws

Laws of unitary system are uniform because laws made by them.

Flexible Constitution

The constitution of unitary state is very flexible. It has an advantage that it may be changed according to the needs of time and changing circumstances.

Responsibility

Responsibility is fixed in the defined institutions.

Local Government Institutions

To have access to rural areas, central government manipulates the affairs through local government institutions. Powers are delegated to these institutions and financial support is provided to manage their

Federal System

Power is shared by a powerful central government & states or provinces that are given considerable self-rule, usually through their own legislatures.Ex:Ex: US, Australia, Germany.

Unitary System

One central government controls weaker states. Power is not shared between states, counties, or provinces.Examples: China, United Kingdom

Confederation System

Weak or loose organization of states agrees to follow a powerful central government. Nations can choose to follow or not follow the lead of the weak central government. Examples: Soviet Union, Switzerland's canton system, Confederate of Americacanton system, Confederate of Americacanton system, Confederate of America (1861-1865)

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affairs.Federation

Federal state is a political entity . The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is known as federalism. It can be considered the opposite of the unitary state. In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the devition of power between them and centrel government.

Government with strong central powers

Allows much authority Goes along with a multinational state

Power is diffused Gives more power to local territories U.S. has a federal government

Confederation

A confederation is a union of political units for common action in relation to other units. Usually created by treaty .but often later adopting a common constitution, dealing with critical issues (such as defense, foreign affairs, or a common currency.The nature of the relationship among the states constituting a confederation varies considerably. In Canada, the word confederation has an additional meaning. "Confederation" refers to the process of joining the Canadian federal state.

Government

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers three definitions of government:

1. The group of people who control and make decisions for a country, state, etc.2. A particular system used for controlling a country, state, etc.3. The process or manner of controlling a country, state, etc.

Forms of Government

Democracy

The word "democracy" literally means "rule by the people." In a democracy, the people govern. The term "democracy" comes from two Greek words: "demos" (the people) and ""kratia" (power or authority). So democracy is a form of government that gives power to the people. Democracy, or democratic

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government, is "a system of government in which all the people of a state or polity are involved in making decisions about its affairs, typically by votinh.

The Common Features of Democracy:

Separation of Powers:

Legislative Power: Parliament normally in two chambers

Executive Power: government and administration

Judicative Power: courts of justice

ConstitutionLaws debated and passed by the

parliamentDecrees by the government; based on

laws and regulating the details how to the laws shall be applied in practice

ElectionsPolitical PartiesReferendums

Three Basic Types of Democracy:

Direct Democracy:Here, in Government; members have equal rights, elected by the parliament, representing all major parties. Example: Switzerland

Presidential Democracy:Here, President is elected by the members of government. Examples: USA, France

Parliamentary DemocracyHere, the Government is elected by the parliament based on a majority, may be dismissed by the parliament.Examples: UK, Germany, Spain, Italy.

Democracy in Pakistan

Democracy in Pakistan was derailed in the first nine years since independence, starting with the murder of Liaquat Ali Khan. We could not recover till today. When Pakistan was like a new-born baby, cracks appeared in the very foundation of this country after the murder, which ultimately resulted in the break-up, some 25 years later, in 1971. Rest is history.

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 Some of the politically ambitious former army chiefs like late Field Marshal Ayub Khan, late General Yahya, late General Zia-ul-Haq and General Musharraf, beside, some former chiefs of premier intelligence agency, further damage the foundation of this country.the first full term of PPP government, it reflected the uncertain political past and how democracy remained fragile. Now, as democracy started taking roots with peaceful transfer of power from the one civilian government to the other.

Authoritarianism:

Authoritarianism denotes the absence of free elections. In this form of non-democratic government, the power and authority wielded by the leader(s).Authoritarian leadership may be single or group headed. When a single person heads the government, it is known as an autocracy. When an elite group of individuals head the government, it is known as an oligarchy. Authoritarianism is the oldest and most common form of government..

Features of Authoritarianism:

Authoritarian systems commonly emerge in times of political, economic, and social instability, and thus, especially during the initial period of authoritarian rule, authoritarian systems may have broad public support.authoritarian leaders make all important government policy decisions.

Parliamentary System

A Parliamentary System is a system of government in which the ministers of the Executive Branch get their legitimacy from a Legislature and are accountable to that body, such that the Executive and Legislative branches are intertwined. Countries around the world practice democracy through different types of institutions. However, most democracies in the world today use the parliamentary system as opposed to a presidential system.

Features of Parliamentary System:

In many parliamentary systems, elections may be called suddenly by the ruling party or if there is a vote of no confidence in the government. In some parliamentary systems, parliament may be dissolved by the head of state and new elections ordered.

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Other characteristics of the parliamentary system are the supremacy of the legislative branch within the three functions of government—executive, legislative, and judicial.

In a parliamentary system, laws are made by majority vote of the legislature and signed by the head of state, which does not have an effective veto power.  A prime minister and the ministers of several executive departments of the government primarily carry out the executive function.

ORGANS OF PARLIMENTARY FORM OF GOVERNMENT:

There are 4 organs of the parliamentary form of government:

o the king or presidento the prime minister

o the cabinet or councils of ministero The parliament.

Parliamentary system of Pakistan:

The Parliament of Pakistan, officially termed the Majlis-e-Shoora is the federal and supreme legislative body of Pakistan. It is consists of the Senate as upper house and the National Assembly, as lower houses. The foundation stone of the Parliament House was laid on August 14,1974 by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . The second Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was created on 28 May 1955 under Governor General's Order No.12 of 1955.

First constitution was approved on 29th January 1956. The Governor General gave is assent on 2nd March and the new constitution was enforced on 23rd March, 1956 and Pakistan was transformed into an Islamic Republic.This federal system was closer to the one as it existed under 1935 Act of India. Under this system, all ministers were supposed to be the members of Parliament and they remained in office so long as they continued to command the confidence of the majority of the Assembly, otherwise, they had to resign. The Cabinet was collectively accountable to the National Assembly.

Presidential System:

A presidential system is a system of government where an executive branch is led by a president who serves as both head of state and head of government.

Features of Presidential System:

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President is the Real Head Separation of Powers

Ministers are Accountable to the President i.e. he can remove them from office if he is not happy with them.Merit

1. More Democratic2. Stability and Continuity3. People's President4. More Efficient5. Prompt/Bold Decisions

6. Best suited to Deal with Emergencies7. More Suitable for Multi-Party System 8. Symbol of National Unity and

Integrity

A presidential election, based on 'one-man, one-vote', with a fixed team of, say three years. The president would be entitled to have a cabinet of experts or technocrats.

Presidents take more direct personal charge of policy than the cabinet does in a parliamentary system. The president is directly elected by the people. The president is also the head of the army and directly responsible for foreign policy.

Comparison of Parliamentary & Presidential Government Form

1. In parliamentary governments, the head of the government for whom there are various different official titles such as prime minister, premier, chancellor and his or her cabinet.In presidential forms of government, President is elected for a fixed, constitutionally prescribed term and in normal circumstances cannot be forced to resign by the legislature.

2. Prime Minister is elected by the legislature.President is popularly elected, either directly or via an electoral college.

3. Parliamentary systems have collective or collegial executives.Presidential systems have one person, non collegial executives.

4. In parliamentary systems, political parties enjoy strong position.5. Political parties have less of a role (no party discipline) in presidential system.

Characteristics of Political System

Political system is the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state.” It is also called a system of politics and government

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There are following characteristics of political system:

1. Use of Legal Forces: Political system allows the legal authority to use force.

2. Interactions: Almond said “Political system is that system of interactions to be found in all independent societies which perform the functions of integration and adaptation.

3. Interdependence: Interdependence means that when the properties of one component in a system change, all the other components and the system as a whole are affected.

4. Comprehensiveness: Political System is comprehensive because it includes all the interactions from the formal as well as informal institutions in the society

5. Change of boundary: The concept of the system is the change of boundary. The political system consists of interacting roles of nationals, subjects, voters, the legislators, bureaucrats and judges. The same individuals who perform role in social and economic system also play their notable role in political systems.As described by Almond in The Politics of Developing Areas, All political System has four characteristics in common and in terms of which they may be compared.

First of all, political systems, including the simplest ones, have political structure (executive, judiciary and legislature etc).

Second, the same functions are performed in all political systems, even though these functions may be performed with different frequencies, and different kinds of structures.

Third, all political structure, no matter how specialized, whether it is found in primitive or in modern societies, is multifunctional.

Fourth, all political systems are mixed systems in the cultural sense. There are no ‘all- modern’ cultures and structures, in the sense of rationality .

FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEM

There are various functions of political system. Although seven functional requisites which must be fulfilled by any political system.

INPUT FUNCTIONS: Inputs are the demands which arise in the environment all the economic, social religious and cultural conditions without which a political system cannot exit.

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These functions are discussed below; On the political or “input” side functions are:

1. Political Socialization and recruitment,

2. interest articulation,

3. Interest aggregation

4. Political communication

Political Socialisation and Recruitment: These are the functions of citizenship training and recruitment into political roles. They are related to political culture i.e. the culture the influences politics. Political culture consists of cultural values, believes, language, life-style etc.

Interest Articulation: Interest articulation means the formulation and expression of claims and demands by the individuals or groups in the society for a political action.

Interest Aggregation: Interest Aggregation is process through which expressed claims and demands of the individuals or groups are combined accommodated and compromised.

Political Communication: It is the medium through which other functions in the political system are performed. Its role in a Political system is that of the blood in the body.

OUTPUT FUNCTIONS: The authoritative decision making functions of the governmental structures are called output functions. They are of the following types.

1. Rule making, 2. Rule application 3. Rule adjudication.

Legislation (law-making): This function is related to the making of law in the light of the desires and needs of the peoples. The government makes decisions in the light of demands and claims of the public.

Execution (Law application): This is another important output function of the political system. When the legislative body makes laws then there is a machinery for the application and enforcement of these laws and policies. This machinery is known as executive and this process is called execution.

Judiciary (law-adjudication): In every political system there is a machinery for adjudicating the law enforced by the executive. This machinery is known as

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judiciary. Its function is to punish those who violate the law of the state. This machinery consists of judges etc.However, there are some flaws and drawbacks of this model.

Political System of Pakistan

Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of Subcontinent where there was a Muslim majority, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.

Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of four provinces and four federal territories. A regional and middle power,[16][17]Pakistan has the seventh largest standing armed forces in the world and is also a nuclear power as well as a declared nuclear-weapons state, being the only nation in the Muslim world, and the second in South Asia, to have that status. Pakistan has been exercised different forms of Political system like Presidential, Parliamentary, Federation and One Unit etc. Local Bodies system has also been influenced by these experiences. It has been facing Political, non-political, dictators and bureaucratic influence on it. Pakistan has poor facts of democracy. It has been ruled by the military. Historical, Social and political aspects are also discussed in this piece of work.

Pakistan has tried two forms of government—Western democracy and martial law or dictatorship. But both forms of government have given nothing to Pakistan. We are a developing country despite the laps of 60 years. Without doubt, the best form of political system for Pakistan is democracy. But the democracy we see in Pakistan has some major weaknesses. It does not fulfil our needs. We should consider the political system that was introduced to us 14 hundred years ago.