A number of books and arlic,. s

hal'e appeared in Pakistan and other coun/lies on the historical Xle ,ground 01 /II pa,Jj/ion ana

formal/on 01 the Pakistan Stale as well as po/ilico/, social and ceo· IlOfl.ie developments in the

COlI Iry sine 1941. But little has b "n PI bUsh :J on philosophical iJC! ify n I'lkislan 0\' r thai . - ,

Th e)f, ~./On c .,0), <70('~

nl) Ite ant( /o1lcal and ~noLjo/o­ca' v W.5 1)1 0(1i/. :In'- ph/a·

10 /;: Ol:l :ie-crib.s 'h .10in

lCIId.r of elhJ .'.JJ thought 'n tile co. II ry T c tWO IQJ/ essuys deal w Ih .he concepts 01 Islamic :11:710 t( Y and sociali~m.

• .. lJ)Ok t'J rans/alian 01

.. ,961 Russian edition

I

L < c It A ( '" lJ E '\[ Y OF SC[ENCES

I r • I r ) II' f l(.IPH\

\\ 1 Slcpanyanls

PAKISTAN:

Philosoph~- and SocioloO"\' ". (Essays)

"NAUKA" PUBLISHING HOUSE CENTRAL DEPARTMENT OF ORIENTAL LITERATURE

MOSCOW 1911

A numb have app( olher COUI backgroun,

formation (

weJI as po nomic d(

country sir been publi. ac:/;vity In

period.

Thh coU nlo the on

glcaJ \ iew. .,pl!er_~ an

'rends 01 CI

country. Th wdh lhe

Translated from the Russian by R. KOSTYUK

CON TENTS

Introduction by L. R. Polonskaya • • · • • • •

Author's Preface · • · • · •

I. Problems of Ontology and Gnosiology on Pakistan Philosophy

II. Ethical Ideas • • • • • • • •

Ill. Pakistan's Path of Development: The Search [or a Theoretical Foundation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

IV. The Ideological Controversy on the State Structure of Pakistan Appendices

Philosophical and Sociological Centres of Pakistan • • • •

Soviet Philosophers on the Pakistan Philosophical Congress Sessions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Third Session • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fourth Session • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Eighth Session • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fifteenth Session • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Bibliography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Name Index • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Page

5

II

.8 43

65

8.

96

99

99

109 115

117

119 I.

A numb h we opp~ all c· cou, bacligro JIl

formalfon, well 03 po nlml dl lln/'/s"

b =- "ubJi «/j\' Iy r , Toll

.,/0 the on ell '" cw

XJph - I­

re"'Jd.l 01 c 'OI. lry.

w!h

INTRODUCTION

The main trend of social thought in the countries of Asia during

the colonial period was represented by the ideology or the national­liberation movement. Different social strata and classes united in support of the anti-imperialist slogans of that movement. Their single-hearted goal was independence, although of course they understood that goal differently, and by no means all could be credited with even an ap­proximate idea of the nature of the future state; nor did their concep­tion of the ways and means of achieving that goal coincide Grave con· tradictions divided the bourgeoiS and feudal nationalists, who led the movement, and the peasants, semi-proletarians, workers and middle strata, who constituted its basis in the masses. But hatred of colonicl domination remained the keynote of the Ideology of !!Ill the !!Ibove­

mentioned social groups. With the achievement of political independence, the closs ond social

differentiation of the forces contributory to the liberation struggle was accentuated. Still there remained to them common interests growing out of the developing countries' backward position in the world economic system and the urgent task of overcoming their dire legacy and gainin'i!"

economic independence. So on the whole these forces maintained their anU-imperialist posi­

tions and continued to oppose all forms of colonialism. Above all they wanted to put an end to the feudal backwardness of their countries anet

, give each an industrial base of its own on which to build up its economy. But while the bourgeois natlonelists wanted to reach that goal by the capitalist road, the wide sections of the people were showinS! an increas­ing o!Iwareness of the fael that the tasks involved could not be solved under capitalist conditions. An important feature of the ideology of the plOgressive classes of the younS! sovereign states o!It the current sto!lge was the striving to theoretically substantiate the necessity of non-capital-ist development. Due to the marked influence of the social psychology ) of the peasantry on liOCial thougbt, however, these anti_capitalist lentl­ments were often translated Into notions of the feasibility of some lort

of a "third" road. At the same time. the semi-feudal landlords and other social eroups

associated with the old mode of production and old feudal ideology rew

5

A numbel

have appea

other count background

formation 01 well a" poll nomic de\ countT}' sin( b~ en publi~,

acl:\·ilr In

p ,;oi.

ThIs coll~

trIo Ihe ont( '1ir-aJ \ ~IV"

. phI f. and tfends 01 e/l counlry. Tile

wIlli the c

democracy a The book

h 1967 Ru

si~ted any consi~tent democratiC' rdorms. ('\"('0 of II bOIlT!!eois-demonauc

nature It £oes without sayio£ that th(' genl'Tal laws of the ilieoloRical

development of the youn£ states of the East mllnif('!lt themselves in different wan in different countries. dependln~ on the concrete condi·

tions pre\"ailinlO! in each country. In Pakistan th£>lr operation mllSI lx> viewed throll~h the prism of Muslim nationalism. 11le la tt e t emerged a' lin independl'lIl trend of social Iholl!!111 at Ih£> lime of the birth and upsurge of the an-India national·1iberaticm movement (end of the 19th­firs1 quarter of the 20th centuries). It was a Iren <1 combi nill~ the Idea 01 anti-impe-rialist struggle wilh defence of the rights of the religious mino­

rity which forMed the Muslim community. The political concept of Muslim nationalism renecled the desire

of the feudal upper crust of Illat community, denied political power by

the British colonialists, to regain its privileges. Mo~t of al\ It-at ideology suited the Muslim bou rg:eoisle who (with

the exception of certain lsmaili groups) were for var iOUS ohjective rea· 'Ions almost half a century hehind their H indi counterparts. Hence thel~ desire to win the support of the top Muslim feudal elements and so ~trengthen their dehmces not only llg:ainst exploitation by the English bouT£eoisie but also against the competition of the economically and

politicallv s\ron~er Indian bourgeois groups . Tn the P<'rts of 'Jorth India with predominanlly Muslim populations,

where tile Muslim bourgeOisie [&>m~ali. Punjab;' Si ndhij were extremely weak and capitalist enterprise had from Ill(' \·e lY beginning been con­centra ted in the hands of Hindus. mostly Gu jaratis and Marwaris, con· ditions were hi\.!hly conducive 10 the channelling of local nationalism Into the mainstream of Muslim nationalism . With It merged the anti­feudal aims of the peasanls, the artisans and the small landowners, all united in their hdtred of the prepondera ntly Hindu middlemen and money-lenders. Muslim nationalism also became one of the ideologies erloptefl by the middle-class Muslims dissahfied with the Hindu monopO­ly i~ the middle and lower rungs of Indian industry, trade and the civil servIce.

In a word. Muslim nationalism was lied IIp in colonia\ India wilh the terntonal and economic interests of d," ,. M . . . eren wClal strata of us-Ilms. and so combmed qUIte diffe rent tende · A . f h . . , nCles. t the heIght 0 t e hbE>ratlon struggle. they all rallied to the call for the crealion of a distinct Jndian Muslim state Pakistan.

The leaders of the movement for the f . kistan upheld the right 01 the "M ,. . ormation of thf' state of Pa-

us 1m Mhon" to SE'lf- It' . Th idea that the Muslims 01 Tndia constitute a d I (e ermlOa\Lon. e confusion of the concepts 01 national_\ . IS IOC\ nation renects some

Nntonal and fer. . . It must he admitted. however , that th!' ·d ,. I lOus-soclal uOlty. - I eo oglsts of M , <10 nol l! sually view 1]000n ha~'1 on 1511110 ~ lIS 1m nationalism

( S <In t'l(CIIISively reliRiow; lie.

6

Thdt I!i. ht'Clll5e ISI,lm c",,'{, ,( whole compl .. x ot reli\!10-philo50phicat ldeils, elhical stdndiITd~ ,11]11 ~1(1<11 mstltutlOn5, and the term ··Mushm na­tIon" is used 10 deslgn,\t!' a (ommon hIstorIcal desllny, common tradItion . .;, a common culhnc 'lntl common 80CI<I1 Inslliullons. The f,ICI that the bourReoisie and lower mill1l1e ddll.w.S 01 the &<Ime lalth also shared milch the &<Ime economic disadvdntdges dS iI result of the unequal capitalist developmenl 01 colonidl India only MlclNI economIc substance to the con­cept of the "Muslim lldhon"

Nevertheless, it was the (lssllmpllon of Ihe splritllal kinshi p of all Muslims that was prillltHy in this concept. It is no dccident that Muham· mad Ali Jinndh, the "f,Jlher of Pdkistdn", C<.li!ed the Muslim lldllOn en ideologica l ndtion, a nd Paklst<.ln· <1 11 ideological sldte,

In the eyes of Muslims, Isl<l1O W<.lS <.I symbol 01 fomJeT independence, and consolidation on its l)dsis WdS made a battle cry a~ainst imperialist rule. Loyalty to the faith of thei r fa thers was deeply rooted 111 the SOCial psycholoRY of the peasants In Islilm the ideologists of the Muslim bour­geois and landlord upper crust had a ready key to the heart of the mas· ses with whose help they sOIlRl1\ to protect their own seillsh interests ~

the e xponents of the mIddle strata saw It itS a means of uni\i n£ the peo pie in Ihe st ru.g gle agd inst impenallsm . Whatever the motive,> of the Muslim theorists we re, their poi nt of departure was dlways the necessity of reformin.g their re ligion and addpting it to Ihe reqUirements of modern

bourgeois society. The reform of Islam as an inseparable inRredient of Muslim national­

ism is closely linked with the name of Muhammad Iqbal. a thinker con· cerned not only 10 substantiate the political ideas and economic claims of the Muslim comm unIty of Bntlsh Ind:a bu: a lso to explain the roots of the idea of Muslim Ilalionahsm dlld establish <l re lationship between Muslim natlOnahsm and natIOnalistiC thinking generally. Iqbal pointed out Ihat in lmlia, where the Muslims were a m11l0rity, it wa~ only natu­ral for them to want to un ite on the hasis 01 Islam; that deSire had been strengthened by colonial occupation and the policy of the coloniahsts. 'Today it is being gradual1y realised . .. 111 the shape of whal is called Mu~lim nationclJism," he noted in the mid-thirlies.1

Iqbal Ihe poet and philo~opher never tired 01 pointin!! out Ihat "nationalism in Ihc sense of love of one's cOl1ntry and even readiness to d!e for it~ honour i~ a !hilt of thc l\lushm,>' faith .... ?'\atlondllsm be­comes tI problem for Muslims only In countnes where they hdPpen to be in d minority .... In majorily Countll{'s Isldm accommodates ndtiondl­ism; for there Islam and ndli()ndl,~m dTE" pracl!cally Identical. ...

I Quoted from Sp('(,fhe.~ unci Dot"luncnh an the Indurn Con.~lIIution, 1921-1947, vol. II, p. 440. For the full blbhographlcal referellce~ see the list al the end of the hook.

:. 1\1. Iqbal, Islam and AiulIO"dlsm. pp. 43·44.

7

A numbe ha~'e appe, olher coun oackgrouna

lor motion 0

well as pol nomic de country sin. been pub/is a<:1:l'ilr rn I' ~ riod,

Thi colle nlo 1/ e onl

gicol \' ewJ' soplwu anI Irends 01 cl

country. Th.

wIth the democrocy (

The book h 1967 RI

In olher words, lqbd! re\!iluie(\ the- ptllitiC<i1 philO!inphy ()J ff'lolm .....

Islam os ,)11 expres~ion of Ih(' nillion"l feelings (II Ihe $\lhjl1\.!d tcd Pl'u pies ... an approach to Mu~hm n",lIonali~m which, Rilv(' It primarily "n anti_imperialist nng. He did not Invest the tenn with o'\nl1-1 hndu Imphr.e_ lions, and ascribed the practice in colonIal India of opposing Mushm nationalism to Hindu nationalism to the peculiar status of the Ml1slim minority ana the colonial condition of the CO\lntry-oll of which wat; true enouRh. The history of the Indian hberiltion movemellt abounds, in examples of Hmdu-Muslim patriOtiC unity, Even d

l. the hell::ht of the

struggle lor Pakistan statehood, thE'fe were plenty of instances of joillt action by the leadership and rank and file of the Indian and Pakistan movements against the manoeuvres of the colonialists. The appearance of anti-Hindu trends in Muslim nationalism, which were contrary to the spirit of solidarity of all the peoples of India fighling against colonialism, must be blamed on feudal and imperialist influences rind the tradl!\Ona1

"divide and Jule" stra\e~y. The importance 01 Muslim nationalism did not wane after the

establishment of Pakistan, the basic contradictions of whose contempora­ry economic and political development are directly reflected in its ideology. The main contradiction remains that between Pakistan society and im­perialism. Except for the once privileged big feudal landlords ousted during the coup which has gone down in Pakistan history as the Revolu­tion of 1958, the temper of the populace remains anti_imperialistic. The big bourgeoisie, grown much stronger in recent years, have been busy defending their independent economic and polilical positions. They have sought Ihe help of the socialist camp in solving the tasks of creating an independent economy while holding to the capitalist road of develop­ment, and shunning radical changes and the spread of socialist ideas. Although their ideology follows the anti-imperialist line, it reveals a

deep-going ambivalence. The mam internal contradictions 01 the country lie in the sphere

of relations between the different social strata, and also between the centre and the specific linguistic areas-especially between East and

'West Pakistan. IS an mar e are The bourgeoisie connected with the commo" P,k' , k ,

against the growing business activity of the petty and middle bourgeoiS stral~ of East Bengal and the small l\nguiStic regions of the Western Provmce, The dIsharmony between the drive for s"P'" 1 .. a-na IORal centra-isation, on the one hand, and national autonomy on 'h 'h ' , eo er, has dlled-Iy affected the character of the ideol02ical struggle Th . " , ,M 1 "" . e fuhng element IS rymg 0 pI us 1m na lona Ism, as the ideology h' h ' . . W IC Will cement the unlly of the country on the hasls of Islam, a,ain,' 1 1 . , . oca nationalism.

Another group of Internal contradlcllons is th 1 , a e IClted by the 2rowth of cia$.!> conlllcili in the countrysl(:\e. In ord" 10 expand '1 r t enterprise and remedy the country'. economic reludat\ h capi a IS on 1 e bour2eO\-

fne havf' dhJ,:ned thf'llIsl.'lve dj;!d,n: 111_ forces of feuddl reaction and ;OIl! Hying ,,, ,;tcelli:lh~ Ihe- U( 1 lA!u:;.ln~. II wh)n tl ey!lel! polenh<ll soCldl prop. 1111s h" .. hrd bolh II: Of ocnic nd 1')\1\\:31 repHLUSSlullS (the intrmillctlon ul <121 rl<ll1 Tetc._ s, the toystem )1 bu.c rJemx .II It' and Ihe Ilrugj;!le <li"w~\ the 11011 Ie (IOldIY II Jc:l I n5t uli·,r. • The mono­pollstlC lea.nlllils of th~ hili buurgel)ls,e 8H proving 01 C<luse of groW ,l1j;! tensIOn belw('{'n them and the petty boJT2eolSie Tl IS 1 'ef!ected in he ideology of the lIltelllgental<l, wh0S4 pres' ge dS soared n Kenl years, They have -gIven voice to the anti mperLaI.!t at.tiluws 01 the middle slTato from whom they are largely denved and d~ e same t,me illustra­

te the duality 01 thell ".»0<1\ position. The creation of a Pakistan home industry has increasal the SIte and

social imporlance of the working clasS, Its proletarian ,deoloj;!y has begun , to exert an influence on the 60cial thinking of the democrallc I>€Ctlons of the population, but due \0 the peculiarities of the country's economic and political development, It does nol exerl a defi'litlve :nfiuence as yet.

Under the conditions Just described, Islam and IqlJol's interpretation 01 Muslim natIonalism, as the present work "hows, contillue \0 play an important lole in the predominant trends of Pakistan philosophy, moral.,

ethicS and pohliCs, The theoriSts of the ruhng bloc ano numero'..l'; representatives of

the middle ')tr;lta are still drawing inspiratIOn from the teachings 01 Iqbal. In modern Pakistan, where Islam has been procldimed the offiCial idE'Ology, its viability comes not so much from the idea of a !l,iuslim na­tion liS from the ethical and social concepts of Islam. Iqbal spoke out in his day as a paSSionate crillc of aU forms 01 oppre~lon (Jf man by man, but he also made It plain that he d:d not con~:der e::her the rOdd of Lhe capitalist West or thal of socialist Rus,.la suiwble [o[ A",a. He cOII~lder­ed the great tran!>formin2 role of Islam the key to the speclfil develop­ment of the East. The moral-ethical solullon of \'Ital soCial prob:ems sug­gested by him is now being elaborated by the philo:.ophers of Pakistan.

as Mariet~a Stepanyants shoWS in her es:>ays. Thi" lrend of Muslim 0lI- )

tionalism is what the theorisLs of the ruling bloc are putling up against both the imperialist ideology of the West and the ideology of socialism,

Iqbal's interpretation of Islam and Muslim na\lonalism fits in nicely with the notion of the feasibility 01 a special "middle road". To lhis he

principally owes the popularity of his teaching in Pakistan. As the ideas of sociahsm gaIned ground, the ideologIsts of the dif·

ferent clas~es began to come forward With theories 01 Muslim SOCIi-115m· A Pakl'itam ~ociologist said ill the middlo::: 01 the 1950's relerrin& to

capitalism and communism that "neither of the twO 'Isms'" could solve "a man's problem",3 In his view, it could be solved by Islamic socialism,

, AM M' k Labour Problem:; QIId Policy ill Pakisloll. p. 41. ,. a I •

A numb,

have appe

other cour backgroum

fOrmal/on,

well as po nomic de country sir.

been publi! )cl:~'itr in

,,"fio(/,

Tlli.'! colJ

into the ont

gical \' iew lOp/letS an

trends of CI

country. Til

with the

iemocracy

The booJ

the 1967 R,

which presupposes the atldinnwnt of ~nn;JI IIl~tic t111olJl!h llluri1! per. fectlon anu educdtion in tht' SPllit (,I Isldul.

Exponents of the ultrd-eon~ef\·dtl\"e deolo!.!}" hd\'t' ,l1so bpE"n hJl eJ.

laUng with the ideas of ~ l usl:m svclohm <lnll '.I llIiddlE" rUdtl' ill Ord~'r to win the masses to thelT side. ACtUdlly then positIOn is 11I111I1C,11 j,y and large not only to the idea~ 01 ~OCidlislll hut en'n to the more pro_ gressive aspects of Iqbal's religio-phllosophicdl reform of Islam, hiS con­ception of bourgeois democracy, h.s utopian view of social justice, his humanism.

In opposition to them, the progressive-minded intelligentsia have advanced their ideas on a democratic, non-c<lpitdlist road of develop_ ment and radical solution of the tasks attendan t on the independent exis­tence of their country, ideas which are also frequently clothed in Islamic garb, for ,the ideas of a distinct IslamiC road of de\·elopment perSist.

The essays collected in the present volume acquaint Ule reader with the philosophical, ethical, social and political views of the different social slra,ta and so shed light on the philosophical foundations of Pakistan society and main trends in Pakistan social thought. They are thus of greal sclenlific and practical interest.

L R. Polonskayo

,

,

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

There have been many Soviet studies of the processes ~urrent1y taking place in the national-liberation movement. But one sphe re that has received little &ludy as yet is that of the social consciousness of the peoples of the young sovereign ,>lates, which reflects the ideolo~ical posi­tions of different classes and social groups. These positions are impor­tant to an understandIng of both the changes already under way in those countries and the prospects of their further development.

True, quite a few articles ha\·e appeared on the natlOnal­hberalion movement in which the authors have examined the concepts of the various "national" socialisms III considerable detail, ; The speCifics of the formation of the social consciousness of the countries of ASia, Africa and Latin America are comprehensi\·ely discussed in volume VI of The History 01 Philosophy.! And still, knowledge of the general laws and peculiarities of the development of philosophical and political thought in these states IS hampered by the almost complete absence of special studies of this nature on the indlv!dual countncs. The purpose of the present book is to help fill th~s lack. 'f only to some

extent. Pakistan is one of the states where the national bourgeoisie has had

a leading role in the nalional-ltberation movement. and which on gain­ing political independence has taken the capitalist road of develop­

ment. The capitalist system of economy is gradually squeezing out the

feudal way of life there, bulthe process has pro\·ed a very protracted one and at this stage both systems continue to exist s:de by side. Feudal elements as before constitute an independent poHlical force; the bourgeoiSie share political power with the landlords.

I "Natsionalno-osvoboditelnoye dvizhenLye i solsialny progress', Kommunisl, No. 13. 1965; KN. Brutenls, '·0 nekotorykh osobennostyakh sovremennogo natsionalno-osvoboditelnogo dvizheniya, VOPI0SY fJlosotli. 1965, No. I, No, 6; Y. Ostrovityanov, "Sotsialisticheskiey doktriny tax­vivayushchikhsya stran: formy, sotsialnoye so<!erzhaniye", oM/roveye ekonomika i mczhdunorodniye otnosheniya, 1964, No.6.

~ Istoriya Iilosofii, vol. VI, chap. 13, 1965.

/I

A numb have appE other caUl backgIoun,

IOfmalion ( well as po nomic d€ coun/IY sir

been publi.

acl!vilr In p~riod_

Thi.~ coli In/o the on,

aical ... :w :tOp/I I"S an fends 01 (

country. Th wilh the democracy

The boo}

'he 1967 R

the coexistence 01 thest' two ruhoR c1,lSs('s has not jll{'dlll]f'11 biller economic, political and Hlt'olos:!i('d l struJ;:J;:lc Iw twccn Iht'm. In Ihi! sphere oi social consciousness Ihis has ollen exp ressed Itself e .. struggle between two ideologies, feudal and bourgeois. As for the other classes, their ideological positions are very weak. The petty bourgeo· . . ISle, SOCIally, economIcally and culturally retarded are still under the mnue nee of the landlords and ulama, on the one hand, and the ideologiSts 01 the big bourgeoisie, on Ihe other. In bolh cases, Ihe petty bourgeoisie have evolved their own interpretations of the philosophical conc@pts of the ruhng classes and even endowed them with democratic connota·

tions. In many of the developing countries, including Pakistan the cia

t" . ' ss ac IVlty of .the proletariat, owing to its numerical and organisational weakness, IS confined chiefly to the sphere of economic and politi~l

struggle. The wor~ers often partiCipate in the democratic movement under the leadership of lefl bourgeois elements.

_ Id~ntical social and economic levels of development explain the slmllanty of the c1~ st~cture of the young states of the East and com­mon content of theIr socIal consciousness. Since these countries have still

:o~c:r~~cated the . ~onsequences of their colonial past, they occupy -d I same ~oslbon 10 the world economic system. Accordingly the I ~ ogy of ~helr broad soci.l strata, irrespective of other SOCial' and national specifics, shows a common anti-imperialist trend.

Futher -progresse in the forme I' depends on how fast they _ r co ontal or semi-colonial countries

can gaIn e<:onom- - d have a stake in their autarky t th IC m ependence. All classes

excep e sections of . t th ialist connections. The overall t".. socle y wi imper-

d an I-Impenalist mood h d ten ency to contrast the spiritual World of th as engen ered a work out philosophical concepts ins ir d e ~~t and the East and hons. p e by dlstmct national tradj-

. It is at this pOint that the role and I .. tlonal spiritual heritage are usually m .p ace of religIon in the na-

agmfied' somet even completely identified. The conditions f h" lmes the two are h . d dot elr histori I d ave m uce these countries to mould th . ca eve!opment liberation movements in religiouS form the ld~ology of 1heir national-

s, us mien 'f . ) nature of their social consciousness. Sl ymg the religiOUS .

Tn Pakistan, aside from all the th . common co t 'b e persIstence of religion as the most·d n n uUve factors

_ WI espread h' ' explamed by the circumstances unde h' p IlosOphy is to he statehood. r w Ich Pakistan achieved

The basic thoo t· I re lca motive for the found r contained in Muslim nationalism, an Ideol a Ion of Pakistan was n ,. I d' ogy which di t a Ions In n la, the Hindus and the Mu~lims "W s IOguishect two Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the MU~lirns eo;re ~ nation," said t"ln and hold Ihat Muslims and Hindus are two rna' India. "We main-

JOr nations by n ay

rkhrlltlOIl I,f le.f III I Ie tlnn. We dfC ,1 natIon of d hundred million. <lnd ..... h,ll 1'5 mow WI! ,He d Ildlioll With ollr own distincti\'(~ cuHurClnd c .... IIIS.IIIO/I. l'iIlJ::ud~W dnd literature, art dnd arch,lec:.:\ure, ih)01C· Jlld

nom{'nri<.ltUf(', 5('1lS(! 01 v.1lue dnd proport!on, legal l..tws and InO; ·1 c' I~,;. C:lIslntni dnrl c,I\f'ndilr. history and traditions, at\itudf! dnd ambitions. lfl

;hol , we hdve OIlT own d,stinctive ou.tlook on life ana r-' lile By al' can· ons of 1I1terndtiontli ldW, we are a Nation'"

Mlt'lim ndlion<lhsm W(lS extremely contrad;c~ory. It rellec',ed the intent of upper dnd lower middle-class MllSlims in colonial Indid to gain dcce~=-- thrOlIRh Islam If) the hearts of other members of lheir faith anu stimuLate them to political action and unily In the struggle against im­perialism and for independence; hence its characteristic identification of the concepts of religious and national unity.

In the sepa ration of the Muslim community the Musltm landlords for theIr part saw a means of safeguarding their c:ass dod political interests, while the Muslim bourgeoisie looked to it Lo help them in their competitive st ruRRle with the stronRer bour~eois J::roups of thc Hindus

and Sikhs. The form(ltion 01 this ideoloRY was further stimuldled hy the fact

that nOUfReois theorists made Islam a panacea lor var ,ou<; :":,,c'lIl ~l!s, and pictured Muslim unity as if it were a kind of supra-class ulllly, and the Islamic state as a state best suited 10 ensure national and social

prol::ress. The overall rehgious character of the ideology of the liberation

movement did not rule out differences in the interpretation by each class of religious principles or in the approach of one or another class

to their practical a.pplication. The d:fferences stood out most sharply aller the atla,n'lh'[)~ of

political independence when the time came 10 put into effe.t Ihe sloqans and programmes that had been proclaimed during the liberation struggle.

Two diametrically opposite trends appeared in the religious iele­ologies, one of which may be described as orthodox and the other ao; reform. The orthodox Muslims include the revival-SiS and the trdJ;liona­lists (chieny the organisations of the mullahs and ulaHlil known as the Jamaat-i-Islami, the Jamaat-ul-ulame-e Islam and' the .Iamaat-ul-ulam·e Pakistan). The former demand the "purification" of Islam and retllrn to the Muslim teachings of the first four caliphs. The latter emphasise respect for tradition and a return to the interpretations Islam was given by the medieval jurists, thus excluding all ('hange rej:!a.rdess of whether it derives its orientation from the pas\. the pcesem or the

fulure.

J Quoted from A. Beg, The Quiet Revolution, p. 34.

13

A numb

hm:e appt other COUI bac glo'Jn

fOlmation (

well as po nomit. d£

c,)urotry sIr

be n pub" oc .. ., Iy It;

f: - 1.

r I. 01'

;.) ".C or. 1ical " cw "p1. c: ar. lrend3 01 c count '}' Th wIth the deJ'1l.O(: racy

T f lC b( ,01 the 11)67 R

The sOCIa] ha!;e 01 ihl!; reh~lml!; ollhndn xy IS mad e IIp "I tl Ie Ilia ... .. laI"dlords and r ight-wing bourgeoiS who have ahRlleU themselves .. .. the feuoat system of economy. They have taken an ex tr~mely reacti

With

Ty stan:! with regard to private property, back the idea of a I'~' re IglOUs mona rchy_ decry the equahly )f the sexes end the religious m .. , monhes an:i so :m. '

Pte :leas Jf 'e\'jvallsm are abo supported to :-,ome denre b . ",eythe sections of the petty bou rgeOIsIe. artIsans and peasa ntry wh ( o Otm a soc al stTiltlIIl eaSily submerS:!ed 1 the course of capild]ist de \'e' T

' ..' .0Plnen!. hc) ~re the )nes who often cnliclse capltal!!>m \I.'hile idea lis· ., . lIlg pre.

cap ltd.hst social ~nd eel lOmic relatlons, Revivalism has lisa attracted those bourgeois in tellectu I a s who

would like to believe that adherence to the patriarcha l past II .' .. WI make It easier 0 resist the IOfluence of the bourgeois W est.

As. pi )duc ion md sl)cial relations develop and the feudal (

system ) e- ~:lOmy gradually gives way to the capitalist mod. o( p d t'1 . fa uctlon . e wed lrises for all the components of the superst ructu'. ' 1 • , including

religIOn, 0 _ le iccommodated to the new base. In th e fore ign and some­ll'es he SOVle. hterature thee chi nges in 'he sphe,·. . of religIOn are

64 :ne tlmes ... .a1led Illodernisa\ions, but the term hard l tC c of th Y expresses the es-.~ e ph,"nomenon. RehglOn kee 5

t:lrpugh tl;. b lStA _y unde h p on bemg modernised all ano so " poht ll:.a:1 S'l IC rIle eollm= of changes in the socia-economic re: glon ... nl : synon"'n10US . h y. That k Ind of moderniSdtion of

1 ~ I t re lOln1 wh ich ' I cllanges, bl.t ~he l,rHe.lI :evisl' 1 01 ,.' Imp les not small

, S Ie IglOUS dogmas dnd bel . , IIp.es . . U' .).l reV I~()n requ"es ,I t SIC pnn·

~ 10 sOCiety h \I 1 qU~llldt;ve:y nt:w "tuge of dev . s d IdVe f:'ntered upon a

e,()p.r.en· conn t d !fJ'J.e, oo"m c strue lure. ec e With changes III the

In the voting sovere .gn , I" tes ,:>1 he East . upon ~ak :l~ power beg . :. '0 ,an lor reI ,he IldllOnal boulgeoisie .nterpre aLl an of reI g,;,.js Jogmd!O Th ,glOU ' reforms dnd lhe rdllonal d . ~y do hdt w th

epr .v,ng ih,. rival feudal ddSS ,)f Ih, - two ends III mind: I,. (I . e I t'olog cal w •. on a crs ,I. and at lhe same' 1 . edpon medlf:'val re-" ,llle () tUtn'Il" I . ' .

2,(al prop for .ne ba:.lIgeo.s:l":_ .. e,'~,Otl Into an ic.leolo-

For illl the Imp!)) lilnCe 0' " e. glo)J. I th of the develop,ng (ountrie~ II (.dn, ' J e -(>(.dl COIlSC ousness , .10 I}e Ie!:il l I j , mllnt til the (JulllJok of illl I e, as a lon~t.n' dom-10. asse <; ~nd economic and I' I 5e( tlons of ell urd plogr£'!> He .. t b b, so, Jety SOCIal, d

I "l.y , • enL.es. . $ w '1t secular ten-

The &oC1&l eOl1$Clousness 01 1'1 n"'lOn tllone; the enltre course 01 hlS.tOIH.II d-. ,IS lhcl~ IlOt lJy

.. , € "Pn~T1t its beine (ant role_ PI~ly~ <I v'>'y impor·

4 G. Jddlll, PrNJ/dt'nllol AdJrl:"", p_ II.

14

TI>" 0 v ) of e w J .t· wo .;y~f!'!1 S and fo rmal )Jl 0 1 the ;;JC h ,t ;!,!I)p Ie -)1 nls f, he apP'Mal,..:e )1 i I Idenl y ~m,

mon Ii II hl' _H'H'loping ,unlrlcs, 101 caeh 01 the c\ilsses w IhuUl cx<.:eplion to wad .. out ts. own att,'ude 10 Ihp deus )1 socI"li ,11) , Th is tenden:y akes .he mos] di\'e rse formS". t rom aU empts to c ealc 'nahonal" theottes of sociahsm, on the one han:l, to anti ·commu nlsm .

on llf other The exsten(e of he two camp~ ldS ."1pt'ned lp I. the pe)ple.;

who have won the: r political :ndependence theJO~;lh:\ity of chooslDR between capitalism and SOCIalism. Thus the ideological struRgle is now focused on the t<lsk 01 el<lborating the theoretical principles 01 the economic, polItica l iln d spiri tual orS:! ilnisation of the future SOCiety. TIle imparlance of untlerstdnding th e sa lient {edtures 01 this struggle in the indi\'idual coulllries has dIctated the sub ject matter 01 the follow­

ing ess<lYs. The main sources used hy the author were the works 0f the prom­

inent Pa kistan i ph Ilosophers, soc lolo~ists and theolog ians H A. HakIm, !'-l ;" 1. Shad. C. Ch , Of' \'. B. A_ Da- . I. H. Quresh i. A bu! Ala ;"fa udood l and olhers. t>.falldoodi·s reputalions as the foremost if 'lot the only jeolo~ :s t of lhe ;"lusLm orthodox tradit ion on the sllbconLnent :s well

k n(Jw n. For various reasons progressive philosophical and socioloS:!ical ideas

have not rece ived profcund theore: .cal elaborat!on as yet 1n Pakl_

s~an.

They are encountered mostly III the progJalnmatic document<; of some of the political partie!;, There are two works by proRresslye ilulhors whi ch Me Interesting ill thiS resppct: the pilmphlei by Fer07.e ud-Din Mdnsoor .\lotldotXfi.~m (ill Urdu), a critique of the ideas of Maudoodi ilnd <lctivity of the Jdmuilt-i-!slami, ,lIul the book by M. Ashraf Policy 0: tlw In(/;on tdu.~Jjms (ill Urdu), ,Ill alldlysis of the essence of Muslim

Jlut IOII<.lliSnl_ III ildtliliulI- to ll1()Jll)~rilphs, we have disCI drdwn 011 the publicd­

tilJlIS ot thl;' P,lkist<lll Philosophicdl Congress. These are. primanly, the illlJt\ldl Pro{'C'('ding.~. dnd tuticlec; in the Pakistdll Philosophic/,1 Jour­

nal, \\'hile it is almost dll exclUSIve privilege of memhers of the Pakis­

tan dCddenllc world to disCuss philosophical problems, it is quite com­mOil fo], ,)(heidls ,Ifld public figures 10 deliver opinions on problems of ethics, politICS dnel eco/lomicll. With that. in mind we have !Wen fit to I:se <IS SOUI( e IIldteridl /lol only thl' type of special theoretical study llI(>lIliuJ\(.'Ii dUoVe, hul also the pert(xilcal press of Pakistan, parlleu14rly the two ledding newspctpers, PakIstan TImes and Dawn. as well a'J olhclal state documentl and Ihe progrlunmatlc publications of the poU­

tical parties. We have likewise found a aood dul of valuable InformahoD iO the

16

A numb have app~

other cour backgroun

formation I

well O.! po nomic d(

country sir been publi activity in

p,-'riod. This call

~ ."hers _01 mon,,,.. .JIIt Ute

I II ('ons\I\U€'Il\ A.sclllhly lind Ih(' rt'port dew.l€'~ II It' •

dislurham:es of 19'):\, €'Ic' There is prdclic..llly no SIX'd,11 !LIN,IIlne on ,!,~ .ubJ .....

. I fi·, Ih .~~-'ys The- t!pvt'lnpnwnl (II ph I IOliophlcal III t Ie rs ree ".,.. . Pakistan is COWT('ti in d bu"kll'I hy 'lhl' Ht'l).:I.11l priest R V

hi ' I I '"uppl€,JIlenl'o Iht' /1I/t'rIIlJ/lPn/I/ pll IS I€'( ,I'> < • •

ler/y. De Sm€'t has been tedch;n~ ph~hIS(lphy :n Indld SllIel'" 1958

had ocCdsion to participate in mun)' SI':-iSIOnS (11 Ih(' Pdkillan

cal Congress. His work is infoTIll,llln' III 1l,lhll(' and prESlmli

!lapses or the philosophical views ,~{ Il\Up rt'lIt scholars on which hdv{' come up for consiilel"dlioll llI(lstly al Ihe sympoela sessions. Thus il is somethinQ hk(' d refNe-ncc hook on the of the Con~resse-s.

There are several articles in which one i',lt\ ti nd maries of Ihe views of Pakistan's prominent tlllnkers works.'

The situation is a little better with respect 10 the literature Utical problems. Most fully reflected in Ihis Iilerature is the gioal struggle Which has flared up around the question of oreanisation of 'pakistan SOCiely. The most important

""'by t. H. Qureshi, A. K. 8rohi. G. W. Choudhury, Z. K. B. Sayeed and the Western scholars W. C. Smith, L ('alieni and others; they examine the problem of Islamic HI .lDterpretaUOD by representatives of the two main trend' In poUUcat dloulht- the orthodox thinkers and the reformists. of tbe bdluential religi~political organisation Ja'l'Mt~i.Jt""")gI --It detailed consideration.

Tbe _'""or of the essays has also drawn on the a:enereJ 1bIakn, .".., 118 the book· of the West European scholars

the recently published two-volume Hlslory bourgeois lslamists, the wodt. or

S. N. Grigoryan, N. A. Smimov and role of '_lam in the modern world, Glbb. W. C. Smith' and articles from

otbOl Jouma1l. 01 PaJd.tan. Debate.

Act II 01 1054 to the CommluJon on

Activity In PGklIlan" PaJrlalan, B.A:. Dar,

In II I 1)f1 1 Ih I poUUallDd. I LI "LII' of Jlh IOllOphi I nd lot cal thouetat lD PaIdIIaa. oIlll1l"r I I 1\ RUlIll I by the work 01 the SovMt OIlent'UTl bl.f4 ....

"lilt ]111111 pili III A M Dy kQv, L R Pc'onhye, Y V GaDkor*r. N. P .. ntkt-y,v, L 1 YUfl!'Y h. and others 1b: 'II ~ an tD •• ., I "lit 1I11 Ii ,nil 01 tllf' IhPme Illk n up by L R Po..,... t.,.. lD her __ f:J 'Lph Muslim Twnds III 'he Social Though, 01 'M" aa::I Po"'shr

nil! dulhor Wolf ~reaUy helped by the adYke and .. Mil"'" 01_ \Ol1NRul S tn the [)epdrtmenl of Philosophy and SodQk,&f of tile .-e. U.SSR. A"ult-my {J( Sc ence !nlilule 01 PbUOI'opby. for wblcb .. N"olild like to etlend them he heartfelt gral tude.

A numb!

have appe other coun oockgroum

forma/ion (

well as po. nomic de ~ou"'ry sin bu?n publi .. ]C ~\' Iy rn p rlO~.

TIJ col/. nla 'he onl

gJc]1 v w .,,,1 c-" an tren<:ls ) t 'I country Th wIth :he :it.m?crQcy

T e boo" .'lc ; 967 Rl

I

PROBLEMS OF ONTOLOGY AND GNOSIOLOGY IN PAKISTAN PHILOSOPHY

The foundatio~s of Pakistan philosoph~' were laid long befo\'(: he formation of the State of PakIstan. Thi" illu­strat~ ne of the laws of the devElopment of social thought. to wit· "But the philosophy of every epoch. since it is a defin te sphere of the division of labou r, has as its presupposI'ion certain definite thought mntci:ial handed down to H y ts pledecessors, from which it takes its start:" Pakistan philosophers drew, their cogitative mate­nal frem thl~ main sources: classical med ieval Mus­lim philo<~phy, chiefly Sufism; the objective idealism nf 1hp W :st· the bourgeois reconstruction of Islam in , d< • n la.

'T'L~ mmed.ate preCUl'Sors of the contemporary philos­opher 01 Pak <; 3.n were three outstanding Indian Muslim

' ~ i n ~ Sl ah W~ iulhh (1703-1762), Saiy id Ahmad Khan (16 < 1l93) and Muhammad Iqba l (1873-1936)< Thes" nal 1t p -t land <k < h < .. mal S In t e reconstructIon of hJam In( 3. om Whl<ch th t (f < h< , e con en 0 PakIstan p I-I" "phl:<:I t-oUj·h 1 derived

Sh"; W lJ Illlah I ved at th « f '1 ( '" ~; " e Irne of the b reakdown of (: 1 - v, and In formulating h is teach in s the hi-

losoPl er WiL 1111 "cd by a desire t f' ct g p inlT tha t (iew. Th~" I) m a w ay of rcgenerat-

>:> answcrs to u nde '1 . 1< < s( cial 11 d econom 'c proble . I I ymg re IgiOUS. · ms ay, he thought < I d< , p.1S. m he e;:u'lv fe11dal age' h " In n la s

I ,lam . . 1n t e conceptions of early

•

I-_I ~ \"

1 \ J ri,

llht- ~ut jcctiv d i t c"irt!s notwitil"t'ndl<ng<

I. • U HI '-C l l1 lL> " · h 'I( lflu<'nce of the'

A"'( • III e"11 ~y r ot hav.,. ..,. . new Pl It ,I cft.,cl 11 f each l g ~ Ib~ t.'d but whose

.. 0 degr '> Th l S I I pi c' n ""' .1 1 :1t be ~ 6hning~ o f i ~ justifies

th(> bourg(>ois

F L ': f!l to C f> .1mJdl, ,)( Cle ' '-7 . c.~O. p. 495.

/R

I'cfOI" )i L n II d I jf k Ig II e n'lt 'nat na­ture" of hb phil0;ophy. which 'qUem ted a Jothe,)ls of old and nt w in II" leI ) achiev{ a ·cgell(. _ f ' 1usli m society

To substantial 1 ·,he pm .... ,lbility of r forn , Shah. Waliullah argued that thue was a difi -renc..:- between the essence of rcligious principles and he ... m 0 their expression, and that while the latte TIltJI t change depending on the conCl"pte historical com1'hom. thf> 'Oimer were a1ways immutable. Therefore the two COl Id not be identified. The thing was to dbclose the meaning 01 reli­gion in concepts that accorded with the ,jpb'it (If the new times, for It was not: wise to go on the inle1pl·(C',1.tion of religious canons handed down from another agl' . Thus Shah Waliullah refuted t he views of the theologians who insisted that in the 18th cen tury it was still necessary to follow the interpreta tion of Muslim dogma which was acceptable in the 10th century. He saw .he reason for the crisis in Indian societ y in t hat his counLYF.en \vere still using an obsolete> and no longer suitable [ " n .1 'If ex pres­sion of the religion of Islam. As Iqbal f')in1(: ri (IUt. " per­hap.~ the first Mu:-:1im (in India,- M.S.) \vr.:, felt the urge of a new spirit in h im was Shah Waliullah",4 In lhe final analysis this reorientation or reform of religion meant its purification from the accretions of t ime. and CI nsequently. its r eversal to early Islam. The "new' form wh ich was supposed to express its t rue essence prov nOh ng bu a renovated ve rs ion of early medievel Islam.

The contradictions in Shah Waliullah's philosophy made it possible later on for his ideas to be u ... ed by r~p­resentatives of two quite opposite trends of ~Iu3hm socl~l thought. The ideologists of the feudalists mtel"es~ed In

preserving medieval relations called for regeneratIon on the hasis of the pul"iflCation of Islam and {'\"en a rdur~ to t.he social, economic and political practices under the Ilrst four caliphs. The bourgeois reformers of Islam, on the othel hand, emphasised the diITcl'ences bet~ve~n t.he form .and essence of religion, the necessit.y of bnngmg '.he ,f~)}"m mto cOl'l'espondenee with the crmcce1e historical c ndltlOlls. the role of idjtihad. etc.

LR (.ord(JII , P()lnn~k IV \IUSI;'l [u-, 1~ n 111 India (Ind P(lJ;r:,IUII. p. ·I~)

11i.~1"'}' 01 Pld/o.,ophr E(J~I(n and ,V(.'·' ... ·rn vO ( ;0.1, lqu< L 1'1lC Ul'e,}pslrl/( /h)l1 of Ilc'I! .• .Jus Tl 1(J

2'

/QI n.)ught 01

I. ~'). "~, ! II' . /I.". p. !l7.

A numl

have app other cou backglOul

formal Ion well as p, nomic a country 81

bf'cn pub/

JClidlr

oeriod. Thl COl

/110 /III! Of

gical dcv tophcrs a trcnds of f

counlry. T with the

democracy PIC bod

he 1967 J

in the wake of Shah Wal~\lllah, the <tUt.i~101 (lC n{'~ cessity of reorienting Islam 111 tt'l"ms of. ;;'C1CI< ~ vi. f'C. rl(,. mic change and the development of !'ClCnt c n«" I! 19c was posed by Saiyid Ahmad Khan, and he W," hn f 'to work out the principles of s.uch a .new <?rH,"nt~t. on .•

Saiyid Ahmad Kha~ denved his ~oclal. ongu: fr"lT. 'he­upper stratum of MuslIm !~udal socI~ty ,m. I?dla . Bul hi.s ideas transcended the traditional fC'u?al 1 chglOu~ 1deology and his political credo rdlecte~ th.(' .vlews of 1.he ImpOvel i~ shed small landlords and the mClplCnt MuslIm boul"qeois class.

Saiyid Ahmad Khan appeared on the scene at a time when the critical question of the future of their communi­ty stood before his fellow Muslims. Theirs was not a so­cia1ly homogeneous community: on the eve of the British conquest it consisted of two unequal groups, the ruling feudal aristocracy and the great mass of poor tenant farmers. most of them former untouchables. The conquest of India by the East India Company bl'Ought about the downfall of the Mogul Empire and the loss of theil' polit­ical power by the Muslim aristocracy. Then the colonialists undertook to weaken the latter's economic posi tions as well and set about creating a new landlord class made up of Hindu money-lenders and merchants, w ho were to become the mainstay of British rule. The Wahhabi move­ment and the p.opula~ upising of 1857-1859 further streng­thcn~ the anll-Muslim trend of British policy,

Fn~htened b~ yhe brutal persecution of the partici­pa~ts m. t~e upnsmg ~nd ~ealising the helplessness of theIr positlon, the MuslIm anstocracy concluded that their anI?, c0ll;rse was to make the Britb,h authorities change their athtude towards them. Saiyid Ahmad Khan was the first to su.ggest a progl'~mme fol' the restitution of the former mIght and prestige of the Muo]' "t

d th dOt' .~ 1m commUnI y un er . e con 1 lOns of colonial India Th' . . ded fi t f r . , . IS programme PlOdVI 'drs!,. orlPto ltlleal collaboration with the British, an secon, 01 cu ura and educati( 1 ... .

This thinker's political' ma mcasUiI.. . ..,. give special consideration h~ew) s (to. which w(- ;;hn11 not

el(~ contnbuted t th th of communalistic tendencies; a<; [f r h' . . ,0. e gro,,: ities these played a POSl"ll"ve I)' IS C'Chc<1lional acllv-, . 'rO('ll1th I' Muslim intelligentsia and M I' e «Vq ut Ion of a

. '. tl<; 1m trend' f L " " soclal thought m colomal India. S I) l')ul geOls

'. M. Iqbill, Iqbal and Ahmadism, p. 2'1.

20

One of th .... main r'''"~sons tOI' the Muslims' loss of their leading posltiom, aceording to Saiyid Ahmad Khan. wa ... their fanatical att<\chment to ob~olete religiOUS dogmas \md their dislike of modern \Vestern civilisation. In 1864 he founded a Scientific Society (first in Ghazipur and then in Aligarh), the aim of which was to propagate Western culture. The society busied itself with translations into Urdu and the popularisation of English literature. After a trip to England in 1870, Saiyid Ahmad Khan began to publish a journal whose purpose he explained as follows: 1< ••• The Muslims of India should be persuaded to adopt the best kind of civilisation so that the contempt with which the civilised people look upon the Muslims should be removed and they may join the comity of civilised people .... "6 A centre for the spread of secular education and Western culture was established in 1877-the famous Aligarh College, later to become the main political and iae010gicaI seat of the Muslim communalistic movement.

For all that, Saiyid Ahmad Khan's philosophy reflect­ed, as it was bound to do, the enormous influence of re­ligion on the development of the social thought and the social psychology of the wide masses of people in his country. Like many other members of the bourgeois in­telligentsia, he saw in religion a means of preserving the country's indigenous culture and its OVvIl traditional way of life.

He believed that the social and cultural regeneration of the Indian Muslims could only be accomplished in the final count on the basis of Islam, but he also called for the revision of some of its tenet::;. The justification for rein­terpretation was the premise that the Quran as God's word must correspond to the deeds of the Lord-in othf.'l' words,

"In the modern world, which is also the work of Allah's hands. A new interpretation was chiefly needed, in thE philosophers' opinion, for tho..'>e verses in the Quran whose meaning was not altogether clear and whose form was allegorical.

Saiyid Ahmad Kh:m attached particular importance to the revision of 0)(' social, political, economic and cultural institutions for which no exact standards were set in early Islam. lIt, sa id : ·· ... It is obligatory [01' Muslims to ac<.:ept

follow thos(' traditions of the holy Prophet which

6 QUilled hom R A. J)"r. Hrliglou .• Thought 01 SaJYld Ahmad Khan. 1 2,

31

•

A numb have opp£ other COUI

backglOun,

formation (

weJJ as po nomic d( country sit b{'cn publi activity /I.

p·';o(/.

Thr.~ coli nlo the on

gicai \ /cw

SCJplie's an rends 0/ C

CouIllry. Th with the democracy

Tne bOOJ

he H/67 R

)

refer to religious injunctions ,\vhile with I'£'gard to thf)se h · h d 1 'vith worldly nff<lIr'I ,\yt.' arc not l'llh: i u.) W Ie ea. .' "7 ' On

necessarily to follow them. . Saiyid Ahmad Khan urgt~d that .the new mterpreta.

tion of the principles o~ IsI,am for \~rhich he called be based upon reason as the en tenon of it uth. I:Ie defined rea.~ 'm as the "inherent capacity in man by, whlch h~ (h .. aw~ COn.

elusions on the basis of the obSf'rvatlOll of ObJcc~lve phpn­omena or mental thinking processes ... th~ capaclty of man which has enabled him to invent new thmgs and led him on to understand and conttol the .forces of .nature . . :'~

Thus his teachings conflicted ~lth the ~Jew~ of t.he Muslim theologians (ulama) of Indla who mamtamed that the realm of religion was inaccessible to . the reason of man and that while the word of God and hIS Prophet were , Absolute Truth, the reason of man was prone to erroneous argumentation. The ulama demanded uncondi tional obser­vance of all the tenets of the Quran, and wh ere the holy book did not offer clear answers, they urged believers to put their trust in ihe authority of the theologians.

Saiyid Ahmad Khan did not deny the limitations of individual rea~on, but he was by no means a sceptic and believed in the power of human reason. " ... The reason of one man can be cOlTccled by that of the other and the reason of one age by that of the other age .... It is reason with all its shortcomings and pitfalls that can alone help us in understanding the problems of life and religion.'·9

The philosopher was highly critical of mysticism, con­demning its scepticism and stress on the inferiority of in­dividual reason in order to prove the existence of divine revelation as the criterion of truth. He did not reject revelation, tor that would have been an refu~ation of the teaching .of Islam on the Prophet and ongm of th.e Quran. He dId try, however, to interpret concept ratlonally.

Thu.s to him wahy (inspiration), in moments of revel.attOn appears to n~a~, wa~ an "inherent capacity", vary~ng degrees, of a~ hvmg ~hmgs from the insect to but In the latter thiS ca~aclty reached its . point and became a capacity to grasp divine truth.

-rbid. pp 27J. 274.

B Ibid. P 161. lI)/a. pp 163 lfi4

'2

It folIc WI d lngie-all !'Om the premise that all men ar€' endowt.-d with 1JJa1iy, that any given individual hilS the potent '"'I 'er 'l()r::l~ccy, Clild so this ]o"t it~ supt'rnatural connot It hf' h 0rht't n J\V apI=2al"ed in the guise 'Jf a man. It W,ls th ' 1 hllo~opher'~ belief that there are men of geniUS not only in scif:'nce and art but also in the reJigiou$ sphere. 'The~e lI·n the prophets whose extraordinary gifts enable them to grasp moral truths and explain them to other~.

The ;)bovt:, ~xpl<lnation of the e~sence of prophethood Was an adPiptaJirn of I~]am to the condition:> of the 19th -century and made it tn()re palatable to the new generation vith its kaning·; tow..ard rational thinking. Al the same I

time the assertion that t.he Prophet was a man, albeit one of genius, left room for conclusions as to the historical con­ditionality-of his thoughts, and th en in turn as to the pos­sibility and necessity of introducing corrections into the P rophet's teachings which would take into account the changes going on in the world. Saiyid Ahmad Khan did not draw any such direct conclusions; he simply called for the ration.")l interpretation of religious dogma. His crite­rion for the determination of the truth of one or another religious principle was that it must serve nature a<; well as the mind, which is to say that if religion did not con­tradict human nature and nature at large, it was true. Nature. -in his view, was "a closed system of the universe which obeys cpr1ain laws of mechanics and physics". Everything in the world, from inorganic matter to man and his intellcct, was dependent upon its laws. "The actions and thoughts of man and even his beliefs are all differcnt chains in the inexorable lmvs of nalure."lo

These idp<1s o[ the Muslim thinker did not fit in at all with the theological viewpoint since they left no place fOi: God. It is hardly surprising that they were subjected to particulal'ly bittet' attacks. Djamal ud-Don aI-Afghani con­demned Saiyid Ahmad Khan for his uncritical accept:: nee of the definition of nature formulated by the scholars of the 19th century, and called him a dahriya (the medieval Muslim name for an advocate of natural philosophy, 0r u one who b0lievf'.-> only in nature and not God").11 To th.is the philosopher replied that his definition of n.qture dId not rule out the reality of the existence of God, who was

I() rbid., p. 151 II Ibid.

A numt have app other cou bachgrour.

for mation

well as pc nomic d country sL been pub/. aCtivily JJ

p('riod.

This co/ Into the on gjcal ... ic\\

$Opllt'rs 01

Irends of ( ~ountry. TI

wIth the Ijemocracy

Thc boo the 1961 F

th primary source of everything. He did not even try 10 ed any arguments in support of thl.s conclusion· h

proure fG d '. simply admitted that the I~rue essence 0 0 was beYond the reach of man's mind. What the study of Nature leads one to believe is only the first .cause, .but as finlte beings we are not capable of knowmg HIs nature and a(.

'b t "12 tn u es. . . . hI' d t Simultaneously the philosop er ne 0 prove that,

of all the religions, Islam alone was m full accord with natu.re. "Islam is nature," he sa1d, "and nature is Islam.'· 13

In support of this identification, Saiyid Ahmad Khan advanced the proposition that Islam was a religIOn which exclusively took cognizance of the laws of nature,. and re. jecled prejudice and the supernatural; as he said, "th. Quran does not support the happening of events or oc· currences that are against the laws of nature or violate the usual course of things."14 There is no room in life for miracles; it is simply that people do not know all the as yet and hence some phenomena seem "miraculous" them. Actually miracles never violate the laws of ty and unity of nature; they only show that many of laws are as yet unknown to us. in

While rationally interpreting the phenomena that ligion calls miracles, Saiyid Ahmad Khan was hesitant admit that such thoughts were suggested to him by own reason; he even tried, in fact) to prove that his cl~ions were drawn from the very principles of whIch ~nd he offered a ne~v,. "natural" explanation of verses In the Quran descnbmg supernatural All the reformer's efforts to bolster his rationalistic tion with quotation~ from the Quran were futile} Not only the Muslim theologians of his time but contemforary Pakistan philosophers regard' his of the supernatural as proof of his lack of faith fower of God, whom they believe capable of any miracle in defiance of the laws of t

d Kh ' 't' fi na ure Ahma an s cn 1CS nd fault with his . 'nir and his whole conception of God accvled~s on

h · . th ld" , or mg to everyt Ing In e wor IS Interconnected by a chain

'~/bid., p. 179. 13 Ibid., p. 156. H Ibid., p. 182. 15 Ibid.

•

causality. At the end of the chain is the cause of all causes or original cause, i.e. God. Like a watchmakel', God h:\s created a mechanism which functions according to ddinilc laws. Just as a perfect mechanism does not require the in­tervention of the master, so the world does not require lhe intervention of the Maker, for independent laws of nature are eternally in operation there. So} while assigning to God the role of original cause, Saiyid Ahmad Khan at the same time denied his active influence en the development of the universe. Objectively God was not left any place in either the material or the spiritual world.

In the sphere of morality, God was in effect replaced by an independent law of truth and falsehood ; God was the creator of good and evil, but man himself chose between them. It was a mistake to think that punishment and reo ward were determined by the will of God; they were entirely dependent on the law of truth and falsehood," on the character of the individual's deeds. The philosopher urged his fellow men. not to wait with their hands folded in prayer for gifts from heaven} but to work with a WIll for their happiness. Prayer only brought comfort in be­reavement; all else was the work of man's own hands and mind.

No wonder Saiyid Mehdi Ali, one of Saiyid Ahmad Khan's ideological opponents, was moved to say in reply to the claim that God could not intervene in or interrupt the laws of nature and morality: "then God is really dethroned and all religious life becomes extinct."l7 Prayer, too, said the same critic, "will become a cold tribute of perfunctory worship to a God whose arm is never stret­ched out in answer to prayer .... "18 The disastrous result would then be that "man learns to think that his welfare depends entirely upon the accuracy of his knowledge ?f those general laws by which the course of the world 18

determined, and from his skill in adapting himself to them. There would be stimulated in him a spirit of self-hardness and self -assertion as towards God .... " 19

The religious dogmatists had good reason t~ criticise the views of Saiyid Ahmad Khan so harshly. ~ con~pt of the role of God in the life of man gave relIglo-philoo-

L6 Ibid., p. 118. 17 Ibid., p. 204. L' Ibid., p. 205. II Ibid •

u

Anum have OPI other cO{ backgrou

lormal/on well as p nomic ( country s

ophical justification to the nccpssity f,ol' In Individual line of condud independent of the MCl~('r s will. l~ut It Sl'l"\'ed lht, goal the enlightener haj ~ hlltlsll!: ~() 'll11ulait' the Muslim's interest in indl'pendf'nt t.11(~ught, 1Il1bUl' him with belief in his own strength, roUSP hun to strllggh- for a leading position in Indian society,

At the same time Saiyid Ahmad Khan's religious and philosophical views clashed sharply with his own political credo, which taught obedience to the existing colonial system. The ambi\Talence of his philosophy mirrored the objective contradictions of the movement of Muslim En· lightenment. contradictions arising from the ambivalence of the position of the Muslim bourgeoisie in Ind ia-their relative weakness compared to the other bourgeois groups (mostly Hindu), their close ties with the landlords, their dependence on the British, and concern to consolidate the upper strata of the Muslim community as a religious mi­nority group,

The growing economic and political activity of the Muslim sections of the Indian bourgeoisie and consequent

of their differences with the bourgeoisie of . metropolitan country plus the general upsurge of the

J-beratlOn movement following the First World War and ~~ Revolution in Russia, and the radiealisation

mtelligentsla-such were the factors making for the of new philosophical trends. These same

the de;;ire of Muslim ideologists to use of uruting .the masses in the struggle and resolvmg their social as well as

of these new trends in the India at the modern stage of the

proved to be

as a great poet and also a There are an Iqbal

his name, the Wid Iy read, and

every year about

:p~<()r~ Y(" ,"h ': 1~~?~ ,r" jf' gubc()~tinent look expres­sly til hH 1 1 tt c , .. r Illtu' 1 hther ThIS is to be p~ lained by a numl I (,f r.11'CUi t~nces. p

In th(" fir 1. ~lacp, Iqballwag a g. "at poetj his literary talent enabled hIm lq couch his ideas in subtle and beauti­Iul form\) whIch W('re I'Nldily under'tood by th, p' 1· th r t

· th . LOp C. us os enn~ e spread of his ide;IS,

FUl,'thC'rmol'(', he was familiar with Western philosophy and s~l~ncc a~d knew h(!w to prese~t the ideas of religiou"<;

odCl nIsI? wIth, thcoretlcal persUa5lOD, His desire to bring ~he tcac~mgs ?! Islam cl()ser to Western philosophy and he findmgs oj r~odern science echoed the mood oC the

younger gcnprahon o( the national bourgeoisiE' and intel­lectuals, who wanted to cast off the burden of the old dog-mas and adopt new ideals. ---- .-- --

Finally, and this is probably the most important reason Muhammad Iqbal's political credo ,vas intensely anti-colo~ nial and anti-imperialist. \Vherc·a3 Saiyid Ahmad Khan !au~ht loyal~y to the British as a means of sah'aging the IndIan Musl.lm community. Iqbal raised the slogan of stnl~gle agamst the colonial authorities and fi'lyed sla.vish odedlcnce, He blamed hlS own coutrymen fer India's still being a pearl in a foreign crown,

The poet called on them to end t>-te old way of life for the sake of the happiness of the present and future gene­rations,

Think of thy country, 0 thouRhlless trouble is brewing; In heaven there are desi~ns for thy Tuin, See that which is happening and that which is to happen I What is thNe in the stories of olden tImes? If you fail to lInrlf'Tstand ths you Will he ('xterm n ed

o people of HindustanI Even your slory will not be preserved in tht" anualo; ('If the

worldlll

It was Iqbal's great-merit that he felt and could express in his poetry the vital necessity of fighting for national

But he, too, made Islam the theoretical of the struggle and believed in the possibility of

the existing social order on the basis of that ideology. The comer-stone of his philosophy was

recognition of religion as the most perfect form of the "Philosophy' he S"id, 'm

the c8'\boal pooltlon of rellgloo ud baa

)

A nun have ap other co backgro

lormalio. ..... 1'11 a~ . nomiC'

coup1ry . b, en pill GC/ari/y

p r lOll.

Th c( 10 Ih (

~ol \oj

t' b t t admit it as something focal in the J:rocess of ,vfle tU

0 thes,'s ":!2 Iqbal did not deny the role of re ec lve syn . [' , -, d philosophy in the process 0 cogmtIon, bUt

SCIence an bl f dr' believed religion alone to be ,capa e 0 e Iven~g un~ [ t t kind [,-om its phght. 23 or all the f31th. he or una e man 'd ' ' 'd d r lam the best although he sal It was absolu·

conSl ere S ' f" f tel necessary to reconstruct Islam. or conserva Ism is as kd in religion as in any other departm~nt of human activitv."2~ He triEd to reconstIuct Islam ,:",:,th an eye, on the on~ hand. to "the philosophical traditIon of I~lam", a d on the other to "the more recent developments In the

n , . led "25 various domains of human know ge. .

Of all the Muslim thinkers who preceded hIm, the closest to Iqbal were the medieval Sufists. There seem to be several reasons for this. At the end of the 11th beginning of the 12th century Sufis~ was legaJ ised and became the dominant trend in Sunm Islam, thanks to its distinguished exponent al-Ghazzali (1058-1111), who suc­ceeded in adapting it to orthodox Islam. At the same time, insofar as it was not an integrated religio-philosophical system and permitted symbolism and allegory, it left the field open for metaphysical quests and so attracted with a leaning towards independent thought. "To truct philosophical theories and remain a faithful was not alwa:vs easy," wrote Y. E. Bertels, "but the screen of Sufi terminology one could keep de jure in Islamic bounds while transgressing them de facto .

The thinker who influenced Iqbal most was Rumi (1207-1273). and not so much because of the "'" affinities of the two men as because Rurni's art br DCA' life into the humanistic and democratic elements _17 Sufism,

Iqbal the reformer accepted much of Ghazzali's ol. intuition; from Rumi and aI-Jill he took

on man's. relations with God, on Hthe perfect to arrIve at that state of perfection. But he

all the way with the Sufis; he was critical of and became more decidedly so as the

Above all he was not in agreement ~

Tile Rnoftllrucflon 01 ReligloLU Thought In Islam, p.

..... I ~a lIIeratura, p. 119.

t(·;"\chin/.t that ~an must give up the world in order to s t free that pal-tu:lc of divine essence which is contained ~n hi"> soul and so ?t"Come absorbed in the substance of ~.

Iq,?al I'ecogm~d the danger that lurked in Sufism of ~educmg. all hu~an activity to passive meditation. He said' The ulhmat? aim of the ego is not to see something, but

to be ~methJng .... The end of the ego's quest is not emancipation from the limitations of individuality' it is on the other hand .. a _more precise definition of it. Th~ final act is not an int.ellectual act, but a vital act which deepens the whole being of the ego and sharpens hioi

'II "27 Wl .... In his opinion, creative activity and struggle were the

true expressions of the essential nature of man tor "the world is not something to be merely seen ~r known through concepts, but something to be made and re-made by continuous action."28

The Muslim reformer perceived that mysticism "des­troys the egds creative freedom" and that "medieval mystic technique can no longer produce original discove­ries ot Truth."20 To work out a new method. he advised his countrymen to study the experience of the West. "With the r&1.wakening of Islam. therefore, it is necessary to exa­mine, in an independent spirit. what Europe has thought and how far the conclusions reached by her can help us in the revision, and. if necessary, reconstruction of theologi­cal thought in Islam.'·:X1

And Iqbal himself did take from the West whatever cOl'responded most to the basic premises of his philosophi­cal conception. He made it his goal to create a system resting on model'ni~cd Islam, and tried to prove that the , philosophy of Islam was not outdated but merely needed to have its principles expressed in the terminology and ideas of the new times. From that premise it remained for him to find points of contact between Muslim philosophy and the mOOel"n theories of the West. He interes~ed him­self. for instance. in the gnosiological ideas of ~ergson) which he found similar to those of Rumi: the latter;-in- his opinion, had anticipated Western philosophers, specifically

27 M. Iqbal, The RecfJnstruc'Jon 01 Rellglow Thought In Ialam, p. t 98.

D Ibid. H Ibid., p. 183. IJI) Ibid., p. 8 .

A nurr have ap o/heI co baCkglOli

/ormaliol

well as ~

nomic counfry ~

been pub acli\.";ty

nod.

Th .

t of the relation b(>tw( ~n in tellect . l' t 'eatm(,,11 .

Bergson, 111 llS I d' 'landing of the ('ssence and nature d ' t 'tion and un e1 s l' f th W an 111 .u~ . "The latest spf'CU (l11On 0 e est

of intUItIOn pel se. iii S ) has not passf'd beyond what an (meaning B€'rgsonl'~ 'h~d thOUght and presented seVen Asian and a Mus un . 'ed ago "~I

hundr vears l' " t rest in the philosophy of F iehte an Nor was Iqba sine . h t f h . . . ht' 'nterpretation of t e concep 0 t e

accIdent. In'dFIC h e s ~f the familial' idea of the Mu slim ego he heal h echoeh\e sympathised) that there is an indi-mystics (WIt W lC . , d h D" S b vi~ib1e bond between the human ego an t e .lvme u s-

L 'b " plul'alism also suggesled to hIm parallels t ance el mzs . '1 h f k with 'the pluralistic conceptions of the phlOSOp y . 0 ,a-

I t te Tn other words, Iqbal accepted pn manly am. e c .. e . h' 1 '

lh 'd~'s of the Western philosophers w lC 1 I n one way ose I ~ ') h' I t d't '

other fi t ted into the Muslim phI OSop lca ra I lOn . or an I b I' h 'l h' Somf> scholars would have it that q a sp 1 OSop y IS a sort of carbon copy of Ni etzscheism, ~l'ofe~sor ,E. G. BrownE' of Great Britain has even called lt an OrIental adaptation of Niot zscheism," Other scholars take the diametrically opposite view. completely denymg any Nietzschean inftu('ncf' on the Muslim reformer and seeing "nothing in common" between them.:l.l

Both of the'" extremcs appear to be wrong, Iqbal un­felt the infiu€'nce of Nietzsche. but was not one

His interest in thf' German philosopher from a desire to ('reate a Muslim philosophy of

that would suit the aims of the nation al-liberation He was attracted by Nietzsche's ideal of a SU­

.9i will, capable of heroic living, He was his rejection of Christian asceticism, which to slavish ' for he himself strongly ! by the Muslim mystics.

. imagery, for instan ce the and coal as symbols of firmness and

the vision and literary gifts Iqbal r,pjected the basic

and Inlu lJon In Bergson

of hIS philo:,(lphv 1n his opinion, despIte his visum o r the (~~vin( " Ihan}l" ... to which he mlght h""v L rrc 1 proph­d, NwfJ'>l'hf' n v r t (lmC one bc:causl' f) ly he relied cn~il't.1y nil Ill:", }W __ 11'UIt~f'S .. withoul :)ee'l;ing "external gUIdance I,n hI.; bpn'llual hfe , and bccondly. becaW'it he entrusted the ,. ,alisation of his philosophical principles only to the ('lill', whom he contrasted to th,::, c.ommon "hcl'd".3~ This aihei"m ana cYnic1.1- ari-.;tocI~ath;m made> Niet::bchdsm u~ac~eptab.lc l.O ~al whosp philosophy was lI1spu'(,xl by hellef m an mdlvIslble bond bE tween man and God, man and sociel)

Th(' desire' to build his philosophical system on a foun­dation of national tradition, closely linked \vith the religio­philosophieal prin<..:iples o[ Islam, determined the overall direction of Iqbal's search and construction of a metaphy­sical, objectivist-idealistic system. He tooK an approach to the problems of existence characteristic of idealistic plu­ralism) or the division of nature into ~I'.atc elements .... H is " spiritual pluralism" was the result olIiiS crItIque of the idealistic scheme of atoms found in the philosophy of kalam,

According to the foilowers of kalam (the mutakallim), the world an d each body con sists of minute indivisible particles or djawhar (which "cannot be split up any fur­ther" ) ,3~)

In contrast to the Epicurean atiJmists, the mutakallim believed that the particles did not exist etemally in the u niverse, but were continually beine created by God a t his own discretion and consequently could also be non­existenl."; The mutakallim held that all atoms were the same and had no property of potentiality, Things had no constant p roper ties, as these had to be created anew each time by God, "When God makes a simple substance he puts into it whatever accidens he pleases."37 This vanishes at once for it cannot last two moments, Therefore God puts into each new moment an accidens of ,the same type, "This goes on ail the time as long as God wishes the given type of accidens to be preserved,"38 When a man writes,

34 M . Iqbal. The Recon lIU lion oj RelJgiow Tho 86 M. Malmomdes. 'Gwde of the PelpJey9d

Russian translation by A. I Rubio gtven IIl0a0JII Srednel hll I lIGna VII XII vee p­

.. Ibid.. P. 288

. 7 Ibid. P. 293. "Il>Id

-, . . not he who is moving thl' pen; t.he m()v~~

for lfls~nce,.lt ~~ 'md the hand of the man th<tnks to ment al'lses 1I~ e Ph en 'b God '['h!~ ,feneral c'mclusl'm o[ h · tsglVentemy,· - , .

1 e Impe U l' therefore "no body exis1s \'w'hlC.:h ItsC'H the mutakal 1m wa~ , '. .. 1 •

od action' the ultimate aclive prmCipJ..' IS

can pr uce any , God."39 .• .

Iqbal tried to critically appraIse the.,teachIng of k~lam and turn "the Asharite scheme of atOlTIl»m mto a spu ltunl

pluralism"':'iO . ' He approved of the general mU.~1kaIlJln ~~c:pu~~ o.f

being and particularly str~ss~d Its dlalf\c Llcul . cha_ld~Le~ expressed, as he thought, In Its hypotheses on the unhml­ted number of atoms constantly generated and the aCCI­dental properties of matter being created anew each ti~e

y God' from these premises he deduced that everythmg wa inc~nstant and subject to change in the world.Iot

What he objected to chiefly in kalam was the claim that all atoms were the same, reason and soul being nothing but accidentia, He himself maintained a more consistent line of idealistic monism and criticised the mutakallim for calling the soul (or reason) merely one of the propertie, of substances, thereby aligning themselves with the posi­tion of materialism and opposing "the real trend of their own theory", lo2

Truly, the mutakallim approach warranted the assump­tion that two substances-a material and a spiritual exis­ted. Iqbal objected to such dualism. All reality, he said, "is essentIally spmtual; the world is the self-revelation of the ultimate reality-God.""

God-or Ego with a capital letter engenders multi­t~des of egos of various grades in each of whom he reveals hImself. "The world, in all its details from the mechanical movement of what we call the atom of matter to the free ~vement of thought in the human ego is the self-revela­tIOn of .the .'Great I Am.' ,," The Ego reaches its highest expresslOn 10 man "That· h th Q th ull' . IS w y e uran declares e

Imate Ego lo be nearer to man than his own neck-vein".ss

: Ibid,. p. 295. M. Iqbal. The Reco, .

~ 'hid., P 70 Il8 luel,on 01 Religious Thoughl in Islam. p.12. 'bid .

• 'bid 71 .. P. ibN

• Ail1, P. 72.

The assumP.lion of variolls grades of ,sub. ,lane ~ el abJ d Iqbal to r('(;on~ldC'1" another kalam propo:-)it o n. In A h.U·l'l"' theor~ all ?OdICS al"2 made up of th0 sam.dn : , lof atom, ~nd diffel' from one ~noth (' r only in w;cidentirl. 10ft! whl:h

It follo.ws lhat man IS mad2 of thp sam;:- sub .... t ... ;,tt: a .. thl' wor~ I? .the gl'OundYj Like all Oth2l" things in thI::. world, the mdivldual do('.; nol possess any inner potenthl and does only what GOd . has pI edetermined for him. Iqbal could not go along With such an inlerpretatiol1 of th" role of man in the scheme of things; as we have already ~oled, he wanted to awa,ken the creative activity of the human ego, and to anow 1t some degree of freedom of ch')icc and action. That is why he stipulated that the substances of ego depend on the degree to whioh they cxprc. s the Di­vine Ego.

"Man, therefore, in whom egohood has reached its r~la­tive perfection, occupies a genuine place in the heart of Divine creative energy and thus possesses a much hiaher degree of reality than things around him. Of all M the creations of God he alone is capable of consciously partici­pating in the creative life of his maker:··~'

Iqbal claimed that in criticising the Asharite phi­losophy he was "inspired by the best traditions of Muslim thought' .'"

This claim undoubtedly contains a grain of truth: the pantheism of Sufism also must have exerted a perceptible influence on him. It seems to us. however, that his revision of the mutakaIJim theory of being and the main trend of his critique were primarily determined by th8: new social and political conditions, which called for a new approach to many philosophical problems, especially that of man and society. As for the form of hi'5 system, it resembles Leibnizian monadism in many ways.

Even a cursory examination of the spiritual sources of Iqbal's philosophy helps us to a better understanding of not only his world outlook but also of the contempo­rary state of philosophical studies in Pakistan, which subsi'5t on much the same ideas. Moreover, all spheres of social thought today show the direct inOuence of the ideas of Iqbal. The theories of being espoused by the philosoph-

48 See S. N. GnRoryan, Iz Islom liIosolI. Sredne; AZII ,

J rOna. ,., p. 298, 2 41M. Iqbal. The Reco/Vlruclion oj ReligioUS thought in Islam. p, 1 . 48 Ib:d.

a 38K. 3016

A nu hove a other c backgn

(ormafic

well 03

nomic country been

ers of Pakistan arc often bnsC'd on Iqbal's o:tpiriau

pluralism. . Muhammad Sharif is till' author 01 :lll ontologie theory which he has callt."'Cl dialcd.ic .. ~l m~nadl:->rn."~' Ace ord ing to hInl, there are ,three l.ype~, o~ b~'ll1g: t~{' ,ullI,mate being or ultimate realIty, which IS God, bemg eli splnt:') or monads; being as the Sp'l.il.o-tempol'al world ~1 sense, God, 01' the ultimate being, IS the mak~r, ~he pnme cause and the source of all the other forms of beIng. He is abso­lutely transcendental in the sens,e that he exists outside of time, space or sensory perceptlOn.

Ultimate being gives rise to ,·the second order of being", the spirits or monads. This type of being has been defined by M. Sharif as "a seli-identical, persistent and resistant unity, an active and responsive, conscious and self-conscious centre of energy, having a free will working within the limits of the categories.""

Everything in the world, from the electron to man, spiritual monads. Since God is immanent in every it is eternal, immortal, invisible, indivisible and lIT

in time and space. Its essence is determined by divine the latter permits some degree of freedom to

on its category. "The lowest least, the highest most. Divine freedom

of both monadic freedom and determination. admits the possibility of interaction and of the monads, thus rejecting Leibniz's

• ,&3 but he does not this correction or how he perceives

to take place. He tries to round djalectics. The monads, he tells

and develop in triads "from not-self or rather

a more developed self.

. Tt 1~ ,Ignilk tnt that originally Sharif l"C'"Cognised the dH\l~ {"\ 1(',11 n~i1 \lr{' or th(' monads but did not ascribl' it to ( ... od, Wh()~l he belipved to be the eternal unity of all th!' mOllud In the II' perf('ct form.l)5

On(' of the ~hilf)sophcr's later work') reveals a desire to bp mr)J'"· c(~mast('nt; thpre he says that God is not static. but "(~vel'-actlve and f'vcr-creative".5t

Tn the· course of thf'ir movement. the monad., give rise to I:h(' "physic<Jl world", the world nf th~ complexes of sensations through which they manifest themselves. It is a world not divided into the material and the ideal, for matter as slIch doC's not exist at all. Only spirit ex;';ts, and what we take fol' matLer is but the essence of the pheno­menon.

" ... The phy;.;ical world has a share in reality and is a pad of being, but in ~o far as it is the result of interaction between monad<; and the systems of monads it is purely phenomenal. "57 The world of being consists of the ultimate reality or God and the spiti.tual monads. which are immor­tal. As for 1 he' world of sense. that is phenomenal and the­refore contingent and perishable.

Thus the world is essentially ideal and is moved by a spiritual principle. "All power belongs to the spirit. The activity that we notice in the bodies is not really th '1'9 "58 it is p~ojected by the spiritual power of the monads. Spirit acts in a purposeful way, for the monads and the world of phenomena have been created by God according to a deIl­nite plan. Everything, even the philosophies of Plato Aristotle. Ghazzali. Shankara, Mahadeva Descartes and Kant the journey of the sputnik to the moon, the poeb:y of Shakespeare and Goethe, Rurni and Hafiz are the result of Divine purpose.59

Sharif's conception of the enence of being be described as a peculjar Islamic V€l~OD of of German objective idealism (mostly Leibnil gel). The fact that and then the losophers of his model on which they ous. The pbilmiopby' of

An have other backgl

formal well a.

i ........ nomic

. ,"m nd also sought compromis(' with th tory j endencles a I b l~ . t h . . . .' 'd ology' it struck ou 0 J ' agnll1s t Po .. offi(;lal relW:lOUS 1 e. . . I' d th '

. I thO d 'y and against mnten. "m an n c,"m . In loglca or 0 ox . . r tl . . ... d' the attitudes and vwws 0 lC new Cpr .. It were mutote c;. • • •

b . 'e' ]'ndecisive (1\V('11 to comp' omlse, 1nt~ man ourgeolsl. . t"> '1'. I d · . ~l'eSS]'ve social chan~{'s. and 1(' uctant to take res e 1n plOo '

action at the same time. . . The ambivalent role and contl'adl.ct~ry nature of. ~he

Pakistan bourgeoisie have made for s imIlar comprOmISing ~--- tendencies in its ideology. . .

Leibnizian monadislll attracted PakIstan thmkel"S be­cause of its strong mystical motives consonant with the tradition, of Muslim Sufism. That enabled th em to deduce their theories directly from th e religious and philosophical traditions of their own past an d m ake them sou.n d alto­gether home-grown.

The pluralism of Pakistan philosophers differs somewhat from thot of the 20th-century Western t hinkers William J ames. Sanlayana and others, for in it th e element of dia­leclics is more clearly highligh ted. Bu t th e pluralistic view of alw reflects a characterislic of m odern speculative

: pre,ent is t he same desire to ignore the quali­of the wor ld and reconcile idealism

(wi th idealism in th e lead). Matter and one and indivisible, says Sharif, adding in the

that there is no such t hing as matter, which but spirit in space-time reference".61

of being is taken as a basis theories. Problems of gnosiology

a particularly large place in Pakistan phi-1S precisely in their context that the solu­

of rational and intuitive know­and, of course, the very right

must be sought. The gnosiological thinkers have gone with the

irrational trend of Hence their disregard for

for Intuition, held ef attaining to absolutely

P"kl

, ' l r

t 'IHI.

mf'y lOW,", the m'll'keel innu('nce of 11 .,> ( J1,...:I phJ1o~(lP.hy of liff' school

>t DJI t('). "1' w ~11 f\~ II vaJ'iety of

in tt' ir, '1: r f It on >1 h (; \nnc'" of bpi n~, philo >pl f"'r irv11

• t L,,, IS}"mlt' t"aditions to

tiCJt ~ 1'1 ir (Tn 'ioh g 1.] \) <;. Tn th(> wakC' of thf"'V t.l V it) c )mb) u.r fJOnal approach to the pro­

of eognlilrJn WI h th" I \0.' (,I th rolt" of intuition ".nll by thi" m -r:ll !Ill my·.... spr'cifIcaliv Ghazzal i.

lattf'r's phil,) 'Jphy IS jrr"lp'JI "1nt tf) them ins~)fal' <1<'; it on th" S~lm(' ('nd (one 1h v h;lve mad(' thrir chief

of proving th'· ri(~ht ()f ]"('ligion'to (>xist ind('pen­of sci('nel? (md metaphv~ics'·).{·2 In his lectures The

on of Reliqiou.'" ThlJuqh.t in hhm, Iqb11 compa­Gha7.7ali to K:mt. He consid-:red thc' role of both phi­

to be apostolic in the sem? that lhev spoke from HI' of sC0pticism at a time of the highest fto\Verin~ oC

and so reinstatpd religion in its rights. Iqbal did not foil to point out thp .gr.eat diff?renc botween Ghaz­zali and Kant. how('\'~r Kant "c0uld n't affilm the pc:;sibility of a knowled~€' of God: ' whereas Ghazzali sc::-ing n c hope in an~lytic houal-.· t lJm d to mystical experi ence. and th:'re fl:und em in~erfn:l.f'nt content for r('J~gi(m.r;3

Althou"h he put·, high value en Musl;m mysticism. Iqbal noted a wf'ak point in it" philosophical outlook-its fa ilure to u lldC>l"stand "th'lt thou::,::ht and intuition a re orga· n ically n 'latf'd" .n" Th_' 1"'0 "sprmg from tnc same root and complcmf'nt ('<lch otne'r," he S:1id. " T he one g rasps Reality pi ccem f'al. the oth er gr~sps it in its wholeness. The one fixes it ~ gaze' on the eternal. the other on the temporal aspect o f R<.>nJity."ns .

In the ir de~ir > to conciliate scientific knowledge WIth faith . the religious philosophers of Pakistan have followe,d

line of delimiting the spheres of mlluence of reh-and sr!ience. . f

The principle of delimitation is based on .the Vlew l'c! which differentiates between ~he real SPf.ltual o:;r Is

phenomenal world. The highest rel_IIy

" M Iqbal Th R con I u I on 01 Rei sa Ibid .. IbId • Ibid pp 2-3

p,

• 19

'ble to knowkdgC'. "As (~nd is trnnscC'ndC"nl, no not acceSSI 0 I ~I 'I' " II ' b , ' gl'asp hinl" said M.l\' .. ~ Jan l ' IS a OV(> nIl VISlon can . ~ I I

o h Sl'on "{j(i In thl.' sanll' \\',-\~. t w m onac s cannot compl e en . 1" b' be known and can only be approached as I'l' IglOus 0 JC'cts. The domain of science is limit.l'd to ,the phenoml~nal

old 6; In other words, the l'SSl'nCl' o f tlllngs IS separated WOI ' d 1" 'd I d from their concrete expression, an l'l' 19lOn IS PC arc to be the sole access to true knowkdgl', L('. kno\\'Jedge of the ideal essence. The statements of Prof. Fa~'lur Rahman are typical in th is respect.Ii ... Accordin,;.{ to him, intuition and reason do not contradict each other but I'l'pl'eSent two forms of knowledge. These arc not of the $(\me impor~ lance, however. HIntuitive knowledge is a higher form of consciousness, or a supra-intellectual consciousness."m) Its form and necessity arise from the fact that "the intellect

o

has il<; limitations beyond which it cannot go",'ifl and so, intellect can give us knowledge of only separate parts oE the whole. f'To know reality in its full, we must rise beyond the intellectual level" and rely on intuition. flSen-

o

se and reason enable us to understand existence: intuition helps us to get direct knowledge of reality,"7l '

Pakistan philo~ophers u~uall'y treat intuition as a link between sense and reason. G.Ch. Dev,/2 for instance, tells us that through sense man gra!'ips reality as 'fchange 01'

pr~~<:ss". as an "endless series of quickly moving pictu­res .,3 :0 rea~n, on the other hand, reality appears as somethmg static and constant. 1·1cking in all movement. To re~reate a true picture of being, synthesis of re:lson and se.nse IS necessary, and such synthesis can only be achieved wlth ;~.e h.elp. Of. supra-l?g~cal intuition" which, Dr. Dev ad.ds, I eta!l1S In It the brI1liance of both sense and reason mmus thell' defects. "71,

~7 M'b Md· Shdfif, Islamic and Educellional Stue/ies p I ., p. 108 ' . 100.

r,a fil7.1ur Hdhma~l f Sylhl"!, caclive member' 6t:ht'SS~\OI philusophy dt the M.e. College in

I.iV F, Rlhmdll EXj~len e ? i.Eoldll Phliosophical C'ongless. p. 132. ,. - ce, NO/Ion 01 Sell·Consis /C'ncy ane/ Intuition.

om Ibid. 11 Ibid, p. I:n 7t C .

..ovmdd Ch<lndra Dev f sophy and Psy,holoJ;:y (If the' J"mer hf'ad of the Department of of the Pakistan Philosophic I (,IlIVerslty of Dar:ca, until 1965 ere the Daccd Brdllrh (If the R" k{)nh~ress for East Pdkistan secretary

73 r. ( h a nl<l liS na M ss' 0 ... . OJ'V, CHimp. I . I Ion III Pakistan. 7' Ibid., p. 41. S( 0 1111" PhIlosOphy 01 the Future, pp.

16

Tntuillon !l:.lnll.v 1I11plii II mystic;ll l'xpel"i('nec mad" possihl(' by Ill-·In r gi I' If. lCtt·., (h'sjJ'n~lted in Muslim h·rmi!1o!ogy ,I. "lh , nt 5 \Vh lI'a' s~c>n"" I . k I ., .... .'\ .... dn( )"('a:-->on give ~nan now ec~g of lh ph ·nl)In'·nal world, the '.h{'art" that lS to say intUIt on. bnrJ' hUT" i~to c(J~t.ad with reality and so ('nabl{ 3 him to gn,;p th( tl UP splntual ess~ncc of things.

1'h(' fJcculiar l.hirl":ttJOU I 1h,· mysl,'("]" ' , . .. .. ~ .. ,,",, ..!xp..!l"1cncc H that It .IS not subJ(·:t to II gH;d analysi:-.; and cann()l lx transmllt':~d to 01.11::1" V'opip (·X(;·pt in the form 0[ state­ment, :vhICh m.ust Ix: (I(."::'pteJ on J"aithJ'; If sensory know" ledge IS ac:ce~slble to l'v('ryone and rational knowk'dg(' l~ the prerogatlve of only thc' educaL::d, intuition is a f)·ift reserved for a JI.!W s:~lE.'cL individuals blessed with "divine vision').7~ Con:<;cquC.:'~t1j, the great majority of people havt: ~o be gUIded In th':"ll" liv:"'i) and activities not by their own Ide~s drawn from scn~.ory and rational data, but by the belIefs they arc ab1e to draw IJ"om the few who have experienced mystical identification with God and gl"a~ped a portion of the great reality. Sharif says, fOI" instance, that the absolute values which represent a porlion of reality can only bo graspod by prophets and other "ideal" men.

When the problem is p03('d that way there is no other recourse left but unconditional submission to religiOUS dogmas and their acceptance on faith as revelations of the mY'''tical CXP(.:I ien::.:C' .

And thai; js ('xactly the con .. ::lusion Muslim theologians and a number or Pakistani philosophers have drawn. But not all,

Many Pakistani thinkers not only refrain from drawing such conclusions, but (~v('n object to them. In this they are supported by Iqbal"s ide-a of the importance of t~e intel­lectual and pl"Clgmatic tl'5t of the m:vsL!cal experIence. In Iqbal's words. "critical intC'rpretation" OJ" the "jntrllectual test" carried out. by philosophC'l"s "leads us ultimatel?' .to a reality of th~ sam(;' charact01" as is revealed by rehg~ous experience". i,s 'I'hc pragmatic t.c~t refers to the functIOns

----,-7.". B.A. Ddl, InlcHct"/ ami InllItlion in B('[y~on and Su/N, p. 82. .,0; S.Z. Ch,urdhuri. Ii.(,o.~ol! (Inti Fail/I; "-D. Ahmdd, Rt>Q.wn and faith.

n Ibid., p. ~H ·,8 M. Iqbal, The UcconsltUction 01 ReligioUS Thought in Islam, p.27.

It9

An have other backg.

formal

well a

()f the prophets. Yet Iqbal rcfl!s(,d tn rollll\V I'dlg/!)

dogma blindly and ('ne nu \~ d 11 rc II .t.. dI1l'Vlt. elf th

human mind. The sa~1c ten.dcnc~· c.ln be I li . .:{'d tl l1H~ the )!'IC'!-. or a

number ot Pakistan s C)J h'P1 f lli.lry [lull >phl'rt. 0 decided interest in that 1 .. pc'ct \Y .s till' symposium on "Reason and Faith" at thl 1 H5i ~l~. ,ion 01 the Paki~tan Philosophical Congress, and cspC'cial1y 1he p.apl'l'~"; presented by Athar Rasheed and C. A. Q·dil.

A. Ra~-;heed7n posl~11atl'd (caUwl' than assl'l'lt~d) that reason might not be able to grasp ill(' ultimatc' and that only through intuition "direcL yision of the sacred truth" could be achieved.~{) This did not InCi.ll1 that peuple lc:'cking the gift of intuition had to aCl:epl whatever the chosen few'~ intuition dictated.-"-l The ::;pcakcr then prcsented his arguments in favour of a critical approach to the results mystical exp~rlcnce.

Intuition. he said, was a subjective experience and finding.) might not be universal. Reason searched for truth and never gave up the search. Faith was static. onc-sided, inflexible and therefore dogn1atic even reactionary; it could not keep in step with the changing world and finally bred fanaticism and

,., R ranee: - eason always doubted, questioned. and ined everything. even itself. critically. Faith was

brash, uncritical and despotic. Unless it . reason. faith was blind: all its objects had

subjected to the test of reason. which was the JUdge."

The other speaker. C. A. Qadir,'" a philosopher by lo~ical positivism, undertook to analyse of faIth (the Kantian thing-in-itself, the of God, Jaspers' belief in "Existentia"), and nelusion that faith dealt "with the unknown

former pnnclpal of the Government Central e Execut ve Committee of the PakiStan

and Fa Ih p, 67.

nll' mknow II::' pc m( Ul .

)o;pl'ci,d pi r ill t «: 1 1111-ion Hnd iI (j m~ nt of t" bOl

to denial of a .!,., ;l1y,AI<.:al intui-

1J r· ibiliti~5 of .;(:irn lO( \ YJnTI ( n. L hi ( <.: 10 f c pI I hv Po) 1'l.1 I 01

from II, conI I'll ",.,IIp.. h UTI sophy, for,; hll h 1 { >0 .. I •

cf thc f~lTI.~U~!'!( (1 (. C(

) It j< ~'adir 1ried pny l(:~ but even

n1~ 1= 01 I ms of philo-11t .:.oVil 11 analysis

'I'~u'). lh( unl r 0\ til ~ C 3.' (' to bp ,.H.:h m rely b cl'ea,t~ng a new pa,., f R.~ h "d ing in plac,· of th~ famihar. gencl'allJ:' <lct..:cl 1('''1 r rt of p .cch which expresses the unknow.ll-lt: I,

, It must '~)(" ~~irl that latclV dt ub ;. h.'vi teen assailing mtellectual Pakls1an1~, and P illv th, un(lcr genera­tion .of int.c~lecluals. a~ 10 tr P p") ibi it_v" of s~lving eco­nomIC, politlcol and philo~ )phl(''\} PI' bJ1S i om the posi­tions of Islam. In lookmg I. 'I JlP-V SOl~ l( n', nuny of them have turned to the conb~mpl)l'aJy phi1ry ,}:hical theories of the West, especially J0.s~cal 'p)~itvl'''!''!1 r-nd "'xic;tentialism. Certain premises of logIcal posi1ivi,-m are attractive to tnose who are inclined to reject irra1.ion~li:~m but that trend is on the whole unaccerlable 10 Pakislln philo<ophy, if only because it completely deniC"; the role of speculative metaphysics.

Existenlli"l1ism has caught the interest of Muslim the­O1'ists becaU":ie of the importance it attaches to the problems of the individual and al"o be1::ausc it offers an inter­pretation of irrationality and intUItion that fits in nicely with Islamic tradition."; At the same time its extreme individualism and pessimism makf? it distasteful to them. As C.A. Qadir corl'ectly noted, there is very little room in existentialism "for that feeling of fellowship or sense of belongingness without which no group or society,:. can keep itself going"."" Pakistan'S philosophers ar~ look!nl! f~r a philosophy that can unite their people, that 1:' oPlin?"tic and instill. confidence in the feasibility of building an Ideal Islamic society. Some of the ideas built into existe!'ti

alism

are subversive to Islam, and therefore deserve, Ideolog­ical refutation. This they received at the 12th seSSIon (1965)

85 C.A. Qadir Rca.on and Pa ,II, p .. Ibid., p. 13 81 See N Erfan.

Iqbal; N.KhaDnm, Bx sa C A. Qadi

A " ho';£,

othe! l;acJ..g

forma. \\f"1 Co

nomic countr b n I

of (he Pakistan Philosophical Conl'l'('s". which d <:->p,cclal, Rymp?s.lUm tc t~e CrI.til.I';l1l {f that Ph~l~~led lluc, It~ Cn~1(:lSm of ('xIstcnlJah: III md other W'~()Ph bour.geOls phllos?p~ica~ schools. \\'a~ not and could este consIstent even If It dId contam fi,om<.:: ration I not ~ (h b

· . . a seeds f e ,aslC ~osltlOns of t~e a~ove philosophical schoo ' 0

MuslIm rhJlo,opJoy are ,de ,1,,, Is and

II

ETHICAL IDEAS

"It is not in Art and Lilermure that the Pakistanis think that their main contribution to the culture of the world will ~(~ made in thc 20th century, though they attach great ~mporlance ~o th.:se a~pect:::; of human prog­ress. They thmk that thelr real contribution will be their emphasis on thc ethical and moral pdnciples which alone can save civilisation."1 This' :-;latcm(-'nt by a prominent Pakistani ideologist. r~lh.:ds the gn'at jmpo~·tance thinkers in his <..'Ountry attach to ethical probll'ms, a corollary of the idealistic character of t.heir W"J1l"I'<.l1 philosophical positions. Any idealist philosophy, ~peciall.v if it is a religious philo­sophy, t('nds to exaggel'at(' the place of the spirit, of spiri­tual valu('s in liff!. Thp moral p('rfN't.ion of the individual is consid('red a dccisivl' factor in the improvement and t ~ansfo]'mali()n 'li soddy. Ethics is held up as a mean5 of overcoming social ills. This view has yielded a veritable crop of th('orics on th(' ('lhicizing of exploiting society: "human relations", "hllmanisation of capital" and other ",uch thf'orics.

The heightened intcl'('st in ethical problems is also t( be explained by the neces'iity of filling the moral vacuu~ created by th" death of many bourgeois ideals, ThIS vacuum of ideas has particularly affected ~he ?,oung, who are the most receptive and sensitive to, socIal ~ldes. . ..

In 1962 the' Pakistan Central PublIc ServICe Comm .. ~ion noted in its annual report that "from their own obser­vations and the experience gained at interview boards as well as from study of psychological reports, ~e com~ls­sion have noticed that morally and from the pomt of VIew

, ha, alh vac

/0[1

weI naa cau beel act i' I"' r/

TI

'11/0

I . I ll " pl'''',,'''nt tll' He \' Ion IS m h( down" I" oJ charac ('~ _.... ,,~~- ~ .... ". .,. )

slide . . . ' . f h I' tl' . Philosophers agree t1Mt lh" II tl C .J 01 111h in i-h

t1'aditional ideals has been SC1101 ,1y u..nciPrnl1nt'd . Accord.. . g to C A Qadir the young Pah tam fl Is that .. the ,,] In · "· ~ , es tablished values have disappraI ed, wher as the ne\,. ones have not yet been bt'ITL' til' old ~y tL'ms of value have demonstrated lheir 111'll,illty to PlotC'ct hwnanit from bloody ma~sacres, C:)J1C 'nl'ation camps, physical torture and ~piri t ual agony. and till. ('ondudps C. i\. Qadh has made the youth think.

Nor is it j ll~t a rnattcr -or 111(' universal l'l'assessment of values which has tak'-'11 place since the end of thE' Second World \Var. Most Paklst.anis l'eje(;t bourgeois moral values Ior the simple reason that those values come from the West. to them the ali,'n \\'orld of thE' colc nialists.

Naturally . P akistani ideologists arc making an efIol't to fill the vacuum WIth a new JVluslim system of values. The attempt to work out <;;uch a system on the basis of religious principles is by no 111£:.11:1< a phenomenon peculiar to Pakistan . The same thIng i;:; happening in other young sovereign s at:::s. The ta~.ks ct their independent political and economic development can hardly be furthered by sub· jectivistic and relaLvistic .sVstlffiS of values. no longer acceptable eV'}1 to ·hl · national bourgt.:>isie, let alone the middle f'trau and thr wid: m"'')ses, tor such systems justify disunity among the melrt e s of society, contempt fOI

established moral stanoal Is, etc. It is not surprising then that a tendency to formulate

ideals and prinu pJ ~s is appearing in many of the countrLs. It is all the greater in Pakistan,

problem of naLiunal unity is extremely acute. By a common svslem of Islamic values and com­national charactcristics the oIftcial ideologists

hope to am(·lioruu· its social contradictions. the concept of national character as

total of the habits and attitudes, desires and views and opinions, motives and standards,

and hopes and aspirations of an indivi .. he shares with other members of his nation.'"

in the formation of this national character

23 t963. and PaId Ion Ideology.

ha Ir,p49.

is the nati~nal ideal. !he more perfect the idf'al, the do~('r to pL' r fecllO~ the natIOnal charact~r will bt,. The strength of the la Uel d <.'pend.s on how. stnctly the standards and prindples pl'~valcnt In that SOCIety are followed." Whl:n an individual v lOlates the accepted moral codC'. he obstruct~ the achievem ent of the ~c:cepted ideal. Every such dC'via­Hon y" ~ ?low to th12 nallon as a who!12 and ultirnah'ly to the m dlVid val. for only a strong natIOn can pro\'ide the condit ion s n ecessary [01' the well-being of the indivldllal.~'

In lookmg for this national ideal, the theorists o[ Muslim na tionalism have turned to religion as the etprn11. immutable and common (i.e., supra-class) foundation of their system of spiritual values. They believe that religion alone can save mankind from degradation and ofTer it a correct ethical ideal. While science and objective know­ledge are impOl1.ant, says A.K. Brohi,1 they cannot give man the main thing-assurance that "goodness dominates and pervales the world. In the absence oI such an c.<;sur­ance morality becomes a useless and vain adventure ft:r a thing that is not there .... Religion is prodaimed the only force that can sustain man's belief in the plogr·'sSlve development of the world, for its basic premise is that .. th~ nature of things is grounded in goodness ~nd .. '. all the values for which Humanity as a \vhole IS ~a!thng ~re somehow conserved."9 ,:It is religion and not SCIE:nCC WhICh consoles us in the hour of our defeat, telling u.s th:tt thou~h. the ills of life are unavoidable. still ... all thtngs ,,"ark fa: good and that Time alone is needed for the tnumph of th,

R 'ght "10 1 . db' other Such a high purpose cannot be sen'e Y a~y., 'd

. ld th t -clusiv"'" pO\ver 'lhiS 1 ea religion: only Islam Wle s a ex ~ M'd ad' the has been most unequivocally stated by A:A. .au pOak'lls'tan

h R ht wmg In . foremost spokesman of t e 19 f' rality and that " ... There is only one correct baSiS ~l m~n 'weI' to all the basis is supplied by Islam. Here we ge a~ is fre~ from the basic ethical questions and the answel

N· I Charae/cr, p. 39.

,. I. H. Qureshi, The Problem 01 alJOna ~ Ibid. . _ rhcal figure; was a member 7 A. K. Brohj, prominent CIVle and. P~tler of Law (195Al and H~gh

of the Conshtuent Assembly; former .Mln her of the Pakistan Philo-Commissioner of Pakistan in India; hfe mem sophieal Congress. . 7

II A. K. Brahi, In Defelice 01 ReligIOn. p. .

9 Ibid. IB Ibid. 45

defects noticeable in philosophic rcp!ics .and untainted by other religious creeds .... Here \~r(' fm,d d moral gUldance which can lead us to the highest vIrtue 111 every departl11en f rr "JI

o ~h:' term "Islamic ethics" is entirely conventional. What the term actually envisages is the moral attitude of given social groups expressed, In l'elI~lO~S form. Isla~ , like any other religion, abounds lr:t confllctlng and ambIguous tenets which leave the door wIde open for the most diver_ gent interpretations.

The moral injunctions of the QUl'an often receive mutually exclusive interpretations. Which of its ethical principles are emphasised and how they are read out depend entirely on what social strata the theOlists are speaking for and what motives undedy their choice.

One of the main principles of Islam is fatalism. Karl Marx called it the core of Mohammedanism. Fatalism in Islam is the belief that the Almighty alone determines the destinies of the individual and the behaviour of each man, Yet there arc some verses in the Quran which may be read as criticisms of blind fatalism" This has resulted

appearance of two opposite trends in ,he philosophy one fatalistic and the other anti-fatalistic. I.

There is no God save Him. the Alive, the Unto Him belongeth whatsoever is in the

is in the earth" (2, 225). God made all his actions. The fate of the individual

a,nd he is powerless to change it in the which ye are promised will surely come to

escape" (6, 135). Man has no knowledge Say: For myself I have no power to hurt, save that which Allah willeth,

Unseen, I should have would not touch me" (7, 188),

even if n1nn did have knowledge of good or evil, he could not choo.::;e I)"'twl'('n them-only Allah can do t.hat for him. "Whom .1\ 118h will Hp sendeth astray. and whom He wili He placeth on a straight path" (6, 39). Thus there are many verses m the QUl'an which deny man free will and !;tress the fatelistic cl('pendence of all his acts and behaviour upon the (\esigns of Allah. They set the line along which Muslim theologians usually formulated the ethical principles of ]s­lam. One of the greatest thinkers of the Middle Ages, Ghaz­rali, said in his famous treatise Delivering from Delusion: "I do firmly believe that there is the will of the Almighty God in everything: that it is not I who acts, but He who moves me to actionj that my deeds are accomplisned not by me, but by Him, who uses me as His obedient too1."14

Fatalism is also basic to the ethical teachings of some contemporary Muslim ideologists. A. A. Maudoodi tells us, for instance, that the consistent theological interpretation of the principle of tawhid implies the complete denial of individual free will.

Since man and everything else on earth are the work of God and are completely in his power, man ~'has no ~ght to lay down the law of his conduct and decrde the nght and wrong of it. This is a functwn whIch properly belongs

G d ", too.' hi! h in However quite a few contemporary P osol? ers .

Pakistan ha~e espoused an anti-fatalistic IslamIC ethi.:'i and this trend too has d,eep historical b7"bls. ~e ~'~~tes predestination was subjected to do~ ~t that time the and Mutazilis as early as the first Cali.~ the will of God exis tenee of the Caliphate was proclaIm tenned a sin, an and any offence against the state was th offence against Allah. To justify th~elves, "::d of the Caliphate had to revise that ~"~eir claiM those ethical principles ~t. suppo whid, that free will was not a co~tradiction~~d oxde: intervene m the es~ in that he could even change thia order ideas of good and

At various

'he

Ihe

-

. social cla';;s. AHhough the I't"jl'ciicn o r that of some defilllte ted fr0il1 rngl't'ssivp elements, it d gma often emBna . I d -o I lake that an ab"ioiute aw an apnori

be \\TOng 0 n . [-. II h -"clOd fat'llism a .. ch~lmplOns () pro(~I'es· a W 0 reJ" 0;- < r -.-

who urhe1d it as ex~ .. ,nE'nts .0 t'cac,tlo,: .. The : _ pr,:gressi\'e Mutat!:iia. teachl~g of, mdlvldual will was later exploited by the I ulmg chque of the

'a' Caliphate, which under al-Man1t1n (813-.. 833) and two immediate successors adopted ~he. ~utazlla as the i state creed: the free will of the md lv~dual ,was here

to his personal responsibili ty for, hiS actIOns, ,and partIcipants in the anti-feudal rebelhons of the time,

to take just O'1C example, were brought to answer for their 'not preordained" activities; in other words, the spokes­

men of the popular masses were denied a chance to prove the justice of the struggle of the toiling people against thpil' exploiters. !Ii

Ccnversely. there were times when the fundamentally 1'e.3.1.. ll~nary idea of fatalism was acceptable to the demo­cratic mcvement, and revolutionary activity was justified as 'he will of God :'History tells us," wrote G_ V_ Plekha­nov "·hat in practice fatalism, far from invariably preclu­din~ dynamic action, has even served at certain junctures a.-. an essential psychological basis for such action." l i

T c.:!ay. when the ideologists of Islam come out against the de t nne. of predestination, their purpose is to further the. b.cur6:C?lS re~orm of Islam, in which the principle of mdlvldual ft:ee WIll has an important place, as well as that o.f actlvl::Y directed at the es~ablishment of a more progres­~lV(' 'wclal c: der by man. Like Saiyid Ahmad Khan they seek to prove that divine predestination does not pr~c1ude the.fn::edom of h~man action. The founder of the Muslim ;nh~ht('nn1('nt said that just as "the prediction of an astro­~orb:~aWed death of a particular man by drowning tlnation is logfcat~e cause of that man's death", so predes­cular acL r;f man \.'1 nowledge, but not the cause of a parti ..

The above inte t t' . the destinies I~r~~ 10n Idn effect d~ni~s God his power

to - n an turns him mto an impartial lTItervene in 0' cha f I bal I nge the course 0 q Was another philosopher who re-

~ M~u~~~;:~?/~~~~a~J'~~ p. 43, ran C ElhlcJ, .pp, 29, 30: ' .

I~:t('d tht' fatalism of Of thodox Islam. Expre· th ' of th(' anti-colonial Sf'ctions of Muslim soc~~~ng h e vlew~ ·or th(' r('j((~tion of blind obedience and f( ,Yd, t

e ~l1ed , - t r - d )1 e ermmed strudgle agams orelgn omination To Iqb-I - h d hi ' a , man was a fellow creator an (' pmate of God· in one of h-

-M h- h h' lspoem, from Payam-l- as n q e as the lattt:r speaking to the maker as an equal:

ThUll (lidst nf' iI(~ 19ht d I de lh lump, ThOll (lldsl credle clay un:i I n d th c p. Tholl dHht create Ihl"' d rll m untams al tl [, res . I produced the orch Hils, g n.le nd grovi"<;, ' Il is I who turn slone nil n II r And it is 1 who tl1rn 1>Olson mto n wtJdote ..

·The recognition of man'., right to change the \voJrld left God merely the role of initiator (mee he had created the universe and granted mankind the freedom to act. In his attempt to resolve that ccntradiction, Iqbal said that God had consciously accepted such a limitation of his bound­less will. "It is born out of His o\vn creati\'e freedom, whereby He has chosen finite egos to be particip3.tors of His life, power and freedom ... ~'O

Today Pakistani philosoph~rs start from the pr€m­ise that the individual's freedom of action and choice is by no mean~ unlimited. M. M. Sharif says it is relative insofar as it is restricted by the universal laws of nature, in tum determined by God's will.:!1 His treatment of the problem does not differ much from Iqbal's. although the social pre­mises and practical conclusions of the two are not quite the same. To Iqbal, recognition of free will was e~senti~l as a method of awakenin& the people's confid!-nce.JD... the~.r own strength; for present-eTay p"hiros:ophers It serv~s Pri­marily to point up man's responsibility for the eVI~ that exists in the world, so that the blame for it can ~ pmned on him. This difference becomes particularly plam when we go deeper into the question of the relation of good and evil.

Even in the ethical teachings of antiquity connect~ with the name of Epicurus, attention was called to ~ e profound contradiction between God's attribut~s of be~~ both all-powerful and all-good_ If he was almIghty, be both good and evil existed by his will, he could not

(9 s. A, Vahid, Iqbal, His Art and Thought, p, 106. In IsJom P 80 10 M. Iqbal The Recomlruc'Jon 01 ReligiOUS Though' 59 21 M. M. Sharif, bJamJc dnd Educa'iOnal S/udiu P

.. 381(. 3016

11 rtood und l'dl did not ('Omp fl'o b eficent If he was a -" , . h 11 en . ld t T. - ()mnipoteni and ddl'rmml' t e de . him he cau no ue .. J . . ' , k' d That conlradJd lOll 1:1<.:: ntl l I

mes of man 111 . CI ···r· . II ~. . solved to this day in t'ither the )lls I.m 01 10 Iushrn

the~~~~{'followed the Suli teaching on good and evil. The Q . "Whatever good vlslls thee, It IS of God'

Ulan says. h If" (4 'll) I ' whatever evil visits three is of t yse .l. ~1 Contra_ diction to this, the medieval Sullsts (Abdul Karim al-Jili and others) said that both the good and the eVil of the universe came from God. In theIr OPll:llO~, eVIl was a ne. cessary objective condition for the reahsatJOn of good. Just as the bird must overcome the resistance of the al!' to fly. so man can only be good by ovel'conllng eVIl, and there­fore he has no right to complain about the existence of the latter.

In adopting this Sufist principle, Iqbal modified it somewhat. The pessimism and passivity of the medieval mystics had no place in the philosophy of one who spoke for the middle class at a time when it was rousing itself to political action. His affinities were much more with the romantici,m and dynamism of 17th and 18th-century European philosophy. Himself a poet, his understanding of Western philosophical thought was drawn mostly from literature and I'oetry. We would even say that his dialecti­cal Ideas on good and evil were to a great extent inspired by the works of Goethe and Milton.

Iqbal explained his ideas by interpreting the biblical legend of man's fall from grace and expulsion from the Ga~.den of Ede~, (cf. the Quran, 7, 10-24) as a manifestation ".f 'ofree chOice , .~ View entirely out of keeping with re­~ us tradItion. Man s first act of disobedience was also ~ first act of free chOice':' he said." Furthermore, if good eel the result ,of free chOICe, one might say that evil creat­wa

good. Iqbal s Iblis-Satan, like Goethe's Mephistopheles,

::~~{ the eterna! force that always desired evil but 1II:il m and ~ good. Without It hfe would have no dyna­

The ~";.~y passlve~ess would triumph in t~e Parodi.e of ~tan m one of his poems, like JII

'--uSe it t,st., IS more attractive than that of Lord ThJ':'sai~~e. the spirit of creativity. AddteSS

-'--Iqbal, The Reco~t .. c

rUCtion 0/ Religious Thought In Islam, p ".,.

rho!! hd I en lH'" Illf r Y SDDele t calise them to move, I dm Ihl' life 01 III II he wol.td, the life .dlc:}t in everything. Thou give I hit' li the body: I infUSe wannth Inlo life. Thou "howp&t the way ,to peacelul resl I lead towards restless strifel The mdn or earthly ongm, foohsh and short-sighted, Is born in Thy l'lp, but clltclineth rn':ltUrity in mine!23

The revolutionary .spirit of Iqbal's conception suited the mood of the I'Udical intelligentsia at that time of active struggle against colonialism. Its admission of the objective character of evil impressed the intellectuals. It enabled them to account for all social troubles not by any subjec­tive causes, but by the real live evil, which was colonialism and feudalism.

In insisting on such a close relation between the two ethical categories, even on their mutual interchangeability, Iqbal was stressing the necessity and propriety of taking action against the estabhshed SOCial order. which had de­generated into an evil. Disobedience .. protest, e."en VIO­

lence all acts condemned by the prevaIlmg moralIty, were held 'up as virtues to those engaged in the anti-colonial struggle. . ..

After the formation of the state of Pakistan Its Internal social contradictions were aggraYated. One section of the Muslim bourgeoisie and intelligentsia inclined towar~s anti-capitalist and socialist ideas but the rest had lost their erstwhile revolutionary zeal. Hence the tendency notI­ceable today to revive the traditional Sunni treatm~nt of the problem of good and evil, as reflected in the . H!stOT~ of Muslim Philosophy written by fifty-slx Is~a~l~h:~~_ lars.24 In the section devoted to the philosoph) f

. . . h b k nd author of many 0 ran, the edltor-m-chlef of t e 00 a 'd' g to the its chapters M. M. Sharif, states that accOl In Man cre­QUran good' comes from God and evil from I:na~the choice ates evil by abusing the freedom allowe~ h~od, however, between good and eVIl lS pl'edetel ml~e~ y less it fits into and "no one will choose a way u~t.o 0, un that scheme or is willed by God.~' h t this view with its

It would be a mistake to thl t: rminate injustice direct implication that human efforts ~ e

t:le

is the predo­or change anything in thiS world ;~e U ational-liberation minant view in Pakistan today. e n -

t:l s. A. -Vdhid Iqbal. His Arl and ThOUgh\~31 12. ~~ A History ~, Muslim Philosophy, "01. r. . , .

.. Ibid .• pp. 150. 151. 51 4'

• I

"d 96·: ,flY

.·cs) , a I., 'm, lki­

Ihe :lcs

Ihe h., Ian

JnJ Ian

. ed a ll s('ctions of the pop,ulation to ~ movement stJl11ul~t 'pirit p('rgistC'd arter Independen{. cial m.:tIvlt,Y: the s~m~.s of 1he newly independent nations keeping alIve th: (~Sll e ercome their economic re tardatior to gro\~ stront~l ~~sir~vis shared more or less whole-heart_ In Paklstan, t IS 1 sect ions of the population, howeve" edly by alm:~~:~,ethod oi attaining the goal may diffe;, thell ~deash0 the circles which in pnnclple would prefer That IS \V Y " fOIl

. . t b passive are qUlte walY 0 pen ea s for the masses 0 d eobedience and instead arc trying to USe sUbnllSSlOn an , Th . . , .

,th d' )[ ideological influence. ell PUI pose 15 Well 1~1(.~. I ~ ~ ( the conceptions which do not deny the exist. ~~lc~cof e~il but attribute it entirely ~o the personal qualities of the individual, the inference bemg that the onl~ way 1.0 cradiroate social ills is through the moral perfectlOn of man.

A "modern' interpretation has. also been put upon those c>thical principles of Islam whtch relate to the doc­trine of after-life.

Like other religions, Islam teaches that "the good and bad ccnsequences of moral act.5 ca~not .be .realIsed m the pre,,'nt life fully: it is only in etermty, In hfe after d~~th, that the true nature of these rewards can take shape. :!ti

Man cannot "comprehend justice in its wholeness" and decide what is right and what is wrong, " Only God can be absolutely just:'" God's justice will reveal itself on the day of Last Judgement, On that day every man will stand up before Allah, holding the book in which all hIS deeds are recorded. Allah will interrogate each man in turn and weign his deeds, "But those who fear the Lord," says the Quran (3, 197), "for them gardens undu neath which rIV­ers flow, therein dwelling forever-a hospitality God Him­

U oifers," For those who did not l ear him, who were deluded by the present life, there is "a draght of boili1\!i water and a painiul chastisement for that they were un­

. (6, 69). TsJam teaches obedience and meekness: everything ~

transitory, and SOOn vanishes. "The present ~ of delusion" (3, 182), "the present life II

a and a diversion" (6, 32). Believers must by the present life, for the less the1

0tuanI Blhlc.. p. 47, Hemld "Jam', Concept 01 God's Mercy.

\Cqllli F in hi' \\. rld thp mor~ thpv will h f . . ave a tcr they dlL'

The:. l~Hching of subm.i. ... sion in lhe name f' ill l ' f - db· () ,Jn Usory afler- 1 e W<\-, oppose 't many thinkers in feudal ti .

as well as many bow"gems reformers. mes, The greal .n:e~.ieva~ philosopher al~Farabi (870-950), in

his famous tt eatt:-;c Vlews of the Cltlzen,~ 01 the P 1 'b 1 th r" er ect State, descr~ e( . e r.e l~lOUS dictum on the rejection of

the good thmgs of ~hts hfe as ':a trick and a subterfuge against one groupe !Ol' the. benefIt. of another." "That is all a trick and a snare, ' ht, s~l1d, "which is used by tho3e who cannot fight openly and honestly for these g00d things ... to intimidate th~ rest and ~nake them give up all or a part of the good things of life so that others may enjoy them. " .,~

As f01" bourgeois reform of Islam. it, like liberal Chris­tianity, procC'('ds from the premise that it is possible to establish a kingdom of heaven on earth. Proof that Islam grants this V:ssibility is adduced from it" injunction to wage djihad. 01" holy war.:"'9 To be sure. Muslim ideologists regard djihad as only one aspect of the activE' struggle to establish an Islamic kingdom of good. Another and more important aspect is the moral perfection of .the individ'!a1.

In Islam (unlike Chrisl1anity), the plinClples of ethical perfection have not been reduced to a precise system of moral commandments, although many Muslim theologians and philosophel's have attempted to C1"eate su~h a system. Mirza Ghu1am Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadl)'a, has pre­sented a lis t of the basic ethical categories in ~IS book The Philosophy oJ Lhe Teachings of Islam , He deSIgnates them as chastity honesty meekness, politeness, forgiveness, goodnoss C'oul"8.ge v~l'acity patience and symp~thy.31J

c: .,. , '. .' , ' . d' f tlve feature According 1.0 Paklstam theorists the IS me . 1 . .. . d t top at the ethlca per-of Islanuc ethiC';; l .') that It oes no S f f of the

fection of the individual. but calls for the. per ec IOnd

as an h' .. "of hfe stresse whole of society. By the "et lCISmg . h ' t of a society

indispensable condition for the estabhs me~) they mean of social juslice (the Kingdom.of GOed ~; ea:;"W values of devotion to and implementation 0 e s I,lam,

Ii' Idoso/i, Sredne, 2" Quoled from S. N. Gngoryan. 1~ ,slO

Irana VIJ·XlI v('kov, p. 185 01 tbls bOOk. 29 For more on dJlhad see pp. 59·60 I tbe TeachIngs 01 :~l M. G. Ahmad. The Philosophy 0

pp. 48·80.

AI/I I

Islam.

'ceived II 196·: osoplly iCllces)

nolV a " Hcr

Is/am, , Pakj·

is the articlcs

II the

'1 a/her

akistan

Hand ok/stan

, ' " I values are divided by these phiiosoph.1lI1 , rho splntua f ideals: (1) fOlmal 01 absolutl" and (2) mto two types 0 . cl de ideals which are " rooted

, t' e The first In U III opeta lV . lh source for the wh ole of h human nature and are . e h' h hIt . U .. manit ,"32 These are the values. W Ie., . e p () ~amt.ai.n

d Y the basic value (hie), VI" .. goodwill , duty

Ian. ~re~~rve f 'eedom etc. They are absolute, e ternal and

~_~_ oJeh, JUs Ice, n'd alway's sought after and desi red, altho""h

une angmg, a . t, T .... the de . .;ire is not a con':icious one m. mos c:lses. ogether they f( 11' \\'hat is called "the ethIcal her~tagc of man· kind".33 They are spoken of as. objective vc~lue~, but not in the sense that they incur achon of an obJectIve nature which can be evaluated; rather in the sense th~t they are absolute values, much like permanent abstractIOns which are independent of the subject in whom they a re vested, and which have a divine essence.

Says K. G, Sadiq," "God as the Universal mind may conceived as the source of an ab50lute values."35

But If the latter are eternal and unchanging, how explain away the different moral appraisals given

act? The answer, say the authors of the ethics, lies in the existence of the

i.e" the form in which the absolute known to man in a definite

social and economic conditions. of the operative values

conditions, "The absolute an individual or a

"constitute of

Il1f .. is OI1/' of ("lIrnph'\.(' sU~()l'(lination to t~(> pJ'(:vul.('~l gO(l~. l' 1;1 'o("idv IL h IJIl1y glv{'n to "t. xl:pptlOnal mdlvl­Jl1{~\~: ~i~f' proplll·h:l j 811eial n:formPl'S and :';pCci~l11y enligh­duo

' l 1 '1'" C\)-: nH'1l whose liv('s "POS5l'SS goodm'ss in the <:;u· tencc n l •

I t 'V(,' 3!1 to n'consiuer and re-l'vuluute the m(lral stun Perul. .

ards of t.hat society. Such men havl' a higher understand­~ . ( absolutl' values and so can change the existing ope­:.~fi~e ideals to lh<' pnd that society may raise itself up to the next slag('.

And sO the result of the .div~si()n or values _inJQ.ab:-:;Qlute d operative is that man IS gIven a chance, a very small

~~e to be surC, of independently interpreting and I"c-a:ssess­ing these values.

As a I'ule, Pakistani philo:sophers ad.here to an objedive­idealist theory of values. But some of them have become advocates of the axiological conceptions of a subjective­idealist tenor now so fashionable in the West. The most sig­nificant a re the vicws of A. Qayyum."0 Qayyum criticises the "subjedive" and the "objective" approaches to the natun.' o~· values, which is to say that he disagrees both with those who regard values merely as the expression of the sense and emotions of the subject, unrelated to the oulside world, and with those who regard values as special properties inherent in the object, like colour or smell. His own definition of values is that they are "a result of in­teraction between the outside objects and the subject'. interests,"" Insofar as an object has a number of quabties and can satisfy one or another of the individual's require­ments, it has value.

Accordingly, value is not something exclusively subjec­tive, nor is it something objective, unrelated to the subject it is the "capacity of the object to promote tb of an individual who comes into contact WIth 1ha object. "ft2

The philosopher then points out that since of people vary there be &~ry k a moral assessment

I ' tIl \ III \ ht til ,)1"( Ilf I

the uni\,E.:'r~al human \'il HI 11 H \I II and ide- 11 ~ 111{,lllbCl" n lliel\' (l It" \

Unlikl ll1 Paki-..t:1I1 phI lllWl l" ~ tim (\0(' n consider cdal ideal.; In be p t i, li't I l'~ (;od. 1'h(':,-, cue I ('~ched b

J nnn wll h tl In p \1 \l m cl 11(\ pi a clieal

t.-xpETience. " .. The Ictt'ai W 'It'h \\ I t'lllbndy I hI.-' n'al pUI' pose of human life is to ~f' ,kJ1t1\\ n b~' tHall hllllsCl[ by thl use of his reason and experlem:t '. ~uman \ahtL's are to b selected (m the basis of the ends or Idt'HIs chost'l1 b~' human beings themsel\'es and not gi\'cn by any authority other

tban man himself."4\ Qayyum name5 economic \"fllul.'''; a'i t.he main criterion

{or determining the suitability of ideals to the tusks of the development of £Ociety. He says, "Indcl1d human life com­rrrhcnds b0th material and spiritual aspects, But I think the material aspe,d i~ the basic aSl?ect. ' " .'·4~, 1'1 uth, beauty and \'u'lV(' (WhICh the bourgeoiS phIlosophcl'') include amon~ ~he basic human values) ha\'e no meaning so long as millions of people lead paupers' lives, The soiritual ~rowth of man and his consciousness of spiritual 'values h,ke truth. beauty and virtue are only possible when so­ctet~: reaches a definite le\'el of material well-being.

Frcm th~ abo\'e we may conclude that Qayyum's ideas have much m common with the '·theory of interest" whose rost zealous propagandist in the West was the British phi­osophel' R.Perry. This is another kind of utilitarian ethics,

tS: sort I of ~Istoncany corrected copy of the theories of ra­tona t'goL'>m formulated b h middle of th 13th y t e French Enlighteners in the

deed a rationeal ' ctentury, In Perry's opinion. if man is in-clea ure bent on sar {' h' ' t that will automati" 11 IS ymg IS own mteres 5

Although quite po ~ 1 y. ~er:-'(' the intere',ts of others. minded inte1ligentsf~ ~I . In It"i ,day among the I'adic.ally­to protect the intere t h~s t~eOlY orten served objectIVely good of the people s ~~ pllv~te property disguised as the pnnciple of "ratio~al ee ?bv,~ous fall~cy of the ethical other ethical systems ~~Ism led to Its l'cplacement by

theory of intere.<;t" th ~n ~nalogou.:; nature. In the of social rathe; ~ cntel1cn of good is the satisfac-

pposed to be un' n personal needs The former arC lVersal and th ..

,,,:,_..:.._no_matter what class h e same for all human '~ t ey lx'long to. That interpre-

• Ibid. P 105 Ibid. P 108

\1 (,n ,f 1\1 m1l I t Illtirr.]lf'\y id<'ntifit t t ( til III nj' ~h.l it wilh the

I lam\( n. IgIl) , "

'l III CtH1CI h c mpoll l 01 t, r tu, \l • a l J( II ( ( n 1(1 t l( I

C~l\'HII .1 ' , I nJ Clnd lU tit' fh,hgl(ln '1 IWllrl fhl' m( t Important la .

Muslim sy8tem (If valuc;. i'akbtani idcolog;~lce[mI I~he I

' (' ~Ih L'>S" sam ,l.CC aim ,()lI t' Hr' ,·me valu(· of value the ·ou ',. f II

hi I" h'· ' S I ~e 0 a

ol (:1' v<~ UC', . 1" ,m 1 I:> 15, follo\',· .... that any sQtif'tv which denil'S God and I'L'JC'cts ]'( hgilin lacks a spiritual f( un" d t'

d'hl" I laton

an 15"t .l'r~, C).~·c .lmmOl'a .. "T.ru~ ~nd ~niversal plincipies o~ mOl <llity, sdY~ M. Rahuddm." are Implied in the ideal of God as a particular type o[ leaves and flowers are im­plied in the seed of a \.r(>{> that bears them." For that rea­son, moral principles "c'm find their fullest manifestation only in the actions of an individual who loves this ideal to the fullest extent."'" When they speak of religion as the supreme value, Pclkistani theorists of course have Islam in mind. Or. as I. H. Qureshi has put it, "For us Muslims no morality exists which does not find its ultimate sanc­tion in Islam. ",,X

In Pakistan. religion is a required course of study in all schools and coUeges; the state attaches great importance to the advancement of Islamic studies, to which purpose many research centres have been founded: the constitution of the counlry and its other law.) contain "Islamic' pro-

!=ositions, etc., elc. Freedom as a value is considered by the philosophers of

the country mostly from three aspects: ~c.onomic (usuall): as freedom for private enterprlse); pohhcal (most fuil)' formulated in the c~mcept of Islamic demo

erac)!: a::d ethical freedom (free will and the co~cept. ~f man .a~ d~d~

Equality in the System of IslamiC spn'ltual \ alue . primarily equality before God, translal~d to .mea~ ~quahtY befme the law the latter being God-glvt'n 10 Ollglf~. d' ' , . lude 111 lVl-

Equality in the eyes of God does not plee .' F'

d . • . 't I uahtles tom

ual differences in ph,'sical find spli'l ua q. 'that , , I " drawn that correct premise the mcorrec1 cone uslon IS . I 't' , Ith f the nahan equa-I IS Impossible to distribute the we8 0

~ Pak.l~tiln Pb"",;"pll1<JI Muhtlmnhld Rall\uldm, member of the ~'hl

C l "'l \C3.jem\, "Jrih

ongn.'ss, ulllli 1966 Director of the {\'-'" .. " , ~ ~I "" M, Rahuddm, NO/lanai Chalae/cr, pp, ..... I 5/ dr p. 231, ~ Quoted hom K. CaHard, Paled/an' A Poli/lcO tl

nt.~ /f!ceived Irec In 196,: f Phi/asap/II' 0/ Sciences) he is now a ;ocialc, Hcr

odc!n Is/om,

a and Pakl' nls j~ the

r 0/ a1 /iclcs

ed in the

ia and a/her /ed Pakistan

c 1961 on" he Pakistan

",

II the mcmbers of the sociC'ty an equal ly or g l Vt; (I .. ' , .' • I 'j" . er". , (( in it. TIl(' Mat xisl pi mClp c. lOm each nomIC s a ,us . . h ' 'd' t h' ,

d' a hI'" abli1tV to cae aecO! mg 0 IS nl~cd·

COl' lOd ~;., . ' I II' ' . d'. . t> 'd a~ implying compulsory eve mg and decla 15n11S5< :" J '. 1 " I,

noi; only unacceptable but even ImmOl a. '" Even a&,;u. , g that communism docs sLicceed and succeeds a hun" n1tn'h "th 11 th' " red pet' c~ni," says M. 1. han. . en a at IS achi~Vf' will at be,t be that each and all WIll b~ wel1-~ed all right but none can rematn moral, because the gIvmg m the CaJ· of each i~ co~strained or ~omp~n~~/rom above and is not voluntanly gn'cn out of fl ee WIll.

These ideologists consciously or unconsciously distort Malxist theory, which, of course, is opposed to levelling and stands fol' the achievement of equaht y by placing the members of society in equal relations to the means of pl'O~ duction.

The Islamic approech to the category of equality is ba-sed on the assumption that economic inequality is na­tural and therefore inevitable. The problem then is not to end the division of society into pOOl' and rich, but to make Ihe rich do more for the poor, In his day, Muhammad Ali Jumah said that ··the fortunate amongst us, whether in

or knowledge or physical fitness, have a moral res­to\vards these who have been unfortunate."50

sentiments are constantly being echoed by Muslim today, It must be admitted that similar justi-

of economic inequality meet with serious objec­rtain intellectual quarters, as the speech of 1. La­of the sessions of the Philosophical Congress sa­wed, Speaking of those rich people, few in be SUle, who had taken it upon themselves

fortunate, he said that they were !"o~ harm than good, for philanthropy

dlgruty of man and created unnatural mdividuals; it divided society into

and humble recipients of ' .51 But inequality. these do not 1,lloW how tu

ot rise above idealistic schemes

IdeologJes: Islamic and the Soc al Sciences

P onber Pal<Ulon, p

s,e.

I gical improvement of man (1. Latif), or one 01'

h Psycho 0 .. I' t c, d'fic:J.tion of Islarruc SOCia ism. the!" 1110 I ~ f h "I f I I ' ann d . interpretation 0 t e prmclp e 0 ~ amlC Thr> mo eln . . t' I' , . . nUally rejects discnmma lOn on rt> 19lOUS

equahty es:~ this treatment of the ;sub;ect do~s not ~u~t grounds: .r reaction with its stake m the continued diVl­the paklS .an

ty into Muslims and people of other foiths, the

·on of sOCiC d 51, f (Iitical rights to women, an so on. den,',1 () P) d '" II I Nr!lat (fraternity) i. hel up as a SpeCl>lca Y 5-

, I S,'nee man was created by God, all men are I nie va \.IC. b h I I at 'I I . of Allah. and so all men arc rot ers. s am 1 he chI ( 1 en . h h ' d . l'e resented as a religion W~llcI: p.rea~ es umam~m ~n IS dP I.acism national dlscrunmatlOn, th e prejUdICeS con emns '

t !,2 o[ caste. e c, 't ' ' 'I bl t· The IslamiC ideal of fraternlY is IrreconCI a Y CO~ ra-

d' t 1 however by the means suggested for the ach,eve-Icee,' 'fd"hd lt' menL of ~uch fraternity-the doctr:?e 0 Jl a. . IS ?O

, t tllat I'n the Middle Ages dJihad served to Justify seCIC . f t' the seizure of foreign lands and destructlOn 0 en Ire na-

t ion;he remarks of the Quran on djihad are extremely conflIc ting, On the one hand, it tell. us that only when themselves attacked may Muslims engage the mfidels m war: "And fight in the way of God with those who ngh.~ with you. but aggress not: God loves not the aggrC's,ors· (2, 187), The same verse proceeds: "But fight them not by the Holy Mosque until they should fight you there," Such patience under attack is taught in the Meccan suras of the Quran, But in the Medina period the righ t to rep '1 attack emerged gradually as the right to fight again~t "nd subdue the hostile Meccans.53 This was used by variOUS rulers of Muslim nations "vho were plotting aggres~ive \vars as a pretext to . disregard the Quran's stipulations on the ~e­fensive character of djihad and justify their aggreSSIve gchcmcs.

During the period of colonial rule. patriotic Muslim thinkers gave an anti-colonial edge to the doctrine of djihad and used it as a mean. of uniting the masses and organising them for resistance to colonialism.

"So e B.A. Dar, "What Is Whither Pakls'an, pp. 19, 2l.

» See 'DJlhad" an Shorler p.89

IslamiC Culture? P 1

EncyclopaedIa 01 1:11am

•

The ideologists of the bourgeois r"rorr "r I ;jam PUf their own interpretation .on dJ~had, on(' (hut fell in ,v l1 the ideas of the bourgeOls Enhghtenment. Sarvld Ahmdd Khan declared that holy wars weI''' unavoldable cnlv 1

t f . . n two events: in answer to ac s () a~gl'l~~~~lOn again":t Muslims - undertaken nol to make tel:ntorwl gains (thus exonerating the British conq~est of IndIa),. but to extirpate Islam, and. again, when MuslIms were forbldden to practi'e their religion in any country.5'i

The present-day theorists of Islam are also concerned to prove the justice of holy wars for the faith, but they have had to reckon with the unpopularity of aggressive slogans and the upsurge of anti-militarism among wide sections of the population. It is therefore 1110re usual now to speak of djihad exclusively with reference to defensive wars. " ... A war against naked aggression by the stron~er nation against the weaker will be Jehad. A war in defence of the territorial integrity of one's country will be Je­had .... A war of invasion for un lust telTitorial acquisition or expansion will not be Jehad."55

. In addition, a trend is afoot to make djihad the basic pnnclple of thewentir~ Islamic ethical system. "Jebad," says B. A. Dar. lS achve and dynamic struggle for the es-tabhshment of a moral social ordel' a' t· f th k · d f th . " Clea IOn 0 e mg om 0 e good which early Ch,' t' I . db' 'IS lans wrong y con­celve to e pOSSIble only supernaturally and which the Quran wanted to set up here on thi -th "56

It must be admitted h seal. doctrine of djihad no l~ 0:vever, that on the whole the ponse it once did. not e;;:el. evokes the sympathetic res­ons. 'The emphasis now is ~ l~ Its most modernistic versi­blishment of a genuine Mu fIe on consolidation and esta­ideal of fraternity has acqu~r~~ ~tate inside Pakistan. The lrdanty and national cansoI'd l' he meamng rather of so­cal aspect of fraternity is i

1 a IOn of aU citizens The ethi­

used more often to cannot gnored and the conc~pt is now but a s?cial and political ~a~Ol love for one's fellow men. the PakIstan nation Ue eXpressed I'n th 't f

It ·: eumy o . s natlOnal. relIgious l' '. trons have seriously han: IngUl~ttc and soc' . development of Pak' t pered the eco . lal contradlc-

IS an. The more co n~nllC and political

60

nSlstent progressive :~ See RA. Dar, Religious T ".> Fazl·i-Hamid, Jehad in [[hoU9ht 01 S"y . " BAD 0 . "S om .... Yld Ah . . ar, UlOnlC Efh' . nlod Khan 258

/('s, p. 57 ' p.

(If thp country see a democratic approach to the so-forces . -. of its ~thnic, language and other problems as the

lutllOn'eliable key to the eradication of tJ:lese contradictions. on y 1 I' t' I' f h' ff Th spokesmen of Mus 1m na lOna Ism Or t elr part 0 er h e concept of millat as an antidote to regional nati­~n~lism. or the demand of separate pational groups for national autonomy based On common tern tory. economIC and li.nrruistic ties. ".

Underlyin!,{ the contemoorary mteroretatlOn of mlllat is the notion of the exclusiveness of the Muslims' com­~unity, first advanced by the leaders of the movement for the formation of the PRkistan state in proof of the exist.ence of a Muslim nation.57 Hecof1ni!;in't the ~mDortance of territorial. langua"e and other factor<; to lts forma­tion. these thinkers have nevertheless relegated the>;, to the background and put the idea of unity on the baSIS of Islam first.

The principle on which they '10 is that to a~hieve po­Jitical unitv, or in Islamic terminolog" mlllat. faIth mane God must be propagated for the furtherance of the sumeme national j,deal. H ... Then the v.::Irious hnp'u;}'!f's .. races. cultures. histories and territode":' saY's M. R~fluddm. "re­main subordinate to this ope idea (a belief in one God.­M. S.) and the people continue to be a ,~ingle uniform na-tion having a single uniform chara~ter.~ 58 .

The concept of Muslim fraternIty IS made. very ~e.rtI­nent to the solution of both domestic end forelgn polrtrcal problems. Upon it are based all the present-day Pan-Isla­mic trends. Millat is under.stood to mean n<?t the ~malga­mation of all Muslims in one state, such an Idea .b~mg un­tenable and guite unrealistic under present. condl~lOns. ~ut the formation of a Muslim commonwealth of nab?ns WIth Pakistan. thE" only state. in {ne wor~d w~os~'i9creatlOn rests on a religious base. playm,'< the leadmg .' ole.. ,

In th'e opinion of a number o~ Pakistam phIlosophers. another specifically I!;lamic value In the .general sy~ten: of Mu!;lim irteals is justice. In that conne~tlOn we le~l n flom M. M. Sharif that Hat s"me period of hlst?ry certam v~lue!; a . 11 phasI'sed as reason In Greek SOCIety. re specla y em ...

til 57 Ivf 0 akov, Nalsionalny l'opros v SO\'fcmcnnol Indli; l i#-' See A. . k~ i'lusulmanskiyc tcchcni}'a \' obshches/l.cnnoi . R. Gordon-Polons aya, fTlysJi Tndii i Pakis/an(l. 49

roll M. Rafiuddill, National Chala.ctcr. 'J. .

~'} K. G. Sadiq, Philosophy 0/ LIfe, pp. 38, 39.

6/

l!

1 1,[ p,

tro1 in Buddhism. lovl' in Christianity, jll~tice in self-con d ower over Nature in the !11ocil'rIl Wl'st."60 Rc_ Islam. an P f' I' ' .. )11 '1,,1111,' 1, 11 r f of the principle 0 ]US Ice IS c< ~ . ' l' ( up as ~h,:ah~~est ideal of the Pakistan slalt'. JI~ s tt~·(' h('r(' being understood in a special sense rath£'r than m Its usual legal

t t · So we read. "It is rnth£'r son1('1 hmg which conno a lOn, l ' t ' . combines the characteristics of ,natura JUs IC": eqUIty. and a broad understanding compas<lOn 111 the applIcatIOn of le-gal justice,"6! ,

The most important feature of the IslamIC concept of justice is its recognition of the supernatural or divine na­ture of justice, fully to mamfest Itself on the Day of the Last Judgement. After the plea on their behalf (shafa'a) of the Prophet, only those sinnel'S will be eternally consigned to hell who committed the greatest sin of all- lack of faith in the One God, Or, as the Quran says, "God forgives not that aught should be with Him associated; less than that He forgives to whomsoever He will" (4, 116). Not man or so­ciety, but only God can be altogether just. Echoing certain Muslim thinkers, Fazl-i-Hamid writes, "The human con­cept of justice is imperfect and incomplete because man cannot comprehend and contemplate ]ustice in its whole­ness, , , , He cannot be absolutely just owing to his limi­tations,"62 Not so God, "who cannot be unjust to His own self, nor any shifts, changes or adjustments in the corre­lated appearances of cause, and effect that He makes can be regarded as un]ust " , , '63 As for man, he can be just only to the extent that he possesses and d 1 . h'

1, th d' . 'b eve ops 111 Im-se.L e IVlne aUn utes. Man can ach' ' .' intuition and the revealed word of G~cv~ Justlce only by made out to be utterly i""atl' 1 d, Thus Justlce 1S , ana and i d d f ' ety-a category which is uncha' n epen ent 0 SOCI-

A,:other distinctive featUre n;ttg and eternal. , ogmtlOn of the quahty of merc h,s ,concept IS ItS rec­justice. Many verses in the Qu~:s an Integral element of

The concrete implications of ~ are appeals for mercy, strikingly revealed when We ex~ concept of mercy are por"tant and relevant aspect of ju t'mlne ,the most im­justice. s Ice-SOCIal and political

fIl M. M. Sharif. The Good We ond C' . 1;1 Fazl-i-Hamid, The Islamic COile Illzcnshlp P 6 61 Fazl-Ham~d, The Islamic Concep?' o~ JUS /jl'~. · 0, 103 Ibid. of GOd'" "lercy (;', Ibiel, .

r,? ,

A" noted C'lrlif'r, Isl<ln"! IdeologIsts start out from th(\ assumption that ) incp })t'I)}lI{ nre not t'qu(l1 In rcsppct to innate abi li tv, they (';mnot be equal in ~ocial and economic position. and so the' divis,ion (~f nl(:n into rich and poor, employers and (,mpl"yed IS qUlte natural and just. What L' ","ore, ",ny a"pmach to the problem from the standpoint of the just d istribu tion of the national wealth or the Marxist undcrstanding of justice is rejected, "The Communist way of social justice has to be rejected by the Mu,lims," says Fazl-i- Hamid,6 '

The demand for the llquidatlvn c.£ private property an~ with it of the right to exploit others is branded as an en· croachment on the freedom of the individual and nothing short of immoral. In this the theorists of Islam differ little from those of Christianity,

Since they do not desire any radical changes in the existing production relations, Muslim ideologists suggest, firstly, that the accumulation of wealth be restricted or re­gulated (see Islamic inheritance law, zakat, the ban on usury), and secondly, that their followers display charity, mercy and generosity. "Islam", they say, ;;seeks to relieve human suffering and distress by charity in its broadest sense . .. . '~66

It is not only utopian to regard mercy or charity as a key to the achievement of justice, but more important still such virtues only work objectively to prevent the achievement 01 justice, regardless of the intentions of those who practise them,

", ", * • Our examination of the ethical ideas of Pakistani phI­

losophers has led us to the conclUSIOn that an IslamIC ethic as a consistent supra-class theory does not eXIst. The old feudal theory of morality, has gradually outhved ItS day, lth h of 1'ts mdlvldual tenets are still mvoked a DUg some "

d th by the Pakistan reaction, BOUt'geOls and now an en 1 th d ' I" f

tt b ' ' thical concepts c 0 e In re 19lOuS orms pe y- oUI geols C th 't 11' ts' t 'll . ld th 'eatest infiuence on e 111 e 1gen la. s I W1e e gl t' f th th' 1 ' ,

Th t 'al'y I'nterpreta LOO 0 e e lCa pnncl-e con empOl . f 1 f I 1 [ten serves as an expreSSlon 0 the demo-

p es 0 s am to of the middle classes, but by and large era tIC asplra IOns

63

now a . Her Islam,

Paki· is the

articles in the

other

al!d

th' .' ciples are unsuitable fol' the f<ll'll1ulaiHlI1 of a tru.

e, o pI 111 • . . f 1 '1 '1' 1 . ly scientiHc ethic. The flexlbIhty 0 t 1l' I~ lb an >,'l "Ileal sy.

t' and its ability to reconcile the most }wtt'r(),~l' I ll"lUs dp_ cm " I I' I I' ments is not without limits . The s a~ll~l' ~y.-; em, Ikl' all

other religio-elhical systcrns, takes oil, [rom. a numlH.'1' of initial premisC's which misrepresent ,the. l:onnccl .. ·.ll) bl!­tween morality and social being. ObJcdl\'l', rchthms .'tce replaced by ethical re lations. und 1 hosp are hnall~' I'('rlur'ed to the relation 01 man to God.

,

III

PAKISTAN'S PATH OF DEVELOPMENT: THE SEARCH FOR

A THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

The pl'Oclamation of political independence is the culmmatlOn of the first stage of the national-li­berat ion m~vement. Then comes a long period of struggle for economIC mdependence whose success hinges on the particular path of national regeneration chosen. The search for a correct path thus stands as the crucial pl'Oblem be­fore the counllies which have thrown off the shackles of colonial slavery.

To gain their economic independence, such countries must achieve high rates of production growth, correct the one-sided structure of their economy, do away with non­equivalent trade, break the stranglehold of foreign capital. eradicate the carry-overs of the feudal system in the countryside, etc.

Full emancipation from dependence on imperialism is a long and difficult process. So long as they remain in the orbit of world capitalism, the newly independent states have to submit to the kind of international division of labour the imperialists prescribe. That only makes it har­der for them to remedy the one-sided structure of their economies and go over to industrial~sation. Take the ~oun­tries of Latin America most of whIch have long enjoyed political independence but are still economically dependent and remain for the greater part subsIdIarIes of the U.S. economy. . . ..

Granted that under modern condItwns capItalIsm does not necessarily exclude a fair degree of economIC progress, still it cannot ensure the successful and, .above all, the ra­pid solution of the problem of ove~'comIng the economic r t 'd t' f th newly free countnes. Naturally, the lat­e a1 a IOn 0 e f d elopment

tel' are seeking neW paths 0 ev . Th 'bility and, one might even say. the expedience

of the~' ~~~ilng some path other than capItalism are poin-

5 3aJ(. 3016 65

ceived

n 196·: asap/if iences)

nawa c. Her

Islam, d Paki· is the

articles in the

Pakistan

~ed up by the existence ?f .the sociahst .sys~('m of ('cononl ' m the world today. SOCIalist conslructwn III the U.S.S III which in the space of a few decades has drvelopcd Ir~ an agrarian into a mighty industrial s tate, as \Vt.~11 as U~ experience of the other socialist lands, hav(' convinced t~~ newly independent countries that socialism offers them th l, best c~ance of eradicating their social and economic ITl tardatlOn.

The governments of the developing countries are un­doubtedly giving thought to the experience of the socialist countrIes, nO,t only In deference to the anti-capitalist and E!:?~comm~n~s! t~mper of the masses, but just as often on thelr own ~mt1atlVe and out of their own desire to apply that expenence when they see what great advantag . I . es c:onomlC p anmng 01' cooperative farming offer F' the, ruling class~s of those countries there is this dile'mm~I whIle they realIse that the capitalist road is far from per­fect and hardly the best a1t~rnative for them, neither can they, ,nor do, they wa~t ,to, Lake the socialist road for fear of lo~mg thelr cl~ss p,nvIleges. Instead they look fol' a wa out m compromIse, In the "reconciliation" of ·tal· Y ad· I· . h . capl Ism n sOCIa Ism, 111 w at IS often termed the "middl d" of development. e roa

Other important factors have contributed t th g f th ' . 0 e emer-ence 0 e concept of a 'mIddle road" 0 th h tainly played an enormous role is th ne ,at as ~er­capitalism common to all segments of so ~ fe~lmg agamst ~vereign states. Centuries of exploitatio Cl~ty In t~e YO':.,!lg 1St powers naturally generated the d n y the ImpenID­oppressed peoples for the system th t eep hatred of the undisguised plunder and Violence T~ c?untenanced such nal-liberation movement has so 'ft at IS why the natio­struggle against both a particul~ en r:no~nted slogans of the who I.e imperialist system. It ris c~Plt,ahS,t country and that the Idea of consolidating the' IndlCatIve, moreover, independence is dominated by ~h eC?nomic and political state" which will not be like th e Ideal of a "welfare West,. .. e states of the capitalist

AntI-capItalIst tendencies ar or consistent in the different soc~ fot equally pronounced

Only the most class-conSCiou a classes. pletely opposed to the caPitalistS working PeQple are com­bul~ of the, po~ulation (the peasan~oact; of prodUction. The whIle sharmg In the prevailing h d petty bourg .. )

h d f I · atred f eOiSle , to t e ream 0 evo vlng some k' ° capitalis I· l.n.d of 1" m, c mg

66 P Ivate enterprise

t;ciH'IlW of lIH'ir own, lIu'y wl}uld like t(l !lnu J I")f.ld tl) I'OSPl'rlty thi1t !lnmll.:r 1 11{'r,(JDiJi (nl'khmcn:.- -without

f.iolcnct', From tJlIS haw' ,come, the pr-tt,)' JOurgl ',is illusions of a special road, a spl'l:1il1 kind ()( npr Ilbm . r('L" from exploitation. or ~lu~dC'l;-

The "antJ-capltalJ~m' ()f the natICJn(.ll bourgeoisie is best described as clislikQ for and (nvy of their stronger WC'st('rn rivals, upon whom th'-',Y werE' de:-pendenL untill'ecently and whose plac{' they would nuw jjk~ to fill. This they cannot do without the support of the wide mas­ses-and so the bourgeoisie of the developing countries hopefully resort to calls for a "middle road", meaning the creation of the optimal conditions for their national cap­italist development.

As for the "anti-capitalism" of the extreme feudal reaction (the criticism from the Right), there the "new road" means rejection of capitalist d€'yel!?p~~l1t oJ!ly in order to preserve the class privileges of the feudal and semi-feudal elements, in other words, a return to the past, to feudalism,

Another factor which has contributed to the emergence of the concept of a umiddle road" is the ~xtremely impor­tant place l'eligio-ethical concepts have m the culture of the peoples of the East, for whom th,e so~io-politi~l ideal is usually all of a piece with the ethu::al ldea~, ASIde fr~m everything else, the thinkers of t~e developIn? c0l:lntl'les } are repelled by the moral vaclI!ty and deglC!d_aho~ of Western society, for all its prospenty. ~hey \Va~t ,~o Cleate a society which hal'moniously com~)lnes ma~ellal. and

··t I b fit They cannot conceIve of ethICS WIthout SpIrt ua ene s. , ' ., t· I I · . ih· ·ty of Spll'ltual values Ovel ma ena re IglOll or e pnoI'l ' t I·t I H th · ·epudiation of commUnIS mora I y, va ues, ence 'ell' 1 'h b· f

h '. .," , . anise their hfe on t e aSlS 0 some t ell stuvmg to Olg "'t 1 values distinct from kind of special system of SpUl uta , ·th b '. communIst va ues.

el er ourgeOls 01 , f tl theory of a "middle road" The Pakistan vel'SlOn 0, 1

0ec,·al,·sm an idea adopted by

. f ]slamlc s < , IS often spoken 0 as b f 19 '"I As the national-hbera-[ . . 1 g core ":1:.

ndlan MuslIms on entum the need arose for a t' t gained mom . , lOn movemen . rogrammc to go \\'lth its political t::l'ospec:tive econonllchP 'deal that appealed most to the slogans. NaturallY, t e ,~ty free from pove.rty, unemploy­people was that o~ \~OCI The Islamic nationalists, not ment and explOlt~ ,lo~ion the ideas of socialism have for unmindful of t~e adt "pc icture of the future in which they the masses, pamte a

" 6;

'cceived In 196·: I/osoplly :cicllccs) ~ 1l01V 0

Ie. H er Il Islam,

ld Paki·

is the

f articlcs ill the

nd other

on.:I

Pakistan

drew on an image very familiar to AlliSIiJll~, t.P thr lraditional Islamic weIran.' stall'.

The victory of the Octob<..'r Rl'\"(liuti(lll in I!u Sia was enthusiastically I'eceived by th<.' fon'mo,". l\luslun inll'lIt'C_ ~uals. The bourgeoisie, who had plaYl'd a progn'SS\Vl' role In leadin~ the nation~l-libel'ation movl'nll'nt, l"t.'<lct('d sympathet.lCally to the Ideas of the- Russian Hl'\'o}u tion and the mIddle strata even morL' so. Muhammad Iqbal wa~ one. of .the first to hail the developments in Russia as the begmnmg of a new era. In his famous poem llirljra-e-Rah (1921) he urged the working people of the world \0 wak up and throw off their chains: e

Ar;se! A new way of life has appeared. Your day is coming in &,sl and \Vest.

Iqbal saw the Ociobe~' Revolution as the natural o~.tco~e of the course of hIstory. He said that ihe worker

oentrus bare back all his life that the capitalist mi ht dress in sllks; the pearl necklace worn by the ca '\ 19t' if

d fh p,a'Ss we was rna e 0 t e tears of the workers' wife and child' ulama and government servants only fatt d '

k ' bl d Th' ene on the wor er s 00. IS he protested could t b for long, The revolu'tion was not 'only ne~~ ~ e~dured inevitable,! ssalY, 1t was

But while he recognised the historical ine' .. the revolutionary transformation of societ ~ltablhty of the revolution, Iqbal, like many other MUS&" a~ welcomed did not accept it without reservation He ~.l~tenectuals. ism for wha~ h~ te~~ed. its. disregard of t~~ lCl~:.d soci?-l­of man and Its IrrebglOsity. SOcialism was n _·S~llltUal hfe bu t its denial of God: "If BolsheVism rZe

in .all ways existence of God it would be very close t cogl1lsed the said, indicating his desire that Pakistan 0 Islam,"2 he cialist system consonan t with the spirit of rdopt a so­morality.3 slam and its

Since the problem of independent econ . ment d~d not require c.0~cre~e practical SOI~~lC develop­the achIevement of politICal mdependence ·t on pending for the ideological propaganda of the time' t

1 ~as enough

1 See Muhammad Usman, p. 56.

68

2 Ibid., p. 60. 3 Ibid., p. 67.

o Sun I P Y raise Iqbal and Economic P, b

o fem S (;n Urdu),

tIll' llog I. I lillie 01 l" n 1 nut aitcr 19-17 1 bl..'(·.)me imlWI" ItlVl' to pi P f ut n l' ttLcuning anu iab01atp i.he tht'()]"( tU'~d d' pI t flf thi' COl c-'pt.

Thr Ide )Iogy..,~ fJf dil1l'l (nt eli! {JC Pakisu..n's SO(,ll'tv •

approached Ow. t.l~ k. dilf{"·. nt ways The bourgt"t)is and pelty.hour~t'fJi l"laborHt f,n of the the(Jl-Y or thf' "Islamic.: middlp 1'oad" 1"(:11. ('b·d ;J. dt!slJ' to clJmbint: the Islamic tra­ditiom:i with thl' principl("S of h()urgcfJis democracy and utopian s()ciali~m. A", intt'rpreted by the feudal t'lements and expont·nls of till' big mon()pvly bl)urgt'oisie. it sounded more lik(' a battlt· CIY not only ag"ainst ~ci€:'ntifk socialism, but even agaTm)t the progressive potentials of bourgf'"Ois democracy present in thl' young sovereign states of the East.

To theologians like A.A, Maudoodi. Islamic socialism, thanks to its many common features with the "feudal socialism" so brilliantly decribed in his day by Karl !,[arx, implied support not only for the landlords and :'\ofuslim theologians, but also for the petty bo~:geoisie. a~o~g whom, it musi be admitted, the Maudoodl mterpretatlOn 15

rather Fopular. . , One reason is that large numbers of PakIstan s peasants

and townsmen still live in spiritual dependence upon the mullahs and ulama, whose appeals to their reJigous fE'~l-ings do not go unheard. . .

Another reason lies in the ambIvalent SOCIal nature 01

the above sections of society and the persistence in Paki­stan of survivals of pre·capitalist relations of production. The competition from big capital is a .constant threat to the petty bourgeoisie, whose representatI:,~s .are conseq.ue~tly prone to lend an eager ear to the cntIClsm of capItalism coming from the Rig~t, to .support the spo~es.men of "f~u­dal socialism" and rail agamst the concenha!lOn of capItal because it undermines small-scale productlO~. Together with the feudalists, they yearn fo~' the old patrl~rchal. re~a- )

t ' d ' clm' e towards the belief that the pi e-capltalist Ions an In . I ' form of exploitation was better than bourgeO!s exp Olta-

tiol1The more advanced section of t~e petty bOUl:geoisie, which stands closer to the proleta.rI~t. also ~as rts own heor of Islamic socialism, or, as It ~s somehmes calle~,

t y t' oCl'alism" This is anti-feudal and anh-"dernocra IC s . th t '\' I d d d , h ·· ,a:cter"to the extent a 1 mc u es eman s colomaI .mlc al~ rian reforms and the nationalisation of for .radlca a~ll a At the same time its proponents advoca''le fore ign propel y.

69

now a He<

Is/am, PakJ·

is the

officlcs

Ihe othCI

and

I

the. pre~ervation o~ :p~ivate property and free enterprise believe In the pOSSIbIhty of the peaceful solution of sociai conflicts, and here, once again, put morality and religio first. n

The t~eoretical basis of "democratic socialism" has not b~n seno.usly or fully elaborated as yet. Its ideas are chIefly at:tlcula~ed in the practical planks of the different democratIc partIes, in their platform documents: the Mani­festo of t~e Awami League, 1952; the Programme of the­Ganatantn Dal, 1953; the Manifesto of th e Azad Pakistan Party, 1953; the Programme and Charter of th e Socialist Party d PaklStan, 1948; the Programme of the National Awaml Party, 1956, etc.

But neither~ for thai matter, have the more fully artic­~lated bOUl'g:OlS and !eudal conceptions of Islamic social­Ism been wOlked up Into consistent systems

Th~ Islamic socialists often maintain that th ' , °hf thelr programme is to cure capitalism of its

e 'hUt pos;

t at the latter can be eliminated b f . X s, an Islamic precepts. They look upon the~ o~owmg the three of preserving private propert w~itece.pt~ as ~ means abuses responsible in their Vi! f' e leUmmatmg the capitalism.' w, 01 a 1 the defects of

The first precept is zakat or a benefit of the poor. Intl'odu~ed lP tYhment of a tax for the H ·d· h·· n e second ye f th

1 Jra, t IS IS one of the five sacl'ed obr . ar 0 e Muslim. Zakat is defined b I I 19~tlon~ of every as "a k'gal expression of that ~cnt"s amJC Ideologie:;ts and .mercy on which the whole st~'uct~7.:nt of k,indness nomlCS was to be l'aised."" It is a tax I . d of Mushm eco­with an income in excess of the esetVlbel. °hn all Muslims ( ·b)Jt aISed·· msa . . amounts to 2 1/2 per cent of th . mInimum Zakat is also charged on gold sl·!vel' ell' cash-balance

d ' , mercha d· . an other valuables. Its rate for all th n lse, cattle fi • d ·th f ese comm d· . xc Wl re erence to the books of fikl Z 0 lhes is

d b ,. akat· over an a ave the other ~tate taxes, havin b l~ e~acted by none other than God In order to ease it ee~ instituted poor. The revenue it yields may be used f e plight of the and ~.memploy~ent relief, benefits for the oWacrop failure penSIOns for Widows, scholarships for need nd the sick so on. Y stUdents, and

The second precept concerns the observan Ce of Islamic

~ The Pakistan Times, Lahore, April 12, 19

70

. hcritanc law. In MusHm law,5 the prope>rty of the :feceased i'~ divid('d among hL'i children. male or female. I the absence of progeny. the property may pa'is to close r~latives, but t~(' mor~ correct procedUJ:e is to give it to the 1 state. Muslim IdeologIsts hold th~t thiS law prevents the ccumulation of large land holdmgs and other forms of ~roperty and makes fot' the decentralisation of wealth. which in the course of two or three generations may be parcelled up among the heirs. ':I~ co~trast with the lav..: of primogen~ture gen.erall~ prevallmg In Western co~nt~'le~, the Islamlc law of mhentance cuts at the root of capIta~lst:c accumu.lation of wealth in the hands of a few mdl-

·d I "0 Vl~' . I Third and last is the prohibition of interest on capIta.

On this point, opini.ons differ among the I.slamic ide?logists themselves. Some say that Islam repudIates all k.mds of interest on loans. Others limit the ban to usury. or mterest exacted for loans made for a borrower's perso,?al nee?s, and uphold the legality of bank. comme(cial and mdustn<l.l

credit.s. I· d f 11 ws· Tl e ban on interest ie:; exp ame as 0 a . "A 1 ho ,. nvests his monev on interest. refuses ~o

man w· '. . t ' avin" hiS h ' th . ks of the business but mSIS s on n ."'" s al e e rlS . ..' 'al attItude

pound of flesh in the PJ~ofit5.~?hlS IS an ImmOl .

the attitude ?f t.he ~xpl.Olter. th other band~ is deemed The profits m~btutJOn, on

b· . €- man who invests his

't ! ·t'· ~ "Here the usmeS5 ..9.W e egl ImaGe.. d· the success of his enter-capital 'and is vitally mte~·este lllTI t to draw profits. which prise is pictured as. wor~mg ~d ?o~. his industry and dih­are therefol'e the Just I ewaI gence. t" led remedies for the ills of

Not one of the above>-mel.1 iO~ the problem. Zakat can capi taH~m touch o~ the. c~.~~u~ion of the national wealth. hardly ensure the ]U~t ?lS u sed to help no good. The Charity docs thos~ It IS s .P~hilanthrOpy for their own propertied classes mdulgekl~ vhich means "to be pioUS",8 good, the whole idea of Za

ft: 't~ers as to attain piety. j,You

being not 50 much to bene tOh Quran. "until you expend . t "saYS e . will not attain pte ,yo .

of what you love" (3. 86).

5 See Ihe Quran (4'/-:~~ml p.75, G M. Sirlrliqi, What s.~' .. 7 Ibid. p. fi9. "10 he pure. , zaka·-8 Derived frolll 71

, :eived

1964 SOp/t}'

enccs)

now 0

HOI Is/om, Poki-, Ihe

1'licles , lhe

I other akislon

il and akislan

I

Nor C<ln Muslim inhedtaJ1l't' law ,111C:>1' }w (' l'lh:t or th capitalist system. While> it m:-l~' to '\ Jq.!l'l'(> (urth(,1' th~ intel'est~ of the petty bOUl'gl'Ol!-ih'. to whom the ,H'('UITIula_ tion of capital presents a lUol'LlI thn-'<li. the rlt'(X'ntl'nli~.i' tion og pn,'pelty at the sanw linh' <Jcts ;IS ;m (lbSt,H:k L) thl' renewal of the technical basis of pH)duttiol1 and Ihu~ to industrialisation. and so its cITed is to COnSI..'I'V(' thp I'Pm_

nant" of the subsistence cconorny. Thl' main point is that the workers who had no property to start with do not gain any from that kind of redistribution of proP;:'l'ty. In gene .. raI, inheritance law as such cannot be expected to imprOve the economic s,vstem. seeing that it is not the cause, but the consequence. the legal resuH of the existing E'crmomic organisation of society.!)

The inheritance theory of these Islamic socinlists, ii conSistently applied. would have exactly the opposite results from those antiCipated. for it would tend to slow down and impede the development of boul'geois relations. an'a l€!a\'e-m~in:r' feuda1 survival,) infact infhc f'conomv,

Again, the Islar:tic socialists 3re by no means cutting ~nder the foundations of capitali')m when they oppose lI1tel'est o~ loans. 10 In c.laiming that only the immorality of the pl'actlce Of. usury I.S .1'ep:.lgnant jo Islam. they are in effect condemnmg the m]Ustlce of the exploitation of one ~pitalist by an?the\ while fully condrlfling the exploita­hon of the workmg p~ople. Interest is only a pal't oJ profits, and yet the second IS pronounced perfectly legitimate. In~el'e~<;_t ~_nd profits are phenomena of the smnc order; both ?re, conv(;!rted rOl'm~ of the sU,l'plus value which the cap" Italist ,class appl"Oprlates unto Itself. The only end ihis can serve IS to smooth the way fOl' the developmont [ "t

'( ] ' t t ' Ab ]. , .. 0 pi Jva e capl a IS en erpnse. 0 ILIOn of tho 1'"nt'l" t'

. ," ,- d' pl'ac Ices would help to dll'eet non-productIve C'apitall'nt th h" f ']' d' d h' {) e sp el ~ o capIta 1St pl'O uctlOn, an t IS i$ wh'\l th P k" .

bourgeoisie and middle strata want. PI'~h'b't7 a Istam institution of interest on loans Would lesl){l I :~o.n of the dence on fo~e!gn capital and to ~f)lJ)e (>xt2'~t ~r(' Pl!' de,p~n= na1 bourgeo~slC from th~ .necesslty of sharin -(> t~~ natlO, with a (OI"eI U n bourgeOisie, Anothel' d g thell plOfits

h en the b I' ' r interest on loans can serve is to proto '1 th a ? ItlOn ,0 .C c mdustnal ----

fI K Marx CoXlad Genewlnogo sO\'C!IC/ 0 . , flrove I

p. 383, . . _, flO.~ I'do\'(In'Yo, II') The P<lkiswn ConstJlul101l of i'lr)2 HI Art I

k f Ih I . " (0 IRf I Principles 01 Policy sped so e nf'f" 'c, ellTllindle Ib (, Ill' Chdr'f'1 r Q (U'~(/fy).

72

bouq:woisil ag<liw t th, bankc'J'S The truth is that th(; Pl"f)- X~ bknl of illy,':..;t..ll1l·nts '.lands v~'rr ~criously bdnl'(' p[Lkisfan. J\~c')I"(hn~. to f 'OIH)mlst SaJld Ifu:;ein, shortlgC,"i or complete hck oj lndlhlnal (,1'I'(l1l due to the unwilling-ness of I.he banks to gl'ant long-term loans have resulted in a situation whert' Ih<' (;apituI nl,<-'ded by industry is not available,lI Naturally, th{, national industrial r.ourgeoisie are inSisting not only on the incrcasc'd flow of capital into the sphere of industrial pmduction but also upon its active participation in produclion,

It follows, then, that the notion that the economic structure of society can be changoo by means of such secondary institutions as taxes. inheritance lawaI' interest on loans is erroneous and unscientific.

The ~lass limitations of these conceptions of Islamic socialists are also clearly rdlected in their handling of the problem of private property, They try to prove that the Islamic concept repn.'scnts a golden mea~ b~tw~n the "absolute private pl'O~'rty" of capitalis~, .\\:lth ItS shmul~­tion of private enterprisf~ and susc~phblht.Y t?, anarchiC production, and the "absolute publIc property . C?f com­munism which docs away with I'llthless competItion and makes l'~m for collective planning .b~t. is alleged to sul?­press the individual who is the Initiator of economic activity,12

These theorists claim that the concepts they advocate

)

are based on Ihe QUl'an. , According to the Quran, all matel'lal ~vealth belongs ~o )

AU h d men use it by his grace. Pnvate property IS - a , an, ert of thc maker, who has not seen fit ~o t~u.s th,e plOp I ~')mong his subjects. In fact it is Allah s ); dlvl~e It ~~uatlh;t'the benefits o~ J!Iaterial weaJt.h _~hatl be ~ expl ess Wish - --'h'- most de,-5el'vmg, In the Kab1ts-n~me bes_Lo",:cd _ uf:~n t C is effeCt: "The Lord has detel'mmed

were IS -a 1esso~0 U\: and others slwll be rich, Instead of that some shall p~ as he could have, he has created making eve~'ybo~y .1\ol're~r('al the dignity and honour of two levels 111 ol.dt'!, ' d distinguish the higher fl'om the some of his subJeds, om . ,

lower:,1J .' , ri 1hl to privati;! property is the gift of Inasmuch clS lh( '~l'ed 'Uld inviolable. In the language

G d 'l' of course. sa 0 O,IIS,

1'5. I' 220. E' orlll(S, ,,- , . . II Pakistan tO~. '~(Mamle Sociotl.<m. It Iv!uftlkl;.ir. N(lss('~i, IJ Kubu.5·fluml', p.

73

tved 96,:

~plIY reS) '" lIer

J)/am,

PClki· Ih,

·tides Ih,

other kislan

I al1d

kls/an

, I

\

~f the ~US]i~l theologian law-givers, tl'ans ' ' , .. ' '.lght arc cnmes. in tlwm is the sin [' 71l~slon: on th st~nds guard, along with the state ov ~ ,0 l:lI((~n. Relit.) i~'lvate pl~opel'ty. ]n fact. its attit~ldc c~o ti~' 1~Vl0Iabilit.Y on Thee sanctity, of that institution is partkuf:~ ~Vho viOlate

. ,Quran lIsts five crimes for which th . 11) merC:iless al e Imposed Two of th c severest penalr . is punishabl~ by death er:1h are plunder and theft. The file.~ right h d . e second by amp t t" rst

an ,or even death for re ~ . _ . ~ a IOn of tho note that traditional Islamic 1 p~aie, s. I~ IS mteresting t' sacred that even in the aw 0 ds prIvate propert C

c<?nfiscation. of the debto~~en~. o[ ?ef,auH i.t p~'ohibits Yt~ hiS person IS not so c:arefulJ P o?eJ ty, the invIOlability f be arrested and thl' ' Y protected, and he mav 0

In his da K 01 own Into prison, " even y, al Marx 't

prop<:'l'iy varied in thp f p,om ~d out that the problem f o~cl'all lcvel of indu.stl'ial o~~ns lIt took depending on t~e ~na~e ~,ftdevelopment l'eache;~I~~ll1ent and the particular o 1 a, l~ an and other count. , ne or another countroy ,0

co omahs h nes rcce tl . feudal la.;;dho~d~ai.n PJ'oble~s arc ro~ei~n em~rge~ from stage is to co ngs, and thclI' main tas PI opel ty and and feudalismmplete the revolutions aga~ ~tt .the c~rrent

The P k'. ' , ns lmpenalism . a Istanl boul'gt.'O· "

~le mmd in their attit ISle are fal' from be' . Invoke Islam to sub . ud~ to foreign capital mg of a SIn­who speak [oJ' the s,tanll.ate l.heil' difterin ,A~ ~sual, they nected with the fo ~I~de and Industry sc r

g POSItIons, Those

of I.he Shal'ia ll1ili~~tgn monopolies say w;ent closely con­Islamic state in the ~.~:I'o~gly against a at the principles pprty and abl'ogatin ;1(CctJon of con('jsca~'Y efforts by the of sovcl'cignty, The'1i I'eaty obligations 12 109 ~ol'eign pro­Dngel' in bUSiness, arego~a~d/~'dS, CSPC~iarl~n tf: the name

On the other hand tl . I e mind, Ose with a ~ho arc anxiou~ to gl't' "d

10se of the nat'

nali~~m argue that Whil~ ~slOf the cconol1lt~n~1 bourgeoisie mC'nd tho. nntionalisation or~l ~?e", not spe ~tktat of impe­It Pl"~)hlblt it, provided. ,ou..'lgn prop ,ClfiCally recom-Muslim sociPly,I5 such action " EH ty. neither does

rt IS [or th must b~ admitt{'d II . e good of

mth('1' rhl'toric"d, sincl' th~::.t. th.e above co ' l hdve be nhoversy 0 fll

I~ . en no oell' IS s 1 . K. 1\IMI", MOf(dlZifll} 1/\", Ii ' lela} indica-

/' .iO!. a)a kli/lha . 15 $c '"' II . 1 kritk c ,~. amLr.!ullah 181am a d I U)'lr~h ('J , n Conlin . laya mOfOJ,

U unlsm.

tions of an in ten tion to undertake the immediate n;ttiona­lisation of l' n tl'l" pr~sl's backed by foreign investments, II condition~: make thiS neCeSSD.I)', says the Economic Obser­rer. just and fu ll compc'nsatlOn will be paid in the cur­rency of the country whence the investments came. ifi

Opin ions a lso differ with reference to feudal land hold­ings. The bourg(!oi ~ic as a class are certainly interested in agrarian ~'efor~s. s ince t~e rapid development of industry is impoSSible WIthout a hIghly developed raw matedal base drawn from agriculture, as well as a broad domestic mar- / keto Such g rowth is impeded by the landlord system of agriculture, which dooms millions to hunger and' poverty.

But not aU groups of the bourgeoisie are equally inter­ested in agrarian refol'ms, The most radical solution of the agrarian problem is supported by those who are connected with capitalist industrial enterprise. As for the big mer­chants active in the domain of circulation (export and import trade and speculation on the domestic market), they advocate instead the slow and gradual transformation of the landlords into a class of entrepreneurs, with full con­servation of landlordism in agriculture,

H ere, too , Islam is invoked to fortify the arguments pro and con, There are those who say that the prevalence of semi-feudal ownel'ship complies with the s~irit of Islam: "Those who denounce 'djagirdad' as an ~nfall' s~stem ~nd call for its abolition are actually demanding the lllfractlOn of Muslim law"Y for the historioreai.~ylsrci"m knows of noatternpls to -change Ufe existing agricultural system,

The opponents of feudalis':l remonstrate that Isla~ never had to contend before With the problem of landlOl-

d', ' 't 0 sant forml~ and that although the Prophet Ism In I S pi e '- ,.' I I d 1 0, f I

t 1 t d th "qual dlstnbutlOn 0 an among: liS 0-

o era e e un\. c , ." • . . ' h 1 I 1

0 JouctifiCd It: The PlOphet saId t at 1":: owers lC nevcI" - - ~- ....:-;:- _.- h d

h ho' d I oNelO shrtJ'C of lana than He needed soul

W 0 a a aif, < • Oft [ 0th 0 1t' t it himself or pass It on as a gl to one 0 el el cu Iva C . ,"1ft

h O,S b 0 tl1er Muslims. 10 .', ponents of agrarian I'e[orms feel that Th b u1'/:{eOlS pi 0 ~ 0 . e conclusion to be drawn from the history

there IS O'~TIYI ~'J11<"llnic state has a wide latitude in the mat-o[ Islam: H S < _ _ 0

, " ab_,eller, Fehrllilfy 1959, Kardehl , p. 1-1. II. E{"onOIlJJ1, rcrolt' ud-din Mansoor, ,\loudoodiMIl {in l Trdul, ,', C)unlCd ((1111

p. 3]. . socirz/is/J1' Tlcnds in Islam, p. 69. 114 \1 Sllldll!I, ' 19 Ibid., p. 71

75

•

i

ter of land distribution. 'x This c()n<:lu~ion IS also mt~'I'Pl'et~ ed. in different ways, howe\'er. L~'fl.ist el('lllents in thf> bourgeois class take it to mean that Islam l'cquil'es the sta1 not only to abolish perpetual land lenure and nmtal, bUl to do away with all and any f()l ms of private land ownership.

Spokesmen of the bourgeois right wing go only so far as to concede that Islam enjoins the landlords to be jUst to their tenants. They make it a universally accepted precept of Muslim law that "wholesale expropriation ... cannot be allowed in Islam, unless it is pl'oved that an ownel' acquired it (the land.-M.S.) by unfaiJ' mean';;,":.!] since «there is no example in the life of the Pl'Ophet 01' his immediate SUcces_ sors of forcibly acquil·jng land for state purposes Without paying due compensation."~~

Inasmuch as both foreign and feudal property present obstacles to their independent capitalist development the Pakistani bourgeoisie, let alone the middle strata and ~ide masses, clearly stand to gain from the abolition of such property. This .is ~eginning to affect the official pOlicy, altho~gh there IS stIll a tendency to shy away from radical agrarIan reforms and the key problem of the nationalisa_ tion of foreign property in Pakistan. One reason is the pel'~is~nce ?f the bourgeoisie's economic ties with im­pena~lst capItal and ~ith landlordism; another, the fear that Inroads on cert~lm forms of property may lead to broader attacks on pnvate PI·Operty as a whole.

The 1962 Constitution of Pakistan (Al'ticlE" 10 Ch t, "p,' 'I f L M k' ") , ap el on . J l11CIP es 0 aw- a l.ng confirms the inviolabilit '

of private property and fOl'blds the passage of la 'II ,J 't f 'bl li t· wsa OWInG 1 S orCl e a ena IOn except when this is l'n th 't t'f " 'd hI" . e In el'es 0 SOCIety, an t _en on y on payment of just com 1 t.

Some advocates of Islamic socialism in Pari\~a Ion .. that the Islamic system of ownerShip combines ~~ an c~~Im aspects of both the capitalist and the s . r e POSItIve without suffering from the defecls of eith~c,la~~t systems have it that Islamic ownel'ship i<; public own~l.s .ey :v~uld from the kind of coll&:tive ownel·ship found i hlp dIS.tlJ~Ct countries, where pl'operLy is exprOpriat"d n th~ SOCIalIst allegcdJy with disastrous I'€'sults for both ~d nabonalised. the people. To them, public ownel·ship is . e eConomy and

Sllnply the legal-

76

to Ibid .• p. 73. • 1 K. A Hakim, IMam and Communh.ll. p. 245. :~ Ibid.

, ,d' cal expression of the prinCiple that all the . or JUl1 1 G d I isahon. ~s of this earth belong lo 0 a one. . good tht~g. ncrship presupposes that the property WhlC~

IslamiC ~wd shall be pl"ivately managed .. I~ permIts capl­belongs to .o·se controlled by the yellg1Q-moral ~~ talist entel pn t k 'p 'IL· from being pl~lvate enterpnse). I . h doC's no ec 'f (\Vh~c . . li~m it is allegedly imm~ne to competl 10~, unlike capll~ du;tion 'md the impoverishment of.t~e mas­anarchy of pIa - L Lhe profit motive or competItion, but \ ' 't drives ure no . t uggJe ses; IS .' .. , 1 of diihad-bil ma.a~ (e.~9n9~~lc s t _ "the rellg lOus I'.ea I 'ct > •. --:-- . for divine pnzes 111 the . Islam), and l1e csne ~ . "" h -Hereaft~r. -' .... ·I-Tty of restricting private owners lp

The ImpermIS~\~l I y Muslim theorists agree. They is a point on W~l(, . ma~ . dustry and the promotion of deplore nationallsatIon o. In .'The economic scheme the public sector ot. th~, iliono~?i. us, "is based entirely o,n presented in the QUI an, e~ hip in· every field. There IS the idea .of .~ndividual ~~i:~sa distinction ~s to be made nothing m n to su?ges oods and productIOn goods (or between (;onSumptlOn g I. the former may be ~eld means of pl'odudio~) andltha~ °raiter must be nali.onahs.ed, in private ownership \:h\~ t ~uran suggzsting or ImplYl~g Nor is there anylhIn.g In s~heme i., of a temporat~· natui~~ that the above-mentioned, nt arrangement 111 w~

d 1 l . by a pel mane . be desll·ed to be replace a el '" of production may 11 tivisation of all ~.~~ns .

co ec made the rule.~' alive attitude of c~rtaIn to be 't"" o[ the decidedly neg, rds nationalisatl~m, a gro~;sS~\;hin the ruling o%aJ~~:st~~:n created in Paa:~s~~~ public sectol· of t.h~r~.~.r:ts economiC indeJt~~~~~~ten used to promote thf'r ~f, national industry. B of securing state development 0 1 ~ LlJ'geoisi € as a way State funds are by the nation~~a~~ capilalist. entelrl~:L~ge establishments support for pit 'ds the creatIOn 0, . no sooner are they chann:lled 10~~:~tial capit~l ou\lai~sprofits than they are I'equil'l.ng subs d bringing. tn.an p In 1959 and 1960 th~ on theil' feet an '·vate busmessmen. ar textile and. othel taken over by pi Imber of cemen\ s~~ki~tan jute factories latter boug~t aa~~tockS if.! the .~~s ted the inftue~tial ~~ur­plants as well This pracl1ce pI 1 dP that the ruling cucles

h state. . to conc u e from t e . Qb en'er I E OnOI1HC s

na c Socia/i~m. 1963. - --:-:-:-.. -_. . 1'/DinlC' I I P 17. . \o .• ~('r S . Ph/osDP/!}' \"0. .' . ~J r..lllftlkk1r. .. I .'IIl-",/itll I,

, .. \ /-lis/Ol) (l 77

I

:eived • 196·: ,sophy ences) now a . Her Is/am,

Paki· '5 the arlicles n the

:I a/her

'akislan 51 and 'akistan

,

\

of Pakistan do not look upon the public sector as a pe1"Ill~. nent basis for industry.:.!5 .

The contradiction between the pUblIc nature of Pl'Q., pert,)' and its private o\V~ers~p should not lead t~ conflicts, in the opinion of MuslIm t,hinkel's, because theu' SOCiety predicates a union of busmess and the people, 01' the cooperation of the employer and the employe~s. In one of his many speeches to the warkel's of hIS COuntry, A.M. Malik said; "Islamic socialism is neither the dictatol'_ ship of the proletariat nor the ex,ploitaLian of c~p~talism. That socialism is the blending of all the conH'ctmg in_ terests of society in such a way that the prosperity of the largest number is ach ieved without the hardship and misery involved in expropriation of any group or class 01' its peopJe.":!li

We might add that the teaching of the harmony of class interesL<; or class cooperation is not peculial' to Islamic socialism alone. The same slogans were raised in the West in Ihe 1920's clOd 1930's as a kind of defence mechanism of c.:apitulism, The champions of the popular \VesLern do<:trin(' of "human relations" have gone all oul tl) conccdi the ,'cal causc;~.of class Conflic-fs. bt'hi.nd ,1.al.k of accidental difTcI'ences provoked by POOL' management, lack of uncfer­standing bdwC(>n C:'lpltaiists and workers, and so on, The apologists of "class peace" base their theories On the paU:ntly false assumption of the fundamental nature of social and c<:onomic inequality. Not aU nlen are equally gifted by COd; unequal endowment is as much in the natural ordcl' of things as the vast multiformity of th (: natulal world, we are assUI'cd by RI\. Hakinl.~7

Since it is natural for men to be variOUsly endowed so is H only right and propel' for them to be divid{'d into ~m­ploye!'s and {'mploycd; das:, Connicls must therefore be soiv('d not by dOing awaY,wlth c!assei-; and socio-economic in<'qunlity, but by l'e~ulatIng or Impt'o~ing their relations, Th(' cau:-;c of all confhcL<; encountered lh boul'geo' . t

' d I,,, d IS SOCley IS that th0.r(' arc' goo emp oyels an "bad em"l ' " k .. d "b d k" "1' A. I:' oyC! S , "good WOI' 1'1" an a wor ers,~ t Ihe tUrn of the 20lh "'ntury, F'M, Taylor, the bl'Hlns of the "onve er system, decJal"('d that contrary to thc cornman belief that

78

r~ Economk 0b.'f( H'pr, p_ :1 ,

A, M. M"llk. Inboru Ptoblr-m,J (Jn~ PO/I(Y in PQkl~IQn If A, H,lk,m. I../am ami Communmll, p, 18S, ' Pp. 32, 33, '\, \r M, Ilk, l-llhoUT Prob/('ms and Polu:y In Pakl

l/un

Jl. :n.

, , , ls Or employees and em~loyel,'s fundamenta~ 1?lC~,:~tifiC management" (meanln~ his the antagonistIc, SCI ,. g capitalist production) 'has wenl'e new system dof ?l'gatn~!l~lm conviction that the true OW ---v foun atlOn "'''I

' its vel J and the same, _, CO:erests of the two are, o~eme theorists in Pakistan echoed m Half a century latel.' ,ts of the Government are the

arne idea: "" ,The mteles "ation and its progress and the s as the interests of thC

d n 11al,'onal interest is our

arne I ansl_ . 'I s ,,'ty as a who e , . , ~ I bOUI'n),s 01' industria _ prospel h th 'wc are a... 'd supreme interest, \~dethaetl our main interests are not 1 en-, 't cannot be sal

IStS, ~".IO h receding is that

tica~h~~~~~I~~~~ ;:'o;~I;~~\~~/~~~IL~~?h,~SR~I;h~~eS~~~~~ th~ WOt ge "war against the employ "the interests of the Ul1lons wa " be slI'uck bet~':)t"en "a con'ect balance m 10 ees".I. employers and the e p y

' I d socio-economic h' tonca an " ' f va rying IS . the revolutIOnalY

By v Irtue 0 I f ree countries" ' t' ,. features ' the new y y dlslmc Ive conditions In es will impart m~n '0 ress, One of the effort of the mass t s of the ir SOCial pi Ig ent termed

sand ra e. l 't dcveopm, te to the f01'm r non-ca pita IS II hat this dena s forms is that 0 countries. Actua tY Wcture but rather ' ,. in many mic s I'U , , f "sociabs~ .. . "m iddle" &ono 'I feudal or seml- eu­is no " thIrd °h c f rom the colonia, 'ng through the a t ransitional io a:ociaJism, witho~~h~~S.~'f industrial cap­da1 economy I' 1 as il whole 01

. f capita Isn , 1 anti-stage 0 , "a united natlOna 's italism, where thele .15 '-democt-atle fOl c,e

In those st~te~ and revo~utlOnal'y o[ the official pol~t­'mperialist ~If::' the theoretIcal basl:manating [!"Om d'C

d stand at the. e h~ped by influence~iat iC there is one, an ical course IS ,sncluding the pl:o~etal d'intelligentsia. As a ferent classe~, 1 tty bourg~olsle ~~e containing progres­the peasantrY'rtkial ideologies, r tic in nature. The fact

ult these 0 extremely ec ec h disparity between r~s iements, are, that for all t e Sl ve e howevel ,

remains, , ,II, .",n'g,m'nl, p, '~ Principles 01 sCle~ I P licy in Pakis/an, p, '

-"l F W, TaylOr. Lobour Problem" an 0 - '''I M ahk. ftA-,'

"~ . ~ ;~ Ibid. p,

, lis/an

and

~is,an

,

"national" socialist th " . former are often of gre:~l~~~·tnd St:IC'nlific socialis as they pave the way fol' th~ lYe value objectivel ,';n, 'h· the newly free count· progressive devel j nsofu'

I ne5. opm '

n Pakistan the de ent 0/ bours under the im velopment of social tho ing. The theory of ~''.~t o~~loth bou;·geois and f~~~t rill la­ta far-reachin '. ml e road" has not 1 . a thlnk:~ tion of the ke gy sbO~lahst measures, such as th

ed 111. practice

P bl' lanches of . d e nahon Ii

. U Ie sector of th In ustry, consol"d' a sa~ mg, and so on. e economy, planning, coop Ie ~ttl~:m of the

ra Ive farm~

IV

THE IDEOLOGICAL CONTROVERSV ON THE STATE STRUCTURE

OF PAKISTAN

. Until ,1947, the ideologists of the movement for Paklst~n conhned themselves !o popularising the slogan of an. md~pendent state of Indian Muslims. Exactly what tha~ Imphed was not stressed at the time. But with the achleyem~nt of political independence, the problems of its practIcal Implementation loomed large. A sharp contro­versy flared up around the question of what kind of state it was to be.

As it proved, the very idea of an Islamic state was far from being acceptable to all members of Pakistan society.' The forces that opposed it were not so numerous as they were diversified in social character.

The adoption of Islam as the official ideology of the new state conflicted with the interests of the religious mi­norities, who saw in it a threat to their civil and economic rights.

It was also opposed by some Muslims, mostly those with European educational backgrounds. who wanted their state system and social in~t;tutions to be..roodelled on the

West. Then, of course, there were the more J;lrogressive ele-ments of Pakistan society who were committed to secular, democratic forms of government.

Serious differences even cropped up ~10ng the ,s~p­porters of the Islamic state themselves. W~lle recogmsll1g

I I ·Is official ideology, most theollsls agree that

s am as 1 J t I Th . t • th

.. dIS' tinctly Muslim type 0 s a e. ey polO ou~ ele IS no 'b th . . h·ch h· th t th Pro het did not prescn e . e ma~nel 10 ~v 1 IS a e P t· be chosen or leave any mstructlons as to

successor was 0 'Th p. h t I b . r thc government. e lOp e mere y e-the runnmg 0

1 See, fO! Pakistan . . , '

6 3lW:, 30 16

I "

e n14tend\s of the Constituent AS:;l'lIlbl), of

('Xdlll \> e, I

81

,,' 96·: pllY ccs)

w 0

H" ,lam, 'oki-

Ih' !ides

1M

other (iSlo11

old <is/on

•

queathed his followers some principles to guide thern in politics and gave them the liberty to select the forms i which those principles should be applied in their O\\'~ times.

The spokesmen of the official trend of Muslim nation_ alism accordingly came out in favour of a bourgeois_dem_ ocratic [arm of government. even claiming that "the politi_ cal democracy ideal has been all along inherent in Islam" and that "Islam. has long inculcated social and other t.ypes of democracy".l

Such a modernistic approach to the nature of the Islam.ic state. and the idea of democracy was met in anTIs by the rea('~lOnal'Y ulama. "Democracy is the name given to that particular form of government," said A.A. Maudoodi "in wh,kh so~el:e!gnty ultimately rests with the peopl~, in whiCh legIslatIOn depends both in its form and content on the for~c and direction of pUblic opinion, '" There is no such thmg in Islam, which tnerefore cannot be called de­mo.c:l:acy."3 The uIama preferred the kind of s tate where l:el,lgIOU$ law would be supreme and power belong to re­hgl~US lea~el's, Not all of them dared to profess their theo­cratic leanmgs openly, however, and so there appeared a new term, ":heo-democracy" or "democracy limited by word. of Gcd, '4 The TslarniC-- sUite would be theocratic jn that "whel:e an explicit. command of God and His Prophet a!ready eXists. no MushIT.lleader or legislature 01' any reli­glOUS scholar or man of mdependent judgement not e en a.ll of the Muslims of the World put together, 'have :n nght to make the least alteration in 1·t '5 It w Id b d Y ( ' , h h ou e emo-cra IC In t at were no such command of G d ,. t d freedom of cho~ce and acti?n would be pel'mitte~, ex IS e .

The convenIence of Usmg the term "th d " was questioned by some of its adhenm e~- emocracy o Malik a membel' of the P k' t C ts, among them .. a IS an onst"t ( A b who recommended that lOt be b d 1 uen ssem lv,

a an ened I, A h • 'theo' is not in vogue," Malik told th . ." s t e word caIl it by the name Of. Islamic democra~0~i;embly, "so we

And so the meanIngs aSCribed to I . began to vary. To the spokesmen of th sflafi~lc democracy

eo clal line it con-

87

J G \V Choudhury, ConslilulionaJ Develo . "" A. A. MdlJdoodl , Political Theory 01 ISla~menl In Pak is tan, p . 75. 4 Con.~lilU(' nt A.\.~('mbly 01 Pakistan " pp. 30.31.

A A M dood ' P II IT····' Vo V N 5 . ,,<lU I, 0 I Ica heolY of Islam· , o. , p. 78. r. ConMiluent A ssembly 01 Pakistan " p. 32 .

. .. , Vo V N · ,o.S, p. 78.

old b lU t'j I: dt'Jnol a<.:y. to thr, ideologists of the rpac-!~ <1 th ~l IC l' th, o· h n o('· atll".tate tlon., . I ' ' h

On III ,IVSIS, t l' m:l!n 1(")W ' In cit f'r t.heory is that of he SUpl In;"' pi W 'J" in tho ~u.te. Only God can be the sov­

~rt'ign in an l..Jaml( ~t:ttc, th' u~arna ass :,rl~d. "No ~rson, cla>s V i' group, no: ev ~ t h;, cntll·c pupulatlOn of the state 5 a , .... hole, can lay <.: l::um to ~f:V E' rclgnty. God alone is the ~eal s.oven":~ign; all oth '.'!"::; a re merely His subjects,"7 explained Maudoocli. The sUPJ~emc.' p()w~r Qf God must be acknow~edg2d by worshipping .thl? Pr~phet from whom rnan receive:> the commands and m~tructIOns ?I the Maker. In t.he pract ical life of the state, t.he. sovereIgnty of G~d ·mplies loyalty and complete submISSIOn, fil'st to the amI!' I nd then to the body chosen to uphold Muslim law. . a The amir o r h ead of state, required to be: a. vel'Y pIOU.'5

and highly respected man, will be given unhmlt:d secular and relig ious powers in that state. True, there WIll al.so .be a council w hose decisions will be adopted by a. ma.Jonty vote, bu t " Islam does not r~gard n~mbers as a cnt~r~on of ) , (h"· . d -e~ " Islam holds it poSSible that the opm~on of tIu . In e ~U , h th ammous a single person may be sounder t an e un. 'mil') " o in ion of the entire council. ... !fence the ~e~?el (a

h~s l~e r~ht t~ ~~~~~n~::r~' (~~~a~~:e ~:lt~ I;Ke ~~h~~: ;o~~~~i~nd ed~ci~~ the matter according to his own Judge-

men t. 'O R , . . [ the sovereignty of G,?d calls A s no t;.;:d , l ecognltlo~ ,0 d those who are descnbed by

for subm~ssion to the ~ml} ~uslim sl)ciety who will control Maudoodl as the lead:, so IT .. :1 Practically all the ulama its life and manage lis a ,allt~~e best suited for that role. feel confident that they ~l ~ d the opinion that the ulama )1, Maudoodi however, CX?~ ess.e vel'e 1.·"0 ig.nol'.:tnt and.reac.-

, d t· ctillons , \0)./._ - - d' f th reared on the 01 la_-:01e of the future.le~~ls.o . e tionary to_.3.Wll'C to t~e. ' the task of his own orgal1l~ahon

' Islamic s tate, B.nd ma?e I~f leaders. drawn from falthfu~ to train the nght k~~~ Western influences (o~ly 5 pe l M I· not '·de.filed J . .- up to this requll·ement),

U g lms, .- -lneasUie . d d" h e ~T--6 r alr-·Muslllns I d bv old-fashlOne lvmes, I nt d f a theocracy n.1 e, ew type of religious lea del', ns ea 0 C 'C In d n . dOt'

d vel' to I'cpo!; . to modE.'rn con 1 IOns. wante po, d r"sPOl1SIVe more fle xible an ... ,

. TI 'orr 01 Nam, p. 29. J' Po/ilICOI Il

7 A. A. "Idlldo~( I, Cf! I .• in II!~ Qu ron, p. 278. Ibid" pJl. 57·.IS, po/ilil'nl Can P

~ j A . .4, Mdudoo<i l ,

0' 8,1

•

"d 96·: plly

cesJ w, He< lam. 'aki·

'" 'ides 1M

ath er [islan

and [islan

,

•

x ,

1 I

) ( ,

The id('us of the ulama formed t1~{' b,asl~. o! Ihp pro_ gramme of the right wing in the constJ~LltlOnill strugglt. of ]947-1956. The official document subnuth.'d by Ow Board of Talimmat-i-Islamia to the Constituent Assembly In 1950 contained the following demands: I'ecognitiun or thl' SUpr(>~ me sovereignty of the Word of .G~d; election of a .lifelong­head of state invested with unlImIted powers: asslgnmenl of all the main posts in the stale machinery to men devoted to Islam, 10 "In an Islamic state," this document slated, "the implementation of the commands of Allah is the basic consideration, and the will of the people occupies a com­paratively subservient position; while, on the contrary, an absolutely democratic state aims at the unconditional im­plementation of the will of the people.'·11

The ulama concept called for the centralisation of po­litical power in their own hands and reflected primarily feudal and semi-feudal interests. This went counter to the interests of the national bourgeoisie, whose spokesmen approached the issue of sovereignty from a differen1 angle. While accepting the first, declarative point of the Mullaist doctrine on recognition of the supreme power of Godo they drew the line at the second point delegatino the practical implementation of his power to the ulama~ "In any case Pakistan is not going to be a theocratic State to be ruled by priests with a divine mission," said Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

12 He wa,:; sUI?ported by liaquat Ali Khan: "Islam does not recogmse .,., either priesthead or any sacerd?tal authority, a~d t.herefore the question of a theocracy SImply does not anse In Islam."13 The alternative ptop~sed ~Y the spoke~men of the bourgeoisie was ihat the practIcal ImplementatlOn of the Supreme power of the maker should be entrusted not to religious leade's b t to the people through their elected representatives. I, u

The fullest statement of the bourgeo,os v,oow . . ,:: On sover-e'gnty was that presented by l.H. Qureshio To ju lOf hO

ambivalen~e in upholding both the Supl~emacy of ~~l an~ the sovereIgnty of the people, QureshI split th ' sovereignty into three aspects: political. logal and : 11~~T~f legal sovereign shaH be the ~uslim law. but its ~ea .. , e shall be in the hands of a legtslature repreSentin e

t,tlmtlOn

g fie peo­It) L. Binder, RC'/igion and Politics in Pakislan, PP. 38.'5 II Ibid., p. 406, , 386. 2 Quald-i-Azam. Mahom~d Ali Jinnah, SP('('c/ies u'

General of Pakistan 1947-1948, p, 65, S Gavernor-'-. K. Callard, Pakistan: A Polilica! Stu

84

l' dH J olita.:ai f>OVlTl"~gn ,ryall be thp JX'opl.p who wilJ P (..t 'md diSJ ":i thl·., leg.-latul' ~ and thC'lr govern­dt~ts: ' The real ~o~cr,eign w:1! be bas~!ly ~he princ~­~::> oL Islam which Will tn~luenc: the p,":,bhc mind only. If Problems an' brough\' mto tn,- public forum and dlS-t~~~d at full length',fl g

, '. "

C This concept wa~ given JUridIcal expr~sslOn In the pre­bies to the t:onslituli(m~ of PakIstan .(the first

am l'dlon 1956 the second in 1962), ", .. Soverelgnty over adop e, ° hI" 0d

t o -e Universe belongs to AlmIghty Alia a one, Sal ~~II ° ° ° t 1962 constitution,15 addmg that t~IS sovereIgn y, as a

~Ihe red trust" from Allah, was to be Impleme~ted by the sac 1 ithin the limits he has set. Su~h wordmg allowed

-tel?fh~ ~ost varied constructions. It satIsfied the ~ama, f~r i~ conceded the supreme power o~ Allah and h~ law. 0:

bl d the bourgeoisie to recogmse the sovereIgnty, ena e . I d at the same tImE" God, thus sanctifying thelr l'l.;l e't ~,nloophOle) to construe (through the "politdicahl s~vere;;~:'t suited their purposes the will of God an IS aw _

and convenie~c~. e the sovereign of the state, While acclalmmg t?e peoPl

1 ld not offer any clear

the bourgeois ideologIsts of Is a~ couf

how their sovereign and agreed answer to the quejstlohn 0 day Muhammad Ali

. Used n IS, 1° f power was to be 1 ea . t whether the Mus lIDS 0 Jinnah expressed doubts as 0 ftutional form of govern­India were ready at all for a cO~~J and unskilled the.popu­ment considering hoW uneduca ent of the state, whIle the lar m'asses were in the ma~a~e~esponsibilitY reste~ wer~ educated classes upon wdo °tOons 16 For that reason et~u~

, 'contra IC J. 'derable Im~, corroded by mnel ld [01' a cons} f g sted t hat I<pakistan wou t'O e largely independent 0 e _ ng Execu IV ,

require a really '~IV 0 ur eoisie sup­the L.egislatur~8 a large segment ~f ~eem~cra~y was .the

Prior to 1.9 that parliamentalY titution proclalm-ported the VIew . tate The 1956 COfs the parliament best form of Islaml~lfame~tary l'epu~~~~e to be known as ed Pakistan a ~resident and one ICconsisting of the

26-27 . DemOcracy, pp. \ IslamiC 1

. Pak.i.~lan . . ' n '01 PakIstan, p. .. h - a It, I H, Qureshi" of the RepubliC MusulmanskJYC' I(>C emy 15 The Consli/ullOn .polollskaya. 226, .

L R Gordond ,· i PakiS/ana, P'blC'ms 01 Consli/u/lon Build-16 See -' _ sli In II k PtO '

v obshcheslvcnnol m{\, L, r Rushbroo . Ii Quoted

n fro.m

IS7.

Illy in Pakls/a , p 85

:ved

196·: )p/IY

Ice:;)

'w , He<

,10m, Paki-

Ih. tic/es

I Ih. other leis/an

and

kislan

,

tlll' NatIOnal Assembly" (Article .J;i).IS On Ihl on\.: h. it acclaimed the supreme powel' of tIlt.' colkctiv!' e1c~~d; body (a concession to democratic pressures), ,mct on th d other, it granted the single head of state or presid('nt gr e powers, subject only to slight restmints from his cabi~a: of mini,ters (Article 7). e

This system remained in effect until October 1958 when a coup brought about marked politi(.;al changes. Th' 1962 constitution ~ntroduced a presidential for111 of govern: m~I~t. ,The neCCss,lty of that change was attributed to a cnsls In the co.n,stltutional ~ystcm of Pakistan and desire to end the prevaIlmg corruptlOn and careerlsm,l'l

~hc advocates of the new regime argued that its intro­duction had been rendered imperative by the conflict be~ twce~l.the s'ystem of parliamentary democracy and specific Con~ltlons In Pakistan. That system, they asserted cont­rad.lcted the Islamic doctrine of a unit.ed and indi'visible socwty and strong and powerful leader.

The principle, u~derlying the political ordcl endorsed by ~he ~cw constitutIOn was one of practically unrestrained .leglsIat.lve and executive powe!". Whereas originaUy the Ideologll .. ts of M~slim nationalism had pronounced ~ p -I' _ mcntary repubhc the best form of Islamic democrac a~~~v many completely reversed their POSI'll'on' f y, f

t f d in avow' 0 a new ype 0 cmocracy. "The Caliphate" 'd

(Foreign Minister Muhammad AI' " ,sm the late d t' ItT I , compares to the presi-

en la ype. hcrefore, the present Const't.. .' ... t'onsonanCi:' with tho [I· ~ utIOn IS mOle 111

~ s <lIlUe lradlt" ".~ Kh r uz-Z.ama~, leader of the Conventional 10n: - a I.~ put It this way: "Presidential forlll o( .MUS~Inl L(:'a~ue,­only system which can lead to the 1'0 ~OVCl nment. IS the p<']'ity of th(' countl'Y as a whole p Siess and the pros­duction of parliamcntary f01'111 i~ ~~d jany talk of re-intl'o­gn'ss and create fresh enOl'mo"" pi bOIY to I'clc!l'd the pro-

. , ...." 1'0 ern" ,,~~ HUL some groups of Muslim nati :

L('agu<" East Pakistan Muslim Le~ ~~ahs~s. (the Awami I 'a rty, and others) continued to ,g . .' National Awami

inSIst cn the I l'cpea See Till' CO/l.~liIulion oj Ihe J.~/mnj· R'

l<.Lthl, IWi7 ( q)lIbllc oj Puki:Slan Kd-I j /'(" •• m C\;1<.Llysls of 1111' rdlliol'S of the 19.')8 . '

Iwv"ky, IV N. Mo!.kdlenko. POIIIJ("ht\~ko}"I' pOlo I toup ;&:' Y V GlIl-20 Thf' PCikl.~lon Times, JdllllMY IS, 19td. 1 U'I!J}I' \. PakiManC'. ~, Kh,dlq IIl·Z,UTldll f('mdilletl tilt· if'dth'r of tl

1)(, l(jill ldt Pdrly unlll Decem-I rllt" l'IIIi/,Um fim,·s, (I 'toh{.', "1, 1'1(j:l.

of tIlL' IHfi~ COI1:-:tiI.UtIlHl and H.'lnstitution of the p<ldwn1(>n~ ta]'V sy.slctll. ..

'The 1!J62 cunstlt.utlun has also corne under tirc from th(; right, namely the I'pligious parties Jamaat-i-Islami, Nizam-i-lsla~, .Jamaat-ul-ulama. They do not object to the presidential form of government but demand that the president. be .dirl'.cUy elected, In their view, the purpose of 'v the constltutuJn IS to guarantee the (..'Orrespondence of tHe f­laws ot" the state "lo the principles of Islam. Another dcrnf\nd is restoration of the former nam2 of "Islamic Republic of Pakistan". Their criticism of the constitution is inspired by a desire to gain greater leeway for the activi-ties of their parties and to exploit the discontent of the maSBes to consolidate the ir own positicns.

No less contradictory are the various approaches to the functions of sovereign lule. The ulama hold that the Islamic state must base all its decisions on the laws handed down by God through his Prophet. Theygo on the assump- / tion that God's laws arc eternal and universal. and conse- I­quently perfectly applicable to the 20th century, Mostof the ulama maintain that Isbm does not p~rmlt th~ practice of law-making in general and simpl~' l'eq~lI'es the ~nteJ'pre­tation of the Muslim laws already In eXistence (slJ:ce me-d ' I t' ,'I ·t) Says Abul Khasan Ata, presIdent of leva lnlE:"" In ac . . I t I" h J '1 1 . "Since Islam IS a per ec l'e IglOn

t e amaat-u -u ama. , h 'h 1 field of human containing laws ... governmg ~ e \f' °wehat may in the

" h ... t no sanctIOn 01 ' activity, t e re IS ml·.1 tion" Islamic law "merely modern sense be called legIS a· ,t ' 't ":!J . . ' . b those who are expel S In 1 . reqUires mterpretatIon Y 1"' nd his followers on this

The position of M.aud.oo~ 1 ;hey say the Sharia dis Un­question is slightly dl.m~ler ia vs: (a) mandal(ll'Y, or those guishes three categol"lcS 0 (~ncluding the prohibition of directly stated in ~he ~u~'annd gambling, theft, adultery, alcoholic drinks, lllteJ es a hile not being mandatory, the etc.)· (b) recommendalo:'Y (b

W 'vance)' (c) a sphere of legis-

, d their 0 sel '. d h II d Sharia recommen s t" n is sanctlOne w en ca e lation where freedom of ~c 1~:!4 Thus, while they defend

d r the lime.... I l' d for by the nee :3 0 . f llability of s amlC comma~ -the eternal truth a~d ml~ alloW for some free and m-

d dl,sts a so ments the Mau 00 ,

.. conslllUll'd under Punjab Acl II , Collfl of InqWf}

t:l Reporl of Ihl . 21 ? Ii 1_/anH 01 1954., .. p. ~. The }amOtl ···

~l K. B. Sdyeed.

'Ioremcnl in P{/ki~lan.

pp. 65, 66, 8;

v,d 196·: .pll}'

Ices) ,\'I 0

He< ;/om, Pokj·

Ih' licles

1M

olher {is/on

ond ~islon

•

• • • dt'Pcnnent action If the ,Ql.l-1O {lr SUn! specific pl'O\'jsion for a gwen bJluu Wn.

Lxponents of the oft,leial Ir('nd ( f :'\[USJ 11 n..lI~OI hSIJl consider the orthodoxahty of the' ulama and .1h Ir ~

tence on rigid adherenL'€' to the l~ws and pnnc', It: of the period of early lslamn'J",Y ddl'lI1wntal.to th~ Pl'E' -' gt' of Islam. turning it into stagnant and pL'lr\tlC'd I'ehgl(ln. In ne words of A.K. BI'oh1. "Those' scholnf"S of IslillH who go to the length oi saying that for almost ('\'('J'Y Sltu.IUan of our individual and collectin~ liCe, not Illl'rt .. -'ly the Pl"inciple. but actual, detailed practical injuncti()n~ in a Ck~lr-cut fOrm are to bi':' found in the Quran or Sunnah. al'l~ only alkmpt_ ing to make of Islam what it is not. and thefeb,r com't'l"ting a uni\'ersal religion which Islam admittl'dl.\' is, into something local and particular, , , . ":!li Bl'Ohi and mo:>t of his adherents seek to pmve that Islam 11::> a flexible, dynamic religion, "respectable, relevant. and as up-to-date as this yor's new C3r or the latest fa"hi'Jn.' 1,

It is thei!' opinion that in order to be guided by Islamic la",' t.oday, the non-permanent pan of the Shu ria must be revised and new laws substituted for those handed down by the ).lushm medieval lawyers, while the permanent part (the QUI'an and Sunnah) must be reint~rpr0ted, This de­mand reflects the desire of the boUrgeoisie and the middle strata to discard the laws of feudal !>Ociety while continu­ing to rcly on religion and the traditional institution of Islam,

T~e constitutions of 1956 and 1962 gavc legal sanction to thIS stand of the bourgeoisie by not recognising the old ~a~s as such, but only the underlying Principk's of Tslamic Junsprudence',,;hey declare,that "no Jaw }ihcu1d be l'Cpug­n~nt, to ~sla,m, A declaratIon of that kind is not very bmdmg 10 I~elf,; eyerything depends on how thf' princi­ples ,of IslamIC JurISprudence are intel'pl'C'kd and who is con,sldered competent to formulate thr. nl'W laws and decide whether 01' not they Correspond tf 1.1 It .. pre-. I hi d I t· h J S am, IS else y t s cc ara lon, t erefot'e. which h ,,' ,', to

the most heated disputes, a:-) glv('n lIse

Along with the Quran and SUnnah wh' h h .n SOurces of its laws, Islamic jUriSP

llld'enc

r,IC I aJ'(' t (' ~aJ S

..! a so recognIse A A MtJudoodi. POlitical COliC 'PI" II/ II", (J

:', A. K Brohi, Fundamell/a/ ~. of PO/O"'all ) Uran, Jl :ill!. ' (Juoled from Ch, Adams, Is/am In P"k. I ,I, 7-17,

' - , u" (/11, jJ 41:j Thr- Consillul/on 01 the IlcPublie of flak I . .

/,~ all, ". ,1.

n Tl r:f If/)mel Wh 1& lnt bv i min 01 the ' chi 'i ",('nl 81 Ign'tmt .It n (lSc wh I thC' llil n t ... I I [ d. unr ( !' ~JUnl o.! 1. ) n( 1 pI v ... 1' t 1e an ~l'1 n a Uh (t'hi;'h WI ('~ 01 • idJr: a W(' rtold My 'omn Um Yell no'

\\n,mlJlltl-ll I ~'itmg >/1/1 )OJ: to be r ght. II" 1=-: ';11 C wh U t • . til .... UPlWI" Illy dl'C('pt: I OPl.1irm r the wholl' C m, Wl'n ,IS "'- ,., 'II

ity was Ilsnally . tw opinion of the pi Imnf'T)t '.I:oiJlm m~~ t'1' 01 mUrlJllh,<J Onlv Iho I'ho .. ,o, hat "'h,, lPP':',: .! I. Y f th" ul'lm', t'nJ·"yrd the pnvlit'ge 01 holdmg th('11 rung 0 .... '<, , wn opinion on !t'~al mattt·!,s, All f..I~hcr behevprs ,~A.O, ~'

o / ni to ,tlfi1iat~ tht'mselve:i wllh some: mudJllhHI s be con t', d b 'I . .,"'dl" to school of thpj t' OWn ('hoice un su n1l un, e I .

his d:_'dsicns (I.'lkhd), h ,.. 'k-d ' M'my ulama In Paki~tan J'eJl'c JI ma lUt ,Jp 01 ta I

they ~rguc that ,onel' the nred n .. longer {T~t , ".' n~~ laws (Islamic law'; hcldin~ tor all tIme), th"l pl - C rict

I· d ·ts day Thal doc'; not ru e ",," idjrna has Out Ive I,', ,,' 'd'rnJ understood L> the ~e-adherence to the tradItIOnal IhJ _~. aI k"'ul schoo1~:

~ t d inion (l( t p mf1.JICV: '" '. nerally acc"':J? ~ op b' "genclal1\' accepte:i (ldlma), "Once a deCISIOn ha" ecomili ' j" no 'tempol alliJ"i1itation it is final for all time; for ~"f ~~ - r the p'J\\'er of 1uman to the validity of the Im\ 0 0

rea<;cP., "~19 " . tion of particular plinciple~ A,; concems the mt~rple~ kine independent jud~('-and law3 oC I<; I'11l1, thf' nght? rna 'd~.J saleh' to the h(,<ld

·d -h d) L'i accol t"U , - d ments about them (I )tl.a "I In the .afonmcntlon(' of the state and his SIIl'Cl~l co~~~~i~Ishmh the ulam.'l ~'C'­re Ol't of the Baad of T'llu~" be .Un' dilft'l"Cnce of oJ?Ifl' co~mend\'d that "should /hl" 01., ~omn"'nd or n'quoro-

I . t"rpre-tallOn , d d decld-ion regarding t 1(;' 1Il~. ""hould be refcITC' to an, ., t o[ Isl"nl llw m,It[, I'd .h',,'actcr who h'l.\e deep men ", "'d m an (;. < , ',.

d u on by mpn 01 WI!,;,O , '-\'e knn\\'kd~l' of Islam In ~!'; ~nSig~t into and n ('ompl ('/~I~~~:'Silnt with tht' 11t'cds and 1('-. "t· ·,nd an' n anous '\Spt( s "(I

v " '<', If thl' HI.!,\" "', di and hi:-. follow.l'" 1'1;'-

qUlI em~n~ts )~hl'" ulanl<l, 1\-I,I.ud:);1 idjma, Thilt )'('jl'ctlOn was X UnlJk( ( I' I 'mel traditIOn,! t w'if\" the mig-inal L-

jected both ta~ ,I~h-: by till' dl'.S'rl: ~~mas nnd pl'inciplc') motivated l'I,ltlil 'ne! !'l'\'in' III '/' Mnudoodi did pl'l'mit

. 1 'lcillO(t a I'lin hnll.'i < d b Lamll' t'-, 'Within ct.'/' . " hWt' aln','1dy note, ut of .... urJy 1·.;Iam, 'l.,kin.t{, it..; \\l ' .... f 1'1\\-0-the pradk(' () ,

Hl'IlfI/un alII III Puj-./.~tun, IlP, 13, :.!,j I puMI< IJ

."1 L. HlI1d,'/, '1

~I Ibid,. PI" ' ~()h w , 89

'cd 91; ,

Iff'r

110m,

Pall/'

/he I!df"

/he

a/he, !illian

anJ kl~/all

,

it. was his opinion that this should n.'main th" P1"\'ro atIve of the head of the state and llw ('xlx'rts on I'pll"gl" g

" ou' law. . The theorists of the official trC'nd of social thought h

categorically !'epudiated taklid on thC' gmunds that it h aVt'

pers independent thinking, and have taken a rnodern v~m~ of idjma. and idjtiha~i. They .would grant all mpmbf'r;e~ ~he MuslIm cO~lmumty the ng~t to practice idjtihad, and In tac,t regard ,It .no,t only as a nght, but even as a dut stress~n? that It IS H~cumbent ~pon every Muslim to for~ an OpInion on any glven questIon from the vantage of the ('hanges wrought by time. Th~y denne idjrna as "the product of the views of all

Muelims and not merely those with special legal quall"fi f" " 31 I I" " h ca­.IOn:. n mehwlt. the bourgeois reform of Islam, these can emp~rary t eOI ~.sts .of IYIuslim nationalism suggest that the function of the msbtutlOn of idjma should now b ' legated to the .Legislative Assembly, for only the ]egisl:tl~~ ~od.Y as the highest representation of the people can speak lor the latter and adopt the most reasonabl d .. theil' behalf. ::2 e eCISlOns on

. The Pakistan constitution gives padiament i e th . s~dent and the National Assembly these leg.' I "t: e

f PI e­

tlOns thu" d" t" h ' 18 a lye unc-. . S lepu la mg t e ulama myth that ·t· t'll

SIble today to go on living according t th IllS S I P?S­dIe Ages" 0 e aws of the Mld-

But with respe.ct to fatwa or the ri ht .. er a new law corresponds to the g to decIde wheth­lU62 constitution does make some ~~mma!lds of Islam, the Article 199 provides fOl' the fo' n~esslons to the ulama. C "I ImatlOn of a Ad"

OU':Cl o[ Islamic Ideology, consistin f n VIsor,)' appointed by the president and h g 0 5 t.o 12 members 201 of the constitUtion, "sh~ll in sel~ctccordtng to Article pointment to the Council have l' In

dg a person for ap-

d t d " d ' egal' to th ' un ers an mg an appreciation of I I e person s nomic, political, legal and adminish!t?m and of the eco­kist?n." One of the chief functions of ~~: prOble~~ of Pa­tablish whether a new law corresponds t t CounCIl IS to es­I)r d()~mas of Islam (Article 204). Actua~l he~egal precepts b?dy IS not great: it only has the right t% ~, e I'?le of this rllon and make recommendations When th and In an opi­

C Assembly or II Ibid., p. 43.

-.;: I. H. Qureshi, The Concept 01 Sovereignty 0/11 E I 2 ( xetu/· men, p. . I~'(' Govern.

90

pn'sJ(h'n~ iH,k it. to; lts opinion an.d rccomm('ndation~ are not. bin<imj1 .lr~d C'.1I1 m dT£'ct be dl. ... rcgardNL

Our {l1l.dYf'IS 01 Islanm: d£'mocracy will not be l.'Omplcle without a f£'w obsl'lvations em the position of tht religious minorities and th(' status of women in Pakistan.

The religious fanatic::; have assumed an extremely rcactional"y stance with regard to the religious minorities. The president. of the ,1amaat-ul-ulama-i-Islam has made it clear that in a genuine Muslim state non-Muslims -'will have no voice in the making of laws, no right to administer the law and no right to hold public offices,":n

Maudoodi's justification for that stand was that since the Islamic state is an ideological state, its subjects must be divided into two categories, viz., the Muslims and the Dhimmis. The laUer do not adhere to IsI~m and therefor~ must be denied all political rights. Accordmg to Maudoo.dl, only persons who share this ideology can be entrusted WIth the management of the state.:W . _

The ulama have not confined themselves to t.heonsmg, and from time to time have gone over to pract~cal step~. Such was the case in 1953, when fourteen of theu" .orgam-:-

t " "I dOng the leading Ahrar and Jamaat-l-Islaml sa lO.ns, mc u 1 ai a ainst the Ahmadiya sect. parties, launched a camp gn g f ns of faith (whereas Playing up their differences ~~ que~~ Ie between dif'fer­the real reason lay in the ~ohhcal) t;! ulama raised the ent bourgeois and landlor gl~~~diya to be declared a following demands: for the dhur Zafrullah Khan to be non-Muslim sect; fOl~ C~af~reig: minister on the groun.ds removed from th~ post ~ ct. for all Ahmadis to be dls­of his membersh~p JJ1 teI~~ent offices.35 missed from theu' fOVthe ula01a did not meet with a sym- '\

Th~ stand ta~en . Y official circles, It wa.s. denounced I pathatlc l'eceptlOn In t-adictory to the SPU"It of Islam, as undemocratic and con ~ for the fact that "lhe pages of which could not be bla~e tal "ned with the blood of many

h · toryaieS b"" Muhammadan. IS".w The ideolo~is.ts of the our~eo~sle cruel persecutIons. the Muslim relIgIOn preaches un~vel sal remonstrated that d even respect for other falts, To ,t . ity tolerance an .

fIa eln , I qlCilY Cons/I/u/cd under Punjab Ad II h Courl 01 n

<J Repor/ 01 t c ) 213. . . '01 Concepts in /lie QUf{Jn, p. 287. .

01 J~~4., .. , ~fdoudoodi, Politll; of Inquity Constitutcd undcr PunJab . , A. A. 1 /lIC Courl 35 See Repolt a

H}54 . •. . tlfutlonol Dcvelopment in Pakls/on, p. 85. Ac/ If 01 W ChoudhUry, Con'

-G " 91

ed '6·; hy esJ

" ,,, om, [Ik i·

Ihe

I cles

lhe

/her is/on on:.!

is/on

•

prove the point, they recall(>d. rO,r example, lhr solemn i1''-''11y which the Prophet m<1de wI th the Jew ,,, after his arrival in Medina. True, tlw)' fOl'gol to l1ll'n llol1 t hnt In IT' ,

turn for his guarantees of the non-vi~labjJit.y of their pel'_ sons and property to these non-MuslIms. Muhammad de­manded the payment of a special tax and contribUtions for the :mpport of the Muslim army, made them wear brands on theh' clothes, and forbade them to ride horl3cback, carry (H m<:;, 01' build new places of worship where they could practise their own religious rites, and so on.3;

The Magna Carta of Pakistan's non-Muslims was Mvhammad Ali Jinnah's famous presidential address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, where he said that the basic principle from which all Pakistanis proceeded was that they were ali citizens of one state: "in COurse of time, Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would ccas~ to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that IS the personal faith of each individual, but in the po­htIcal sense as cItizens of the state."3A

~uarantees of the rights of the minorities are proclaim­ed m the preamble to the 1962 constitution and so is free­dom of religious worship in Article 7, which states that the l~~ of the state. must not prevent the members of any re­l~g~ous comm~mt:Y .from observing and preaching their re­!lgl1~n ~r mamtammg and managing their own religious mstltutlOns. The promulgation of that principle by the constitution IS undoubtedly a progressive ste es eciall as co.mpared to the ulama attitude on the stftus ~f non: !Vtushm~. But even it cannot ensure a thoro hI d ' t­Ie i-;O]utlOn of the problem or the reB io ug y emo~l.a The adoption of Islam th [fi'·' g us commumtles.

as e 0 clal Ideol f tl . t the condition that only aM }' .ogy 0 1e sta e, of president and the functUoS 1m fmay be elected to the post . ' InsotheAd··C·f IslamIC Ideology in deciding Whether VISOty ouncll 0

pond to Islam, have all operated to Ie ~ew. law~ .c?rres­the citizens of Pakistan on religio gahse the diVIsIOn of intcre~ts of its non-Muslim SUbje~ grounds an~ injure the is constantly being held up as the . °t top of it all, Islam inns. mos perfect or all l'elig-

Islamic tradition has always lim't . . wom('n, mcluding MusJim women. ~he~ ,the nghts of all

eu unequal position

7 See H. MdSS{>, L·/s/om.

92

M'lbomed Ali Jinnah, SpccChets and W . fI/lng$, p, 9,

, Ihl' fam il y ha~ lu 'n sandirif'd by rf'ligion and approv('d 10 ] . w p ol ygamv and the unilaipra1 right of mf'n to eli.'"-bY ,l .

' j ,the marriag f ('ontrad have been the pillars of the SOl:~ i C film il y ('odp for m(H'C' than thirteen centurif's. But !s 1955. at t.hC' h('i~ht of the democratic mov(Jm,ent in the iO t I.y a (:ommiU'J(· wa<l. set up to prepare for Its reform. coun , d t· th d . t··· t·o It · 1"('<;l11tant rf'commen a Ions on e emoel a lsa I n of th; fum ily corle aroust'd the wrath of the re~i!?iQus .fan~t­. "Certa in immoral people have become active agam and lCS. 1 tUng to roh th(' weaker sex (If its priceless treasure. are Ph O t·ty. painting fahe prospects and promisin~ them Its c as.1 , -'- - . t t h

- 11 kinds of rights, they are trying to pus~ women In 0 : ,f>

a r dishonour," was how the reacilonary ulama. ex­abyss dOth .. ttitudf' to the Committee's recommendatIOns. presse e lI a h f It W::l'" F . . years a battle raged over t e re o.rm~. .,

1 o~~~~ the new Muslim Famil~ Laws OrdJ~ancf' wen~ 196 ff t.19 B that time democrallc laws banmng polyga mto e ec. y . number of other MuslIm coun­my had b~e.n ado~te~ m ~a and the Pakist;.,m Ordin~n.ce tries (TunlSla. ~Ol oc .... o. II ~~' laws and even than the Imt­proved less radlc~l tha~ t~~ 1955 Committee. N.J. Coulson. ial recommendatIOnS? t. t "the compromise at whIch t~e the British lawyer, saId th~h odernist and traditionalIst Ordinance aims betwee~ e t~lfavour the latter."4(l .

)

viewpoints seems on b~ ance ts women to go on bemg The Pakistan reactIOn wan. 1 and political life. The

completely debarred from hes~~rimmat-i-Islam Committe~ ,/ authors of the report of t the grounds that it woul~ II

denounced women's sU~l'ag:no~he shoulders of wom~~ an~ . the burden fallmg On elections mlhtate~ Increase ° of women 1 . tl. t that "the participatl.on I Tslam."41 As one au -101 pu.

- . a reqUlreme~~ 0 woman is her home ana ~g~~nst m~n~ of the activItIes of he domestic affailos ef- , It, the PflvOt ron is to man~ge t h training that they her real Ul:C 1 children WIth sue , .. obey none but ficiently, brIng uPne but Allah a~~to be her husbal'ld'~ h ld fear no . . 5 a woman , th r . ...! OU ,,42 Is1a-01 reqUIre atmosphere withm (' O.lll

Allah. . . . ° te "such an perform their soclal slave and to Cl'ea e as can help men walls of the houS

. ,,43 functlOns. h'" 1961. - 2"

-is/an. Md rC . ~. Low Progre.~s in Pakl.~/an. p. _ ,. 39 Gazelle 01 Po" islamiC FamIIY/ilU/lonGI Development in Pah~/an. 40 N. J. CoulsO~hO'ucthUry< Cons . 41 See G. W. d puJi/it·s in Pt]kls/an, p. 410.

68 Religion an p. . L BUldN.

42 Se~ 'p .111. 91 &~ IbId. .

ed 16·: .hy

"J , 0

Ie< om. aki-Ihe

des Ihe

/her

is/an and

is/an

•

, •

In contrast to the ulama, the ac1 voc<1 j £'s or a m.odcrll view of Islamic democracy a~ree t~lat ,wonwn shoU'? hav(' definite rights to participate In social hfe. Th£' constItution permits them to elect and be elected to the Country'S supreme govern~g body, ArtIcle 2? reserves ~IX o~ the 15f seat. in the NatIOnal Assembly fO! them. th,ee flam each of the two provinces, and this does not exclude the possi_ bility of the above quota bemg exceeded.

Nevertheless it is still too early to speak of the Complete emancipation of women .. The const~tution d~es nO.t even include a verbal declaration of theu' economIc, SocIal and political equality with men.

It behoves us to complete this analysis of Islamic de­mocracy with an examination of the concrete forms it took in Pakistan following the 1958 coup and up to 1967.

Parliamentary democracy was supplanted by a system of Basic Democracies. The uderlying idea in introducing it was that the vote of the electorate may be considered valid only when the problems involved lie within the range of its experience and comprehension. In other word5, the people may be permitted to express their opinion through the vote only on local proble ms with which they are familiar. As for the solution of the larger problems of state. these must be entrusted to the few who according to Pakistan law are the acknowledged spokesmen of the people.

In stJucture the Basic Democracies consis t of a graded system of councils at five levels starting with the union panchayats. or union councils, which have one elected representative for every 1,000 to 1,500 people ; and union committees in towns. Two-thirds of these council and com­mittee memb~rs are elected and one-third appointed on the tecom.mendahon of th~ departments of the next higher councIl. All take part In the election of the legislative bodies of the country-the provincial assemblies and the National Assembly.

The councils of th~ next level are called Tehsil in 'Vest Pa~istan and Than~ In East .Pakistan. and comprise the chall'men of the umon c:'1UncIls and town committees as well as gove.rn~ent offiCIals. ar:d other persons appointed by the commlSSlOner of the dIstrIcts. Their fUnctions include supervision, of .the lower Councils. Then come the coun­cils of the dlstn~ts, a~d ~hen ,~he division COuncils with thE same membershIp prmciple. The fact that the councils at 94

1 VPI' h'vd~ <In ml: 'JI'dinatf>d to those at the highC'1 the 1 :l~mc1 the fac t also that th(· councils at the higher lev­levc s ~c:.i':it (·n Un.I v of officmls and nominated persons is elS·t~O sufncif'nt to en c:.ul'C' official contl'()~ of the :ntire sys­qUI '-'44 In Cldclition , a t ('ach level ther~ IS a speCial co~t:ol te7hority mnde u p of offlcials responsIble for the activIty aU 11 the cot1ncils. They approvE' the budgets and check of a 'son nel of the councils; they can prohibit any mea­the pel d' remove .3ny member of a council if they find such sure an

t ion n ecessa ry. h f ac The sy stem of Basic per;lOcracies was made t, ,e oun­dation of the 1962 constItutIon.

• • • . .. f the cardinal principles of Islamic

Ou.r cOn~Jdei ahon 0 onc1u.de that there is no complete democr~cy ha~ I.ed us to e~ing problems of the state struc­unison In PakIst~n CO;tC .}' ,-jews depending on the oar­ture. Theorist s dIffer I~ thel e' ha 'pen to be speaking for. ticular segments of SOCIety th :v

t. ~he road to an ideal 15-

. th Pakistan reac Ion . 't t' Whereas for . e . . . 111 of many feudal lOst! U IOns, lamie s tate lies through .r~%:l trend want to get there ?y the spokesmen o'~ thE' .1 a , ' with modern bourgeOls­ccmhining MU'::lin: hadltIono:;

democratic institubon~. h <; theoretical differences have As might be expectc0: t e.eiS almost inevita~le that the

affected legislative r:ract~ce. It they do the relatIOn of cla~g laws of Pakistan, ref1ectmhgu~~ be" in the nature of com-

h unifY S 0 forces in t e co - .' . the problem of promisee;. c1 conflicts surround~~~ day As before.

The debates an e not abated to 1. . 'them each the state st~·t1ctUl~~i~~v forces are, inv~iv~~e l~ogan 'Of an various soclO-f'olown interpretatlOTIarter of a century a~o. ) committed to ~t: t raised about a qu 'a-class democracy is Islamic st.ate, I S some kind of ~~~~lisation that th~ cha­But the Id~a. of way to the s?bedl bv the real positIon of gradually gIvmg ; detennme . raciel' of the state IS

social forces.

er 1<160· Today, ~umm . ,,~ Pakistan

,d 6·: loy

esJ . , 'e< 'm. Ik i­Ihe :Ics lhe

ther sIan and

sIan

,

Appendices

PHILOSOPHICAL AHD SOCIOLOGICAL CEHTRE OF PAKISTAN S

The Pakislan Pllilosophical Congu.'ss i' the l' f h' :iatlon in the country alHI W,lS founded il~ 195 <lcl~e. p Ilosophical asso-iosophers of the subcontinent belonged 1 II' lIor to 1947 the phi· Congress established by S. Radhakrishnan"; Ie IndIan PhilosophIcal )f the organisation of the Pakistan C III 1925, The moving SPirit who b ' ongress was Prof M M Sh

ecame its first president T d I . . . anI Dr. M. Ahmed. It has a memi>el:h~y t le PresIdent of Ihf' Congress )s 010

0' , Ip of about 100 j)h' ,

" ,s,s and psychologists, most of them I osop lers, soci· members at various univers I' professors and olher faculty

C ' Ilesandcolleoes" '7 -

omm:t\ee arran~es th" ", 1>. S ·man Executive '- annua seSSIOn f Ih C

of their records_ The Conoress ., 0 e _oll~ress and publication 10' '.. a s(" Publishes Ih" P ,

UflKl, d quarterly h'hich ha h '" oK/sinn Phi/osop/lical Ih, , seen camino alit -re~u al Proceedings of In C .... Slllce 1957, as well as o ' e on(!ress and

n var,ous philosoph:cat probl!'ms. mono~raphs and sympos;a

The Congress' three-day annuClI siUes III turn (Ill Lahore, K<.lrachl Hs~sl()ns are held at diff('n:mt univer­hI, etc.). ' Y erabdd, Daccil, Peshawar, RaJsha.

The work of the sessions tak of the sections. The sub,"'I< d es Ihe fUlm of <;ymp0SIi! th E '" ., Iscusspd' t t dnd meetinRs t e xeculive and may be qUIte vafled~ "thle sympOSia aie cho~en by osophy of life", "reOril?lItatlOll of M .' t e ndlure of bl?allty", "phI·

natiolldl character" "exisl I'. usilln phIlosoph " '" d ,en lahsm: a cntl I Y, I lC problem of an the community", etc. ca examlllallon", "philosophy

Four sections hold their meet metapl - 1llgS at th . lyS1CS; (b) moral and Social phI e sessions: (al logIC and catIon; (el) phdosophy of lehgion. I osophy; (e) psychology unci edu.

The Pakistan PhilosOphical or~dniSdtion. This is confirm"'d b Congress IS , ". . .. Y the ch semi·official PU) ICdtlons, which are basicall aracter of its . Islamic ideolo . y concerned with I sessIOns and

. gy, by the unfalhng presence of he POPlliansatlOn of men! al lb meelinRs, and by the Illlancial members of the govern· all klllds of ~u .. ern:nent !nstllutions,· .ISSlstdnce it P' .

_ . . 0 htoldt. "celves from sions. for cXilmple, the (on~ress receIved R I S el~hth and n I' s. 800(l III I ses· 9/, . <111ft 10,000 respect-

,f "ldtiolldl ReconstnlctllJll (o"crnment of

P,I);lstdll. T 14' IlfU ,11(> 1MI)...!"! )Y d rdth"'l trli'e 1nl 'rank pXClan·

ge of "PIIl]!)I" '1 h,'y lit' Jltl'!ldt,d 1101 (July hy Congress memhers but

also hy IOldl Inlcll<'<lll,lls ,JlIII &tud(~nls, fvr whom they are JMrtJ(;ularly

importdnt CVl'lIls. ~ivHlg them the l)pport:Jnlty tl, pr(>')(nt reports at the

sectIOn mcetlll~-

The l()rci~/l schnldlS who Ire llsll<lIly preseul at the SE:SSlOn'i Pdrtl'

eipiltE' acllvely ill Ihe :->ympoMil dnd often gIve public leclure~ (I'; well. They ure mostly phIlosophers from the l;nited States, (;redt Bnlalll,

West GermdllY, Inciid, [run, BeIRium and the Untted Arab Republic. The first deleRatioll of Soviet philosophers (the only representatIves of the

sociahst Coulltfles) arrived 111 P<1kistdn In April 1956 to tilke pM! In the

third seSSlon ell Peshawar. Slnce then the Executive Committee of the Pakistan Philosophicdl

Congress hilS sent Soviet scholars yearly lIlvitations; there were dele­gations from the U.S.S.R. AC<ldemy of Sciences ilt the 1957, 1900, 1961,

1963, 1965, 1967 dnd 1968 sessions. TIle Central lnslilule of Islamic Research in Karaeh:, founded in

1957, is responSIble for the coordlllation of Islam:c studIes. Tho:! leading Islamic studies centre is the Institute of Jslamic Culture (Lahore.).

The InstiJu/e 01 Islamic Culture, III Lahore, was set up in 1950 b, the Governor General of Pakistan, Gulam Muhammad, at the suggestiO;} of the prominent Islamic scholar Dr. Hahfa Abdul HakIm, for the purpose o f making the youth of Pakistan "fully conscious of theIr in­tellectual and moral heri,tage" and show:ng the edu:a:ed people that " the Islamic outlook and fundamental prinCiples of Islam are pre-emin. ently capable of solvlIlg human problems-social, polillcal and econo-

mic." The first director of the Institute was H. A. Hakim. On his death in

1959, he was succeeded by Prof. M.M. Sharif. in addition to its own . 'th monthly TllOkafal, it publishes about ten books annually. Journa, e . -I foundation brought out more than 80 books and pamph. havIng sInce IS. -

I '

the works of the Muslim thl!lkers Ruml, Ghazzah, lets on Islam, P II

'd Sa,yid Ahmad Khan and others. Ibn Ha UIl, . r Islamic Culture is financed by the celltrill Govern·

The Inslltll1e 0 .-._ n (from which It receIves Rs, 75,000 a year) and the menl of palosl~vernment (Rs. 25,000). Iils publishing actIVIties bring West PakIstan f money; In 1963·1964 ils book sales totalled in a good deal 0

Rs. 2,487,500. (KarachI) was established in 1951, by the Iqbal T he Iqbal Madem,)' ent in order to popularise the philosophica:

A t of Pdf lam ' AcademY c f Muhammad Iqbal both within the country and and poetical henltlge 0

outside its bOrders.

7 3aK. 3016

cd

.,i , 0 , ter om, bkj· lhe

Ides )he

,Iher

is/an and

is/an

-

The president of Pakis!iHl is Itw If,llI! \. I I

.. ' . {,l( l·my.~ Pit tIe 1I1ullster for Education, Its plt'sld!'n!, It. VIce. 'J: {"'·U JIJ j Ill! and dlflx:tor are government appoinlc,-.s, lIlul its , I {side It, f( .r( sentatJve of the Ministry of Educatiolllll I I. )drt! IIldu II l r .

h ' ( \\0 nth{'r' .,

amon'! I e Academr'~ lilt! meom!)t>r _ III I.,'" . e C Cd f b h

~. - '.l : h(' \ r( mem ers W 0 paid Rs. 10 d ,.",. d . ~ l' e l}<

_ 111 lIC:;, <lIld 70 ]"f sl2nate::i upon the payment of 1 lu I J rllt:'!llb" ( mp sum of Rs. ISO. I :Ie·

The Academy receives an annual subsid f men! of Pakistan of Rs. 25000 wh I h . Y rom the central Gov",. _ ' , 1 e I e Income f IS another Rs. 10,000. rom lis PUhllCatlon;

These publications lIlclude a quarte I . nographs on the life and work of I bal r Y Journa l, Iqbal Review, rno-nto Ben,gdl: Pashia S' Ih ' q ,and Iranslations of his

English ' . lll{ I, Pers:an, Arah:c, Turkish Ge works . . rman and

The Academy's library of 3500 works of JqJ al ,volumes brinJ::S logether ,II

) . as well as eVer Lhi the hall. There is a plan to open ,Y. nJ:: tha,) hds wr:tten about fllture. a specldi lqbdl Museum in the near

The Academy m' , ad" . amtams contacts with f " " ,

n Societies, situated in italy At. orClgn SCientific institutions and India, which engage in ;he usSt~~a, the Umted States, West Germany

The Pakislan /nsil t y of IslamiC culture. G 11 I U e 0/ Human R I '

. ,I ani, is the first e allons, founded in 195~ b D sociolo centre set up i P k' ,:, y r. . ~y and SOCial psycholo I . n a -Istan for research in

sldent IS the vice-chancell gy. Is office IS SitUated in Dacca It head of th d or of Dacca Uni ' . s pre-

Th e epartment of philosoph a verslty, and its di rector the e teachmg of sociolo' Y I Ihe same uni .... ersity

in the unive I' gy and social - h . been se d' rSI les of Pakistan until the 19;'''YC, ology was not slarted

ID n 109 experts there re!:!ula J . s. Smce 19.'i2 UNESCO has

ces . Hollander f h r y to heLp devel h of 'he U ' 0 t e Netherlands J H op t ose social sci en-

, nlted States L' ' . umlum f 0 ' and Olhers). ,evi-Strauss, Bertrand P 0 enmalk, 1.S. And

In th' , . Bessa:gnet of France . elr mvestigations the . '

fOlJowlllg methOd I' SOCIOlogists of ' ' l. The ooglcal principles:1 Pakistan are guided bv the

, , .(1eneral dpproach <lnd historical. Whereas in U, muus t not be emp!flC I ' a hi.(1hl d e nlte I Sa, UI.lt philosophical

. . Y eveloped technoLo " ( t<lles, whi ch IS " . h statistically, in pok·, " gy. SOCial h a society wit

... IS an stat P enomc correct basis for SOcial I Istleal data IS tOo I na are described

P ana YSIS" E ImlLed ,

urpose on ly where th . . mplrlca! 0 serve as d ere IS a developed s methods can serve their

OCia] theory.~

. I See A. K. N. Karim "Th Pakl~tan'" in: Social Rese~rch i~ ;lethodolORY f

Ibid., pp. 2, 3. as, PaklSfIl o r d SoCiology 98 n, Dacca, 1960.

o( East

2, SOCidi litulhc., mllst he performed by the Pakishlni'; themselv~g,

It IS diflicult fnr forelS!IIf'TS t(l ulI'lerstand the partlcuknllcs ,)1 Pakistan

society. 3. TIle (ont('mpoliuy Itfe of modem PaLs-tan cannol he comprehen.

ded without examllling 'Musltm societal mechanism", (llId tl'erefore it

IS essential I,) "develop d SOCiolo2Y ()f ~Iuslim society"" slld,."l

4. In view of the country's economic reLardatlC .. n alld th'] limited

written sources from which an idea can be gleaned d':' to the operation 01 Ihe soci,d machlllery, Pakistan SOCiology lfl the imme.1 ate ]ulure will

have to be confined laq~ely to social anthropology.~

SOVIET PHILOSOPHERS ON THE PAKISTAN PHILOSOPHICAL CONGRESS SESSIONS

Third Session

The third session of the Pakistan Ph!losophlCal Congless held III

April 1956 was attended by a Soviet delegation indudlllg M.E. Orne-Iyan­ovsky. member of the Ukrainian Academy of SCiences. I,M. Muminov, Corresponding Member of the Uzbek Academy ,)f SCiences. and Prof K. M. Frolov. About two hundred people took p·ut III the work of the

thi rd session; in addition to the Soviet delegation, it was attended by

schola rs from India , Iran, the United States and Canada. On April II the Soviet delegation arrived in Peshawar for the

session. \Ve were tendered a very wann reception by \ts orgall'sers and the other delegates. We would particularly like to ackuowledge the goodwill shown us by the leadership of the Cong~ess. and above all the

president, Prof. M.M. Sharif. The session opened with the reading of the Quran and ~I>eeches of

welcome. Then the bUSiness went over 10 the plenary meeting.; of the following four sections: (11 logic and metaphysics; j2/ psychology and education; (3) moral and social philosophy; (4) th: philosophy of reli :

ion. There were also sympoSia on the themes 'NaturE> ilnd Purpose' !nd "Logical pOSitivism". In addition the de~~gates ga~e pubhc lectures,

h I "

contributed papers on Determln.sm and Quantlllll TIle Soviet sc 0 a . ' . " J'.I E OmelyanOvsky), "Study of the History 01 Philosophy Mechal1lcS (5· S· R" II. M, Muminov). and "The Materiatist Under-10 the Uzbek ", " IKM F )

P ess of Social Development .. rolov. \Ve might

standin, of the roC ead at the plenary meetHlJ!':' to lalj:~c ]udience~ add that our papers. r at interest. The vice-chancellor of PeslMwll

eived wl\h gre were rec R. ddin Siddiqi, a profes~or of ph}<SICS, who \001 UniverSIty, Dr. anU

"

3 Ibid" p. 3. ~ Ibid .• p, 5 .

99 7"

,~~~ thy

1"1 , " m,

flkl'

I!he Ides

tho

/Iher sian , ,n; is/an

\

the floor to discuss M.E. Ome[Ydnovsky's Pilper notecl the c . . ample-Juty

of the subJ~t and went at length mlo some of its {undumental !>Oin K.~f. Frolovi -paper e\"oked many q"es:,olls reneclin, tJ '

. Ie s.e )u thought his listeners We(e gmng to the principles which were set fo by the speaker. rth

Prof Q. \r. Aslam, as the cha:rman of the meelmg-, pO:nt~ up : value of the paper although. he said, he shared Ihe views of 151'

, ,. .m.'h, problems conSIdered In II. There were many questions I , 00, after I.M. Muminov's reporl.

We were deeply moved by the speech of Ihe Indian philoso h Prof. B.L. Atrya, with it5 impassioned appeal to the session H Per,

. . e Urged the philosophers to leave their ivory lowers and serve the pe I ." ope,to work for world peace and seek closer understanding between Ih h' I h [ epl· osop ers 0 all lands. We would take exception only to Prof Al

'h - . rya's prenllse t at representatJves of all philosophical trends should d , '[' I - a opt a onci la ory attitude to their Ideological opponents fo, Ih 'I ' , e in erests of

sCience and the duty of philosophers to society demand til at , 'e I" !"I h' I'd CI n I c

P II osop Ica I eas be promoted and that reactionary views refuted bv, science be criticised.

Dr. P. Schiltp, an American philosophy professor, gave a lecture

on Einstein.

. Considerable light was shed on the most w,"e'p,ead d d ... phil0sophical I eas an current problems of Pakistan's philo,ophe"

b [ in the papers Ine memo e". 0 the PhiloSOphical Cong,e" 'ead al P k the third !>ession. The a Islam philosophers invited whether in letter form or throuUg~ II~ present our views on their papers, hIe press, and it is with pleasure that

we s al now try to satisfy their request h to their attention. ' oping that these lines come

Quite a few of tile papers b th . . _ the major problems o[ '0 . I I [y e Paklstam philosophers dealt with

cia I e and philo I with the history of Islam a d sop ly. Many were concerned

n essence of the M r 1 the papers and speeches of th p' _ us 1m wor d outlook. But

e aklstanl sclloI h' . sed the philosophical probtem [ ars at t IS sessIOn bypas. - s 0 natUral SCien . h

stud of the first and second se . ce, t e salne may also be I SSlons. As one of Ih d I () us, in Pakistan today natural . e e egales remarked of the development of nature sCience and stUdy of the general laws

--- -- are stll! not re --. -should, a fact which is bound I h celvmg the attention they I I [ h- 0 ave advers ff sa e 0 P liosophical thought· e e ects on the general

In the Country The problems posed by the p k' , '

" a Istanl ph'l I were viewed by them [rom th . _ 1 oSop lers at the session h · e POsllions of'd '

p Ilosophy of Islam. A gOod I eahsm and the religious example of th I

Renerai president of the seSSion M a was the speech of the at the University of Karachi, on' Ih' ASlam, profeSsor o[ psy..:hology Pe "Wh I h e Subject f "10 ace . a appened at one of 0 e Foundations of

OUr get-tO."h ers with the Pakistani Iro

I "'hl'{b lurthf>r liRht on Prof. Aslam's Reneral ol.tlook. Prof A~lam (ho drs s • I I on(> III ()llr piHty With a ("(,py of the (Juran, den mpanyJll~ resen e( . P [t With thr! words, "This IS my dlalectlcal m<ltefloJllsn: [he RI

But we were In full agreement With Pro!. Asidlll Yo-1C:, he SdLli

,h. subject of pCdce, while being mdLnly d talkIng point fo.;r hedd~ that . . of state aud politiCians, could not be placed outSide the colflp<:tt'ncy 01 hllosophers and, broadly, of specialists in all branches (If the soc.ldl

P e' "The subject has assumed such urgency dnd imp<)tlilnce, nuS SClenc . become so larRe III scope and Significance," he decl,uerl. "that neMI)' everybody--and rightly- feels called upon to deal with ii, .. , The pro­

lem of war and peace needs the combined wisdom of the phllo50pher b. II" and the social SCientist. It needs a great dea . e se. . _'

In his deliberations on the place of war3 In the history of mankInd, Prof. Aslam unfortunately did not go into the the causes of wars, rooted

in the explOiting system of antagoniStic societies. Such analYSIS would have clarified many things and explained why, for Instance, the oeace plans of Rousseau, Bentham, Kant and the other great men

--;enlioned by the professor in his speech did not produre practical

results. h t· t f Prof. Aslam made some interesting observations on t e ac IVI y .0_

such peace-making institutions as the League of Nations and the UllJte~

O . Ion The "onclusion to be drawn from the work 01 Nations rgallisa I. " ff

. ,- h 'd' that "complete success mar yet be far 0 . these LnstLtu\lons, e sal , IS be d bted" But the fact that it is possible to succeed cannot ou .

"He man _Authors) is not going to be the unwept and un· ( 'h I forces which his own curiosity has leI loose

sung victim of p YSlca 'th P,o[, A,lam, and we cannot but agree agalll WI

around him," said

him. _ nce to the work of the League of Nalions and the Unlt-With rerere . ' p [ A lam noled ''The League I)f Ndtions V

N - OrganisatiOn, TO. S' , ed at Ions h h moral inanily. The United :"lations may may have dIsappeared t roug E' "

I as united as it should be. seem to he no hat the League of Nations crumbled up because

We would add t f eace The Untied Nations is truly nOI as it was a poor instrument 0 p . 'd . I should be.

ullite as I ent of peace supporters, who, he cor-

'

(In the movem , ' Commenlill I diversified walks of life and Ideologle.:,

re~ent Ihe mos rectly noted, rep [ II on the peace plans of the groups that arc

d eltmos1oa , h Prof. Aslam vi h r religious creed. Here he outlllled I e d One or anot e . , ,

united aroun f a peace plan which, III his opinion. would suit characteristiC features 0

followers of Islam. dered the problems of war and peace chieny P of Asian! consl "As wafS begin III the minds of men." r . I standpOint.

from a psycholo!:lca d of men that the defences of peace must be ,', in the mLl1 s he said, "it

101

,d 96,;

I pIty ces)

w ° Hoc

,lam, paki-

'" ticJes Ih.

other <is/an

and (istan

bllll!." In his new, psych(llo~y hdS UllKh td COil! ibl!l~ ~l of the problems of peace, e ,',

Howe\'er, Prof. Aslam seemed rdlher pessiml tic himse I (; JU ho effectiveness of this means of malOtillllil1f,! the pe,lCe, for, b h pu

such knowledge of the problems of pC<lce ilS psychology l13s 10 lj

-, "will have instrumental \'dlue only-the \'dlue of d tool. W ill he to(

ever be used? is a question the psychologist hdS no means of dn:)wer;~g, The use of a psychological or any other tool with which pcace Cdn be

achie\'ed depends on other men, men who wield great power In the

groups they lead ... ," To further the "science of peac~", Prof. Aslam suggested that ideological groups, rcligious and non-religious, all oVer

the world join forces alld set up an organisation whose tasks <mo nature

he described as follows: "" ,r would wish again and again to see this

organisation come into being through the goodwill and love of peace

of individual men and women and groups, who should volunteer both

their time and thcir money for the_ illtellectl!a[ treaynent of the problem of peace, r do not believe that such individuals anri $uch groups cannOI

be fOund. If they cannot be found, then, alas!, our hopes for peace aT>! doomed."

It is to be regretted that Prof. Aslam did not say anything in his speech about the great role of the people in the struggle fa. peace and

did not analyse the recent international Situation from that stancipoint

The growing scope and strength of the peoples' movement for peace

and for the prOhibition of nuclear and other weapons 01 mass annihila.

tion, the aCtiVity of the World Peace Council, the fight the Soviet Union and other peace-loving states have put up for peace have certainly

helped to relax international tenSIons, The signihcance of the peoples' efforts to adVance the cause of peace and prevent war is enhanced

today by the eXistence of the World socialist system vis-d.-vis the world capitalist system. In addition to Ihe SOcialist COunhies, many other peace-abidlll~ states are tdking a sland agaJllst war. Quite a few of the

once colonidl countries have now crealed their own 'iovereign states

Forces are sprinRing up flRht in the capitalist countries, leady to fight for peace. Under these conditions, wars tire no longer H1evitable, and can be prevented.

Prof. Govinda Chanddr Dev pre~ldent of Ih I . , o. . . ' e oglc and metap lySI ..... section dt the thIrd seSSion of the Pdkistan Ph, h., C de

. I osop ICaollgress, rna . the phdosophy of the future the Subject of h· dd d . -" IS a re$'S. Hc venture the OpLnlon thai our alZe IS hOStilc to ,}hH . h'" ,. .. asap Y an,] that 'Ln our tImes phIlosophy IS generdlly taken to occuPY, bl d

II f " a SI1M I Corner Tn a JI1 a cy 0 sCIence.

If he had in mllut modern POSItivism dnd th b . d h e .1.~IC pnnciples an concluSlOllS of t dt school, he WdS undOUbted I

. y TIght. But ProL Dev ignored the phIlosophy of dl<l.lectlcal materialism, h Wile hOllollnng its

102

I

. IS lie lI'P'" tcdly :lsSured s in ollr tdk" 'l'iletiwf. Dia. I"C 1t 111\/e h r I· Ihe ph'~ T{'pT.') "Sill the scientific ph lusop y ,) our lilies, I v-C I IIlllcrt. _. h., h ,cd~ " me the basic shortcommgs of prevlOu, P IOSOp _ hirh h'-lS overco Id

sophy W I olatioll from life. the reflective Mlure of the 0 rms(llelrlS .. i(al ~v .e . "1. n, Ihe unscientific. spec.!!.lalive nature vf Id.eallsm. h Slcal molena IS , .. .. . h metap y . of s cUla!Lve as-against SClen!lhc_. ded.uc_~I?ns). It al> the eXdltatlOllI. t . ::'e as all instrument of scientific k!lowledge as the demonstrater 1 S v h h II the sciences of nature and society and

I I which runs t roug a f h metlO( _. olent with the development 0 t ose I f'comillg Tlcher In co h is in turn ). . h h' h has accomplIshed the hlRhe;l synt eSls -ences as the phLlosop y W IC

'" r 'f all the achievements of human thouRht. . so ar 0 . f science <lnd philosophy I fi:1'1 the future

".. Tn d IIdPIlY marnage 0 bl I dust under the preJ;sure of . " otherWise crum e m 0 [

of man who nllg I . n~" TIl(! ulliun 0 ' 1" II like the nudedf weapo .

deadly en!,!illes of destruc 10 tfer" the key to the future " h Prof Dcv went on, 0 >

science <lnd phi osop y,. . Ike the birds and to SWIm h '0 fly in the air I

of man "who kllows ow I -e on earth." I h Ies but not how La I\' f

in water like tie s 1 , . I kong fOI He is looking or d d what Prof Dev IS 00 I _ h ,

\Ve can un erstan . h ·"I"al aspirdtion~ wJt po I-. I' k n's hig er Spl ... f a Philosophy that WIll m rna , 'a.k

L' of the de\'elopment 0

d the practlca ~" . d tive scientific knowledge an Id h Iosophy wilh ils (hsle~ar

II . f frolll the 0 p I _ _ r an society, for Olle equa } ar sltlvists with their rejection 0 for science and rrom the modern PO" t we have found stich a phIlo ...

. . I We believe la integrated phLiosop Iy. . . iCdl materialism- .

I ··t is dialectic,d dnd hrstor h said that th •. I!reate"t oJ> ly, I bly riRht when e . ed

Prof. Dev was unquestiona . s 'nthetic thlnkers_ He mt'nllon . f the worl{1 were dIWdY'» . would add to the roll philosopher~ 0 H el and others; v.e n whose

Aristotle, SplIlo/a, Kant, _eg her~ Man:, Engels aud Lenr, h.

- of the we'-It phllosoP r . expre~jl{)nJf hill synl e the ndme~ . I the fullest alld ml'~1 S( :entl I( h-' f r which Prof. Dev ywrks reprf'scn I pment of phiIOSOP} () - tendency in the deve 0

tiC f the future will be cha-called. Prof Dev, the philosohy 0 _ Ton or in hl~ words,

AccordiTlJ! to, . tellect and lIltm I , . its synthesis of: (1) m iritualism and (3) a mate-

raclensed by .. (2) mdleridllslll and sp _ ht f this concepllon, d religion, ]fe In the IIg 0

science illl . I"dlistic dttltude to I " "',oplliC<11 r<1: .. ~ories .Hul . -\lid spIn... Iller 0 p II v ! rlalistlc < , clanly "I nun " ilnrl "nutler am

f) . ~ouJ!hl 0 ". nse aUd reason f Prof. e\-· f]"ets between ~e I gc and proces~; dlld or analyse the coni -\ fOf ~ense, reality IS Clan

·t" nohnR tId Tty Splfl , . i.Jblhty and durabl I ' articuldrly tned to make 111 hiS papel leason, st . IS Prof. Dev P and reason matter and f the polll If between sense , h

One a . real gil . ratter chant:!e: synt eSls tl ere IS no . ·s constancy, ° III , I was that I of the SPlfll I .. t ll~ us that reality is at one an( spirit. The essenc:1I through Intultlo,ll t;a; iI is just as challRedble as It

dnd r{'dS d SplrLtlld • of sense olter;al <In time m the s.:Jllle

103

•

I

fved J96': )P/1Y lces) }W a

H" ;/om,

Pakl'

'h, tides

Ih,

other (iston

and (is/an

, I II TI"s was the !E'llmotJ\' of plOf. I1P,,'i plllio ll'h\' IS (IUdl(,.

" I "'0 I,ave a true PCrsp<'ctlV~ (II 1I',dll\' WI' 111\; I II Meal{ In,t! y,

~pirilualise maller, but also materialise SPITJ! '

Prof. Dev's attempt to arrin" at tI dt'hlllll,)11 (II 1II.\"eol tlcn Itleod

from the r('fuled approach of Os\w,\ld's f'IH'r!::Hun M,IIIN, he \<IL I "IS no olher than energy III different dlll'CtltlOS. Ilu Io...k II 1Uhst<l1l

lialion from modern sCIence, c1cllmln~ tiIlWIl£ \,tht'l tiUIlCS tiM! thu

theory of relativity "by welding togethl'r sp..In' tlilil Ilnll' 1< s I'lken away the last vesllge of durabIlity in rndUl'1 If hlll(' is thl' IOUlih dllll(,ll.

sion of space as it IS made Qut, the ~o·cdllt'<l st,lbl{' world of thing:i

becomes automatically reduced to an endless Chilill (If ,'\"t'llis Jlld Ct\)~es to be solid."

Prof. Dev's theory of knowledRe was idedll~tie; Ilkln.£! oll from Bergson he stressed the limitations of sense dlld 1('{lSO/l <\/ld the /Iced

to believe in supra-logical intuition which' reldins III It the bnlliance of both sense and reason minus Iheir defeels."

The efforts of Prof. Dev and other Pakistani philosophers tl, reconcile science and religion, reason and faith had a very Mchalc rinj:1. Paying homage to intuilion, Prof. Dev said, "in having objeCtivity, it

goes all the way with sense, in having neceSsity it goes all the way

with reason; but in having these two characters Simultaneously, it trans­cends them bolh .... Inlellect and intuillon, reasoll and faith_ science and religion, meet 10 their mutual Sd\tsfaclton and advantage."

\Ve have spoken here only of Ihe main trend of PIOr. Dev's papel; it abounds in true and interesting ideas Qn which we cannot dwell here

for reasons of space. We shall Confine OUrselves to a few remarks on the basic conceptions of the paper.

Prof. Dev draws no distincti:ln between metaphYSical materialism and dialectical materialism. What he has to say about the exaggera­

tions of materialism, the ltmitations of sensory experience unrelated {o reason, the one-Sidedness of Aristotle's logiC, and many other things is

perfectly true- but not of dialectical materialtsm. Dialectical ma terialism achieves the highest union of sense, reason and experience, an. 1 is thus able to resolve the conflicts which arise In Ihe COu rse of man's con tacts with the real world and which, as ProL Dev correctly notes, cannot be resolved either by the old philosophies or by modern positivism. H must be remembered that dialectical materialism does not see a Rulf between matter and spirit. The Contrast between matter and Spirit, experience and thought must not be exaggerated and made a metaphysical one. Gnosiologically we do oppose matter to spirit and maleriailslll 10 ideal­ism, and Ihis is essential-but only Within the limits of Ihp. basic philo.

sophical problem of what IS ~rJ~ary, matter Or Spirit. Thoughl is a func . tlon of the brain and the bram IS the highest prodUct of matter, and so thought or spirit can no more be seDarated from matter Ihan they can

104

bt' [4 llifll wit I I If! OPI , , , I :1114 I .It:.lor 01 Il uug

btlnj,"!' V • onl!lry Iu • l!' 'II I Hut dl' fit r (' ,'px' I III 1 " , . I~I plOoh=m 0'

j 2 Iy erroneo~" ,', j p.II .... ·t " ·orth :JIIII or I t. I, I ·1I1t0r. IIIP b Iwe n ed 1 1 . "~/e,ja'" h IMU J b .~ I_mil m ar.~ r: P )r'/flll

In II! 11 h )k LAmn like -f II x ~r;. t:. ..

1111" 11111("11 II I tlnd Ille Jrm 11 dtl,.mphl II I ( ak I ~ we'e l; \1(' CQ 14 :J Will

/I ,I. 1)1 II' ,hllolll(ll • ' u ... /c

T1ah,trI (lnd IiIV!' .. I lIV lInn, Jk ... ...

bef. e h . 11spos.ra 01 I, II tl b e We

. I I ell m,dI'Udh'llI tI d I.pel d '" ;oap II tl ~'o~!l"m •. did ('.' I " I" 'Ifl Ihal w J1~ (. eM Uv n ny r

E pwo - .f! • ~Ik ~ to 1 J'dlt .In to m I ,k,II" In'' II hi' pldl)${Jf· ,I'. w Id \\·c .11(' 1111 a .., k 1 r .. w rl;1turl! bJI we wou d pi cliall'ltlr II !lhlleTlailsfT ,n p y 10 to 1<3)". al Ilul

it II I rn~'.lvl'!l With (;JI Jh.:, I I k" them 10 <1(''111<11111 1 Ie. - .j ........ nI5 W Ie our l~pOflcll

I '- I 551' ns dll~ iT'!...... . ! h·nd Ind so lortdy ollr Illi(U, 1 '.<Inc H'l!- f,mJ!'Clr Will d " Lmvt!'Slly, or n • I ed

in the dlSulsslon tit Deiced _ h wou'l hud V hn·2 aim ! the prinCiples of dldlettlC:al mdt~f';J~~: ~ mtt?1 I SID I)e 1:1 _ t hail as he d:d that till' IIPW phYS1CS 'b' the electron and )the, eleme'lary broken up the atom. replaced II ~ I d L Jt ow \hdt. frL] lee sldnd­

particles, and so on. Our oPrx:ne;~I::r .IS redll~lble 0 fO alO~$ a:~;~~ POint o( dialectical mdteflaillin. d ("hao cal roUena1;smj h I ~

( the 01 , me • n jl!~l_ l.S (conlrary the posltlun 0 I "howed lh I I" ell" .ro. Iter l"sm and Empi'io-Crl/lcl.~m Lenlf • ed the ldedh~!IC claiJ1s hdt ma I h dlom and expos I" I 10 deSignate all

inexhausltble as Ie. a philosophical conc p fleeted in It. red Matter IS f the mind but re

had dlsappea . . • Independently 0 _ . d merel,)re Ihe . eahty eXlstlll endle». an I objec~v!. ~- - - ----ells mallllestatious Me modern physICS mere Y

It IS lIlexhausllbt , d other pc1T11cles by I. It IS unlor. h electron an _ I maler:a Ism

discovery of I e f of the truth of dldleclICd f lIowed .n the hl~her offers additional prooOCiill sCiences programmes. and Leni·r. flRure only

hat in the S \.1 x E!l~"'·s d nd lunate t . I names "I . al - . . political leaders, a schools of Paklstc1n t Ic~ence of economics and al> -slUn in our opinion.

I of Ihe s serious omll> . as exponen s hers which is a h of Pakisl(ln, we can

PhllosoP· h philosop ers . t "ot once as ·ews of t e h 'eaq pretence a . the VJ f rse Ie.

In characlensltlg I bal wlthoul. 0 cou . r hiS "Jews. The great t nenllO

n q, -anllOdllOn 0 h- I idea;; hardly fail a I llost cursory ex 1 led his philosop Ica

anythi ng more Ihan .I ~'Iuhalllmdd Iqbal affll:l-'hO was often catled Ihe I and philosopher I politJcal leader ed India 1\t the Round

~~~h Islam- He w;Sp:k~:l::_ In 1932 :; ~:p:;;;~t out lhe InJ!an consti-spiri tual falher 0 London conven T ble Conference in . the world was created by

a he Quran. h bo-. e ,,'as I led to God as I e em lutlon. f departur bal appea d h.s

baI's point 0 change. Iq of God he subordinate _ I Iq d was In constant and 10 thiS Idea hs theory of bfe as action,

God, an Ie JUstICe, 1 of beIng, I f supren hesl forn

diment 0 as the hlg JO,'i theory of man

f\'cd 196·:

~P'I\' nrc:;) :.J\\f {1

11('[

slam, Pakl-

Ih. ·llclc. ,h, olh('f

his/an

anJ

his/on

and his theory of socil't)' A("l"ordlllR to hUll. rllt' mlJ~1 PI') f. I.H) """

he who could drdw rl('dr 10 (;od wllhuul ill'lI/.! dr.lwlI II 0 Iun IJu rdlher drdwmg God illln IUIIIM·II, Tht' hllllJdll t'~1l UlII~' ve lu (, II

plish this and come Ile,lr 10 Cud. till' Ir('('St hl'lII\! III ,III. The l.'h'lIll y

of life lies in contest. he SdIU .• Ind thrull~h cunlt'st Ihp In,bvlcill,(1 <H"hlt!.

yes immortality dnd ('ollquels SIM("l' ,U1(t hlllt'. lit' 100lIHilull'd tht~ m"llo of the ideal sOcrety and Iht:' Ideal :-otdte dS Eqlhllity, Snliddlrly elll'l Liberty. He opposed pri\'dte property, whidl Ul'dtl.'d "kIllRS dnd I)('R gars"; everything belonged to (;0£1 and hence to s('{'Jety dnd thc ~Idte, which were to be based on the prinCiples of til(' Qur,lIl, SUe'h was Iqbal's basic social concept.

It is clear frOIll the above that Iqbal spoke from Idedlrstic philos!)ph. real positions, althou~h there were !1lany redlrslic elements l!1 hi~ philosophy. He objected to mdteridlism. but did not Wrlgc the active

campaign againsl Marxism and Ihe Soviet system attribuled to him by a section of Pakistan's press.

A clue to iqbal's ideas may !)e found in Ilis trilogy known as Lenin, Angers Song and God's Command, in which the poet

expressed feelings of gratitude to the great leader. He says that after

death Lenin came face to face With the God he had refused 10 accept in life; Lenin asked. "Where is the Man whose God Thou art? For the East, gods are Ihe whites of Europe; for the West, gods fire shining dollarsl" He turned to God with these words:

Thou art All Powerful and Just, but in Thy world The lot of the hapless labourer IS very hard! When will this boat of Capitalism be wrecked? Thy world is waiting for Ihe Day of Reckoningl

Then the an~els said to God:

o Painter Divine, Thy ilainlmg is still lacking III something. LYlOg m ambush for mankind are the libertine

. the theologian, the lead~r find the monk: In Thy Umverse the old order still continueth!

God found Lenin's words to be just, and commanded the angels "to burn every ear of corn in the field, which is not used as food for the cultivator", to "~:ve the humble Sparrow strength to fight the falcon," 10 smash the Rlass-blower's workshop" of modern Civilisation.]

Iqbal's work, his poems In Urdu Parsee and P" b· d . "unJa I. awaIt our slu y. We were presented WIth a colleclion of his WOrk, h· hied

- w IC we have pac in the custody of the InslLtule of PhilOsophy of th US S R { . . e .... Academy 0 Sciences, where an lIltenslve stUdy is to be unde I k f . d

. " r a en 0 the lrfe an aCtivity of thIS great man who loved his people '"d .. extolled his home­land and its fighl for freedom.

I S. A Vdhid, Iqbal, His Art and Thoughl, p. 116.

106

" ",h ( 1

r It" {I JdIN .. ' I'"

(m lip f. II r

• • • :) he fUi Jr C 'J!

w I~ Jl til,: V ~ II up

III the ]1 ~luL ;r.

ron S WI'I] de p t 'ldk , II nil III II J

n l' lin!.! I, we '" III (] Y F.:

rf' Ifl<Jl k WI l' n d~1 dRdlr.' OUt of "II uh! r ut." e\"'n

teSI;>e 10/ ,.

(w t w f:It Y Ihc " 'I, ~(' h J tr.::lny e Y' ~t 11' taere II d( r..> I lPfl :)("

w~ 1~ , JllfJ k Ot !.leo Oil), In JC. It.lny "'h:.t drd n)1 .h re c. d p 111 JphlCdJ e) r;YJI e' JIllI

It l!l flllr ImJH'~ 11m h.;al W{ .l( eejc:J Ii f<.. :I;r IIltuest amoll~ Ihe Sdu,JMS III l'o:IkISI,I/. 10 ill Jee II :II dl d t tonc J I ;ate IIsm!t II dll

tire more .'!f,(tolYIIIl: rn thdl fOI ttl ::y :c •• )rs ..... e ptob h~. rep'esenlell their first chtl/lcl' II) helt Co ]Vlnp "'-Idr "'r.>OSltlOl 0'1 to el"d~f:' IIr firsl-htlrHI (lt~(;lJ. lOll! With &lvlet phllOi';h .(s. !>.i01 can r l':.! {Nerem.

phdSis(' the 61~JlIfrf (nrc of the fa I, of :lUrse II ~t the worle.: Jtl~'k oJ the nation which has hUiIt I. hsm <m.:i (lilted ~ ~we ,ur So .. - et stdte, one of Ihe mdJnsldYS of wnho!! p)hcy respe t k . _ :J£.>pendence of other Stdtes tlnd other peoples, cam

on the pdt! of Pdklstan's intellrgcDiSlc.. t: ev)k. Ihe ke nest mtNi'sl

I - 10 , .... h)w uterested th9 It gdve our delegation great p ea~lre~" ... people of Pakistdn were In all aspects of Me r~ :he s.., .. ·.el linlon. In

the economic dnd cuiturdl achie"cmenl5 of Ihe So. et people., d • ed lh the \\Cork of the PC»!ld ..... "r. Punjdb dn V\e were acqudllli .... ,

Dacca Universilles. VISited the Unh'ersrly of Karachi and M'veral. rese went 10 a number 01 .secondary schols, spoke at

arch IIlstilutes there.. h of the So"lel phllo,;ophers' delelZallon. receptIOns organised In ono~r hers and :arious pllblic fl,!,lIre~, talked were the $!uesls of professors. eacwhere,'er we ..... em, whome\'er we met, to people to all walks of Ide. and bout the Soviet people. their life.

e e desire 10 learn more a we saw a SIllC r . f Iheir phlloso;>hy, ~ystem of educa-their factories and collectne arms.

U "erslty and so forth. h lion, I\loscow nn, h I assured u~ Ihey ..... ould cheris ' oodbye 10 us. our os s

On sdyln~ g Ih and we could fee! thdt their f their meetllljZs WI us, the memory 0 h IS They lold us about their impre,;. , ht from their ear . d words c,lllle strdl!! Iher Soviet scholar,; dnd artisls who ha

. eetlngs wllh 0 Ih I SLons of therr m " I and asked us to pdSS on the messdge a visited P,lkistan pre' IOUS y, not only to Karachi, but to other

Htlsls to come they would like our, d th I they would welcome more frequent

I e - III Pakistan <l~ well an., d 10" The)' also asked us 10 transmit CI I ~ . S ,Ulu ae . ·1 b)' SOviet mUSICian . kers dnd young people III the SO\'1el VISI s . t ~Is <ifl "or , .

II ,

'reClings to sncn I " k d things we would gladly quote If space lei . other III

U ' " The)' s,ud "Mlly mo", . II I d. ddmlre RUSSIan muSic ;)nd lIlera. perml ('(. r k -!dll lo\'(' dll

TI [>el1ple III d I~ knoW Pushkin, Tolsloy. Dostoyevsky Ie classical. They

ture, espeCiallY 107

~ived

J96·: rop/II' 'nccz) 'OW a

Her fs/om, Paki­

rho ,ticles

(h,

other kistan f and ki.~tan

) (lnd Gorky. We regret that they do lIot know contemporary SOVIet writers as weI!.

The talk we had WIth members of the Inslttu\e ul fsidlTIu; Culture

made a particularly deep impression on liS. \\'l' WPre rordidlly receIved by our venerable hosts. The iOIlR dISCUSSIon !hdt enSiled tllrned mdinly

on problems of religion and philosophy. We nllRht say that (here We saw with our own eyes how freedoill-ioving. democratic idea!:. can becomE: interlocked 1Il peculiar ways WIth reliRious concepts. But we were convinced once agdin that differences in the outlOOk of the Peoples of

different countries with different SOCial, economic and political systems

do not rule out the POSSIbili ty of their working together for peace, democ ratic institutions, and progress, dgainst war, colonialism and the other ulcers of modern capilalist civilisa tion.

We were highly stimulated by our excursions to the anCient cunu­ral monuments of Pakistan, the delightful old buildings of its towns, the pictllresque and unexcelled Shalimar Gardens, the magnificent tomb of Jahang;r in Lahore, the museums with their rare collections of miniatures and ancient bronze and stone statues. We were sorry that time was shorl and we could not ~et more ,than a cursory view of things.

But our most lasting impression will be that of the talen ted and industrious Pakistan people, all of whose deeds and thoughts bespeak an insatiable desire for freedom, and just pride in thei r coun t ry and its newly-gained independence. The people of Pakistan, like people all over the world, want to live in peace With other nations

o They are working

hard to consolidate the sove reignty and independence of their mother­land and remove all obstacles in the way of its economic and cultural advancement.

The Soviet people share the desire of the people o f Pakistan a nd other countries for peace, freedom and a happy li fe.

• • • The Visit of aUf small grou p of Soviet philoso phers to Pakistan, OUi"

partiCipation in the third seSsion of the Pakistan Ph' l h' I C I asap ICi! (lDgress,

and our personal contacts w ith many '"P,"senta t r h t ' Ives a t e coun ry s intellectual life offer convincing proof of the user I r h h u ness a suc exc an-ges and show how instructive rneell ngs belween ' 'II

. - SC.lentlsts and Inle ec-luals of different countnes can indeed be Des t - .. . PI e serious differences and sometimes even Irreconcilable Contradiclions I k h . - . -. In ou t oo', the exc an-Res of opiniOn and ltvely diSCUSSions broaden th ' , d

. , en viewpoints an ennch all those who take purt III the get-together< U II ... Sua y aside from differences, there is also some commOn grOund wh '

ere all participants in the international scientific forums can meet and h P k' t ' I get close. We n re glad to note that all tea 'I~ ani s 101ar~ and "nl II I

t: c.: uals whom it J08

,lle •. uiUI" tIl meet He oncerned, hke the Soviet people, With Yld ~ 0 111 .

II" m I)f thp lie/II e-fo.ll (oex ... Ience of nalions, SOCltll pro~reS!i, and lilt' pro ) .- . U ll nIPrrupt(>'i e (Jnr,mtr and cultural development. stead y, '

.1\.1.E. Omelyano\O;ky, I.M. Muminov,

K.r-f. Froio\'

Reor n.e:) h~:l Voprosy liIo~/ii ("Prob;erns of pi losophy" No 6, I(J5ti

Fourth Session

The fourth sesSIOn of the Paki!.!an Philr50phical Cungret .. look place

F h ry 15 tl, 17 1957 III the city of OdCCd. Edst Pakistan. from e rua . , . SA It was attended by scholars from the U.S.S.R. IndJa. the U. . .,

C d Egypt and other countries. In addition to ph'loc;ophers, there ana a, . loo'sts p~ychologlsts. historians. Pakist.:mi UllJ-were also many SOCIO b l , • . . _ I" _ t!

h d epresentatives of various sCientIfic, re Iglous an verslty teac ers an f

other organisations. . f ther countfles, ourselves mclu-All the delegates and VISitors rom a t of the Congress Prof.

I ceived by the secre ary . ded, were warm Y re M Sharif, president of the Congress. paid us G. Ch. Dev. He and Prof. M .. l. elin us as dear guests ",nd VOlshtng a visit the very day we arnved, gre g

us success and well-being. b,ects. (I) The Nature of s devoted to two su .

The fourth session wa . h It a- marked by great , d (2) Reason and Fait. w " ,

SOCial Dynanll cs an The plenary meetings, symposia activity on the par t of the delegates II' 'tended. Aside from their parti·

t ' gs were we a . d other section mee tn I d n Soviet alld AmerIcan an tngs the n la .

"pation in the Congress mee I . h _ fellow delegates and ill\'lted bl- lectures for t elr . nd

delegates gave pu IC d t dents of the univers':les a ests and also for the faculty an s u

gu, h I k· 'pubhc other higher sc 00 s. _ of wide circles of Pa Istan s The session focused the attentlon

t b' the intelhgentsia and student

d th keen lnteres )' d was foilowe WI an d ng from the Ouran and an Youth . fler a rea I . r J

. UniverSity, a _ h'n'ellor the Chle us-At the Dacca -t 's vlce-c "... . h by the univerSI Y d the fourth session open. , gural speec h d pronounce I

mau Amin A rna , r the presidium aO( f EllSl Pakistan, the members 0 lice 0' were presented W . ev took the floor to introduce Rower garlands -d nt Prof. Shan t. Prof. D h made short speeches.

ess pre,,1 e , nd they eac the Cong

r ~nd visitors, a 'u n the delegate from . d legates.. Soviet mo. the foreign e hllosophef:oi of the ., work and expressed con-

lf of the p ceSS 111 I 5 On beha ° d the session sue ,hilosophiCdl problems by

S R wl"he f curren p the U.s. ' ° -OInt discussions 0 ould streng~~et:l_ cultural lie.s betwee,l fidence that J " lit coUtllneS YI ut~al understanding and coope-

f om c\w ere . promote III schola rs r those countries, 109 the peoples of

eived J96,:

soph}' ~nccs)

10W 0

He< Islam,

Poki­

s the

I,/ides 1 the

, other

~kislon

i1 and

~kislan

. . ,d",neillg /l/lilosophicdi thought, and contrrbute to the 0," ratIon III • " ,,~_ raj mo\"emenl for world peace.

AK. Brohi, who presided at the fourth session, gave il talk, and he was followed by the president of the Pakistall PhIlosophical Congress M.M. Sharif.

The speakers at the sympoSium on reason and faith were Athar

Rasheed, principal of the Government College (Quelta). Kazimllddin Ahmad, professor of the department of philOSOphy and PSYchOlogy at Dacca University, Prof. AbdUl Qayyum of the Islamia College (Peshawar). and M. Hye, principal of Ihe Rajshahl Government College.

At the symposium on the nature of SOCial dynamics, the speakers were Prof. KG. Newman of the Dacca University politIcal SCience depart_ ment, Dr. S.M,H. Zaidi of K<lrachi UniverSity, B.A. Dar of the Institute of isl<lmic Culture (Lahore), PrOf. K.M. Jamil, head of the department of philosophy at the University of Rajshahi, and Prof. Fazlur Rahman 01

the department of philOSOphy of the Sind MUSlim Col1ege

(I(drachi/, preSident of the Congress section on the philOSOPhy of religioll.

The follOWing lectures were delivered before largE' dlldlences of guests, university profeSsors and stUdents: Prof. Goheen of Sldnford University in the United SllItes, Oil the Philosophy of History; Prof. v.F. Berestnev of the U.S.S.R. Academy of SCiences Institule of Philo. sophy all the MaVin!? Forces of SOCial Development; the indian dele. Rdtes, Oil the ~ature of PhilOSOphy and The Ind;\':dual and CUlture.

Th, So"" d",.", "'0 P"'''''d , P'pe, "DeI',"'ini,m 'nd Te/,%_ gy", prePdred for the Congress by Prof. T. I. Olzerman of Moscow UniverSIty.

/, Ih, I"P'" 01 Ihe P,'''''"' Philo,oPh,,,, 'oCi" philo,ophy, P~YdloloRY, meld physics and the PhilOSOPhy of reliRion were viewed /'om U" pO",ho,,, 0/ .d"h"n ".d Ih, "h,.oo, phUo,ophy 01 I~ldm.

It is genC'r<lliy known that 11\ counlries like Indonesld dud i'akistdn Ih, ideology 01 /"'m h" fo, '/nil, • lo,g ho" 'ow pJ'Y'd • _ di"mol m/, in U" mov'''',,1 ""'''1 oolO,i'lism ood fo, n",o,,,, eqo./,Iy "d so"''',nly, .nd Ih'l " " st,1I "'y impon,OI m Ihe 1,/, of U,"" cOUlitries.

Th, P>edom"""" of ""' ideology hos """y "Ooe''''d Ih' de",op,,,,,, 01 II" 'P",'"" hI, 0/ P""loo, 'I, ph,'o,oph",/ ""nee included.

In his Pdpe>r On the slale and taSks of philoso

h A K B I

P y, .. ro II, presl-(h'lIl of tilE' fOurth session ot Ihe Pakistan Philo~" hi' d

. ""-'P Ica Congress, VOIce the OpInion Ihdl pllJlosOphy had relinqUiShed Its I

. . . OrmCr role as d source (,f Wisdom alld humdllll'lrlalllsm, that it had (0 f .

r elted lis m{Juence JII fhe modern wOlld and ceased to be lhe IOde~la /

r a mankmd. instead, 1/('

s'"ience teaching peuple the me<1nm!? alld an dcaclellllc ... I become

It

ha

{ I IIOOy f concep s. I this condition of phtlosop ly a , use a f the reasons or .. _.,

spe,k,ng ° d eenlu"" h,d be" d,,,,,~, ,mo" \ " "id Ih" Ihe p,eee mg I /'ith wh,,,,, 00' "OIo,y w" ""kly J Bro,,' lIas centuries 0 , ked

tilers by Car Y e, of scepticism and atheism, au age mar °k,owledged 1o be " ~,ei' m,ti,m ,"d ,mp"""m Ph,'"ophy h,d a the wide spread of p g nd been divided up into dlflerent ~:'I ," ""hly "d .":::eom',nolo,,, 1o, .. , "e. To be '"'" '~'

h s· epistemology, P h of the science 01 ph.Josop y branc e:~e of these Important branc ~s t continued Brohl, one could

~:erl;espeak a measure of prt~~:ss~n~~~ of vital syntheSIS. The task n~t help regreHing th~,I0SS;p~y'S vitality and give it back its proper a restore pula noW was f

'01, played in tile history a place. descnbe the Man A K Brohl went on to Hegel, and, finally, James. .

. . Kant, Fichte, Schelling, set Ihe hmlts <)f human philosophy by d bled to Kant for havmg ""'SSIn" phase

·d was III e . cd as a mere,..... ,. kind, he sal, h agnosticism Kant defln W ht If mdn wanted 10 knowledge. Bul I e I veiopment of human thou~. to break down

'" Ih, hi,,",y 01 Ih~ ~: o"d,,","d,"~, I" wOOldhh:~.',.,,", Ih, wo"" ) reach a higher leve. sent consciousness. WI. f'ce on which the elose bounds of hiS pre the only plane of expe'lc.·;hieve a new

I knowledge as Id have 10 0 1/' of conceptua . Philosophy wou d reo:IU~lruct I 'o",·,·ousness can function. . nd re£enerdte dn • • d ,pint, a .. /

' eason dn . n"c ,y

nthesis 0 Id of exoene" \ p the war . accordingly. h us how to h\?hl u ut of Ihe m,lfal and

Philosophy nHist teac . d 11ft manklll_d 0 hy mu~t be Ihe of the Splrtt a_~. - l<1psed. Phllosop Now WtlS Ihe with the rays . which It has 1 f the spin\.

intellectual decline 1Il10d b rth into the worl( ~ further l>Jlinludt evolu. 's secon I of mcln s midwife of man de an instrumenl

time for It to be ma s Sacidt Dynamics: po:a.

an's IXiper wa I problem ilS 11e tion. f KG Newm !I sldte<1 1 s f SOCI. The t tie of Pro. .. Slate anc I the matst 0 1 in the ' tahilily In the EqUllibTlU/ll stltulionaJ S of past history,

rities and I and con. hort survey A,,-. tolle had onl.e h lor poJltlca hiS s I I,) and., II.

searc From h t what P a hIe 10 eXIst WI . "'Y dynalllic forces. on I d t being a th~ w the conelusl sociely no. cooper<llion III

speaker dre the stale and harmonIOus for Ihe pres. postulated aboul t sses and Ih~lrindefeasible and Irue out functional. c a ace was stl f IIbelt)' alll:

f SOCial pe h concepts 0 interests 0 dVi.lnced t.. e_ . .. r cedom dill.!

. Ilad d •• - .. [ fralernlty. I ent day. Revolullon concept 0 . . opmion, and so It F

ench 10 Ihe h s.uu.;:er S I" The r _" Ihem s \"e In Ie· l'~~ H )htl('s conSI( ....

nd W..... exclu I, Ihe two. Thomas , equality a nutuaJlY reconCllc . were I Iy 10 III equahty fra1eTlll

devolved upon

I I

eived 196,;

:;op/ty ~nces)

~OlV 0

H" (s(am,

Paki· ~ the II/ides I /lle

I other

lkis/an I and

'kistan

•

\ I

\

h n'y JanguaRe the passions heeded. huw{'ver. fhe trldll", ... red [orce leo .. '" I Iy and fraternity Ihercfor(> Ildd 10 be SIIPport(>(j by of liberty, equa J

force and made a rectangle.

After examining various forms of government (mondrchy, oliRarC'hy, ) P,o

f Newman concluded Ihat the most desirable Irom th!: democracy, .

standpoint of the satisfaction of all human ne.eJs and the stability 01 I was a

"'onslitulional government combllllng dll fOur princJpJe~ socle y ... '.

The true art of successful government was hndinR a dynamic equihbriunt in Ihe gn.'en sitUation at the given time.

Prof. Newman's attempt to outline the foundatLons oi SOCial dynamics wenl no further than general <ibstractions. There was practl. cally no analYSis of concrete forms of government rUle. The general tendency was to Justify modern class relations in it.e capnal~st covntnes and bourgeOis democracy, the latter being allegedly capable of enSUring the stability of the state and social progress by mailltalning <In equili. brium of Social forces.

Prof. Goheen of the United States brought an idealistic apprOach to Ule subject of the philosophy of history. The speaker beRan by saYin~ that the problems of the philosophy of hislory, Very important and com­plicated problems today, were being elaborated in tile Ii~ht of Toynbee\ historical and Sociological conception. HisloTlcal events were differentJ~' interpreted by different philosophers ant'! only the futurp could say which of their appraisals was correcl. H:storical knowledge was there­fore rather relative.

Prof. Goheen's efforls to analyse the problems of the philOSOphy of history laid bare the inability of modern idealism 10 explain the laws of histoncal development. That -idealism rests on the poslti(..n of sociolo­gical agnosticism and denies the Very POSSibility of knOWing and usinJ;! the objective laws of SOcial development.

Many of the papers and speeches of the delegates were inspired by the Ideas of modern neo-Freudianism, POsi tivism (Ind other trends of Subjective Idealism.

The philOSOphy of religion and philol;Ophy of Isltlm Were !,!'iven a bi.'! place in the deliberations. The paper "PhilOSOphy and Religion" by Dr. K.M. JamB proceeded from the idealistic premise that philosophy and reliji1ion were not distinctly differentiated Ilelds. In the opinion of Dr. Jamil, modern science tended increaSingly to admit the existence of fields of knowledge lying beyond the reach of SCience, whereas pOi­\osophy did not countenance that View. Speaking of SCientists who tned so hard 10 mterpret religiOUS expenence in close connection with physi. cal and SOcial realities, Dr. Jami\ Said that the intereSI of ~cielliists in "".,on was .,vmg n,w hop, 1o tho" who wanl," 1o ,man"pa" hum,mly ['om Ih, "owmg mnu,n" 0' mat'''a''sm. Enoou".Od by Ih, ,d"'''I" oondus<ons o[ ""'m ""nl"Is, oono'u"ons wh"h '" pow". fI2

, ,HolJ\ems of SCience, Dr. Jamil voiced the hope Jilin the new .. lesS to cxp ledo to dn olliance of philosophy and rehf/lon. . ",I this would " Ihe fanaltcilim, intolerance and persecution U' I condemneu _ h

Dr Jaml the Middle A~es. He asserted th.t Muslim philosop ers f sCientists In then. to explain the nature of the real 'Worlel. ~ad done morc thdn .dn,y ~he i~nuence 01 Muslim philoiophy on Europe . t was precise y .

lind that I h s irit of rlltionaitsm there. that had bolstered t e t: s ak of the role and signrficance of fslamlc

He then :--ent on !led ':e sole and unique road to true knowledge. mysticism, which he cia, was regarded by Pakistani philosophers not

'nl,d out that s am as a sort of uO\versal He pOI h'l hy but more ,"y as a religious p I asop , 'Ihe social political and spiritual m' g all aspects 0 , .. I encolllpasslll . f 11 human acltvlty. ;~:o :,g;od"y-,: Ih~ P:;~~:~::'i;~i':~;h:": ,o"o'ogisls, ~u'II::a:I:~~ The great ac IVI . I ed in their efforts to sprea _ _ I

.. h'storians have dlsp ay .t special attention. Sovle rehgl~uspo~ularise the ideology of Islam m~~1 :re engaged in the study of an d Orientahsts-w a nt them. scholars-Philosop~e~~ ~~ab philosophy and ISlam'd:~~~;c~~almine its of the developmen 'th the key points of that I 'th ;\1~slim popula-selves thorou~hly WI . Ie in countries WI ,

status and ItS fO h contemporary d paper entilled "On I e tions. V F Berestnev rea a _ d-ffered tn its Soviet philosopher .. I" Although It I -t

SOCial Developmen. fundamental problems I MOVing Forces of. I position and tn, It~: other delegatES, the So",.pe".: underlying ideologlca and speeches 0 per respect for posed. from the papers d rnterest and pro

'th profoun en was received WI . I delegiltes were glv

'fi achievements. sian the Sovle ,-'lolars, heads oi scienh c . d after the sesth

Pakistan: '- f Both dunng an I and conler WI d other repre~enlalives 0

Iy to mee tudents an the opportum bl"shments, s f . educational esla I. Sharif. President 0

h,gh" Iry's ;nl.Jligoo""· ,," wah ",of. M. ~. hi/osophi",1 "i.n" the coun of our long the state 0 P need to

In the c~~r~:SOPhical Congress-;~icUlarIY highlighted n~h~he Soviet Ihe Pakistan ~ its prospeclS, wehilOsoPhers of Pakistan haed the highest in Pakistan an !acts between the ~ hers of Pakistan allac

al delegation in

slrengthen coSnharif said Ihe phil:r ihe Soviet philOSOP~~c contacts, which - Prof. . -patlon ed that sUU'

Union. he parltci . ns and urg . hbouring coun-importance to I Congress sesslolh~ philosophers of nelg

k of Ihe b tween the wor peratiO

n e t were greatly Inte.

promoted COO lhened. the scholars of PaklS an lves wllh the state tries, be slr:~f noted thatwlshed to acquaml Ihe~~ U.S.S.R. They also

Prof. ~e u.s 5 R. an(~nd higher education ~ \,IOSOPhY, Islam, and rested LIl t IS of sCIence ut our study of Ara P and prospe<: VI more abO

wanted to kno 11:3 so on.

, r

~eived t 196,: /SOP/If !ence~) now a . Her

Islam, Pakl-

IS the

urlicles n the

:l a/her 'akislan 51 and akislan

We found Ollr informal talks 'nth schoi..us IIld I<hull'ltl; Ill.:hlv 1l1uffiinatmg. Through them we had thc oppurtunity to 'I, re JI v.",.

on problems of Uleory; Ihey gave us d bC'tter idt'd 01 he Ih?\'t. rln.l!n. of philosophy dnu theory as well as the conuiti('lfls lor SClen'l,lf work in Paklstan. dnd its progress in the fields of publi<' edll< ,illlln hlNdturl art, elc.

After the session in Dacca, we went to I...lhoH' to oh!.\'!vl' the Sy. stem of teacher and student training at the university <lntl thl' 1(,<lChlnl.: of philosophy and olher subjects there. \\-e hdd mdlly ml'('lllL~s \\'1Ih the members of Ih£! philosophy fdC'ulties of Lahore Unin'fSitr dlld Ihe (IQv.

emment College; on one occasion we exdldllgt~l \'ll'WS on vctriou$ problems of philosophy, psychology, logic, and so on. Uur hOSt5 ex. pressed Rred! inlerest in the study of the history of philosophy under way in the U,S.S.R., especia!ly the history of Arab philosophy, dnd dlso the study of psychology, Pavlov's ideas, our teachillj.! of 10,(1i(', etc. We were told that the university programme for the Sludy of l)h~losophy now included a course acquai~tmi students with Ihe founddlions of di. alectlcal materialism-alon-g: with the other philosophical systems.

\Ve answered many questions, from the faculty members dnd also from the sludents, about the Soviet system of tramin~ sClenlJhc and pedd~ogical personnel. the problems on which Soviet philosopher,. were working, psychology, SOCIOlogy, logic in the Soviet UnIOn. elc_

Great interest was expressed 10 the status of sCIentists and teachers 10 the U.S.S.R., the organisation elf their scientific and 50("ial activities, their material POSItion, their teaching and research loads, etc.

It was our pleasure to meet with SCientists, sludents and journalists in Pakistan. We must say that these sections of the intelligentsia play an important role in Pakistan's social life and exerl a Rleal mOuence 011

other sections of the POpulation. The country's young intellectual~ ~how a high degree of SOCial and political activity. This is particularly true of the students of East Pakistan, who are taking part In the strug­gle for Ihe uemoCralisation of their country, the improvement of the people's liVing conditions, in the siruggle for peace.

We would be remiss if we did not aCknowledge the interest the Pakistani scholars and heads of the Philosophical Congress showed in the Soviet delegation and the soliCitude and Courtesy With which they surrounded us ali during our stay in Dacca and Lahore

The main conclUSion to which this Summary of ;he work of the fourth session and our actiVity there POints is Ihat OUr visit and parti­Ci]}atlOn in thai session were undoubtedly useful As ",. I Ih

• , • y Sllt,wesll-ell~ ened our ties With the philosophers of Pak~stan and'i I I d h .. u SO nl 1.1 dn I e other counlries represented at the session Particul"ly

. Important was the ~tdhlishment of contacts with students of the Phil0SO h (I I . So h , Pyo sam, th~ wil! help viet sc olars to arnve at a deeper an I I .

-. . ( C oser acqualll-tann· WIth thf' role, influence and evolution of this ideolo I gy, so popu ar

1/1

II ,I th,. "

, , I !, PI .p ,I ,.

h. I· , " > II Po> .,

'" " he J.rab " " . ., h It' ~

'I h. n , k h " •• , ,

,,' I , hil , V , 11, h' (

, , , . " lUi .t ud y h' h P' I_ tors

l<,VC1nOIl ... of IIIl" t h.VI' 14 LJI (I III he \1('''.

TIlt' ("Oil WI" ~ t jllHosop f' [1l( I~ rlLcllldll()1l "

,n Iulun' IIlluh 10 I)(' L(!S ,,,et 'me I the t nRre r r.' 1 I

(l , _I 11 lIldwtc, 1)111"111,\1151 51' ~ 1 \C~,I\IOIIS to IOU' ,

p n

I

• r. , 1 Or'cn 11

I , -" "0

, ", 01

Buddhism, I'te I, , t~lanl, , L('hIPVJlI)! dose( re a I( s 11111 itlC'l,)[s ,11 , I P', tabu ndld.

Im[>01 ' I ' I" frorn the ·'hol.ns I) dr> s ~ "'PI11(-'l1t 0 VISI., R I • trip' are the t'U("OIlTtI" I . s f till' Edst) 10 till' ! S (l~"

. , I otill'r {'(lun riC 0 . nt! so oogisls Indonesld dnl h ' ~yc-holo~lstl sludents )f I"w e,f the by Soviet phl\osoP, us, ol:

her countries, od the c. ~ ~I .!On

to Pakistan, IJl(ild dnd f blications betwe. n the ... , 11 •••. systematic exchange 0 pu V_ F. /krcsln('v

VOPIOl,

R! p. tl J fro:n ill iO/ii, X . ~ 1957

Eighth Session hi al Congre5$ met in f Ihe Pakistan Phllosop , " epresented

The eighth session 0 l.j 1961. The roreif:n countne~ ~t Germany J ary 11 to ' .\ R Indld \\ e",

Karachi from anu he U.s,S.R., U.s.A. U ... '.'ion' stood out from by delegates included t d the Lebanon. ThIs sO;'» , respect to the

F e Ceylon an II -n Pakistan III , Belgium, ranc, ~"ed annua Y I, 'der publicity gl---ons coov ... , d and Ihe w the preVious sessl 'Is it attracte

f parllc1pan . greater munber 0 me four sectlOns I e country. ed monj2 the S<I .' .

ven it inside t I ssion WdS diVid a . hilosophy and reh~lon, The work of the se ie and meldphYSICS, P 1llere were two ge­

as in preViOUS years: /i~~l; mordls dnd S~I:::a-cter and the methodo-psychology an.! educ,1 of the llallOna

roblems 'bT ty I symposia on P ,reat respenSI 1 I nera h idea that a ,_ the logy of psychology. essioo was I e ormous discovenes III

of the s 'mes of en _ of the The keynote . in our lIn the countnes devolves upon phiIOSO~~I;;~1 social prob!;~;m~:' said Dr. B. A. Hash:~ natural sciences aln~Oll back. the Wh,e;':raChi. in his speech ordwe~: of

"\loJe canno ily 0 h d been no a va world h Univers 'f there d k \iCe_C~ancellor of"~\I: cannot work ~u~lear Ie<hnology and space roc • 10 the delegates. 'I revolution, no def of things," science, no illd~S~~laof Ihe Stdgn3tcd or 1/5 elry, no diSS01u I

S'

ceived n 196·; osop/!}' jen('c~}

now 0 . Hcr Is/am,

/ Pnki­

i5 the o,tJC:/Cs In the

d other

'okiston 61 ofl;l

'okistofl

•

On Ih(' who/p, COlllempOr,Ii'Y 1\,k isl,rlU philosophy II d1d:ctdt'fI< -rl

hy Ib lueulistic, religIOus IsldmiC' Ir('ud orll'Il!('d 011 SUnh' 01 lh,. 10[(,.

most phi!().<;ophical idealists of th(' We ... 1. TIu' P.lkiSI,1I11 pllJlnsopht'[s U,"_

sldnlly referred to Henri Bergson, S.ulluel Alt'XMldt'r. John D('w(.y, \\',!1idm Jdmes, Alfred \\'hltehcdd, Bt'rtfdlHI Russ('!i <llId uther \'\"':;I£.'fl1

scholars. AccordIng 10 some 01 the spedkt'ls, Ill{' P,lllWlh 0/ Ilhlh'T!dh. 'n was INdiO!? to mOTdl and spmllldJ <lnurdlY. As uPr>os('d It I Illdl

t'r

i<iils

nl.

the}' ('dlled for dn alliance of T(~hRiOIl, pllllo!'iophy dlld sCil'n('(', With reJ;~JOI1 re:nforced by a ralional <In:! prdRllldh: philosophr l,jl..ln~ <J leading roJe in Ihls alliance.

But life ROes ahead, and desplIe the overill! idedlist trend, the CiJ,!hlh session, IJke the seVenth before it (which the ,HI thor of these lines

also attended). showed Ihat elemerHs of materialism were be~inning 10 ilp}X':dr sometimes inadvertently, at other tImes deliberately, in tlle work of the Pdkistani scholars, especially the younger ones. One of the

speaker:; mucle the progressive point, for instance, thut religious, biola. RiC<.ll, racial and language factors could not be conSidered decisive to the formation of national character. Durmg the dISCUSSions on the

methodology of psychology there was conSIderable Criticism of the premises of logical POsitivism and Freudianism, which many of the Pa. kistdni scholars judged to be groundless and of little Use to the science of psychology.

On the o:her hand, both they and their foreigllgues~ at the ses. lOlon stressed the importance of I. P. Pavlov's contributions to psycho­logy.

The leaning towards progressive modern philOSophical thought was also felt in the Way the speeches of the SoViet SchOlars were reo celved. Whether the subject was national chdracter, changes in the so­Cla.! ~tructure of the U.S.S.R., the development of PSychology in the U.S,S,R., or OUr Work in the field of Oriental philOsophy, Our papers in. vafldbly drew large and ·nl t d

I eres e audIences and innumerable questions from the floar.

Our tdlks with the prominent P<1klStalli philosophers M M Sharif M. lii.Jmlduddm, G. Ch. Dev, F. Rahman S Z Ch dl " ,

h " , .. au HII)' and other ('nfle ed Our l/lSlght into mOdern Pakistan PhilOSOPhy Many schola r .. expressed reJ,!rets that so few So· h' ' able III fn~lish translar h Viet p Jiosophicat Works were avail-

AI! th . Ion, ampenng acquaintance with them. er e seSSIOn, the SOViet delegates y V S

(JdnY<lOts dnd yOur auth . . . . horokhoviI, M. T. Ste. ' or VISIted the towns f Lah h

where they dlso p"''''"ted 0 ore and Pes awar, papers.

Reprlllted from v. S. Scmyonov

Veslnlk AN 5SSR

("BUlletin of the U.S.S.R. Academy of

SCiences"), No.5, J 96J

Fifteenfh SeSSion

Th .. h'II-cull! ,IIIIIUdl '~"tfJII (If thl! Jlulustdn Phl106llphiCdI COIIRrt'!S 111I't JI tilt! IInn'Nltlty flf I(dl!lhd/Ji III MdY J')fjfJ. This ~P'SSlon Wd!:i illtP.II'

dl"J hy d :"10VII:>1 d .. II"bltlon (If lire: 't v (" nklJ'.sky. Y \' SliM"). khoViJ ,Inll A F KfHOtJkfJV.

III thl' c/Juir ,11 ttw fifh .... ·/llh /ifOSSlfm Sdt the flr~t womdll prt'SJ(Jenc Akhldf Imam, Jln,fl.'SSfJr of phllf)s()phy at Ihe- Unlver:;lty of Dacca. The dlstJllRuishpd f.IJ/OPUlly fll Pdkist4ni phllos(iph(!'rs dud scholars who took

part in Its work includp.d Dr, M, Ahmed, Pres;dent of the Palustan Phi. 10sophic,1I C()IJRI'I·.~S, tlnd professors (JaIl .\1, A~!lm. \1. Abdul Hye and C. A. Qddir.

In addLtion to the symposIa on "The Philosophical Basis of the Ideology of Pakiswn" and "The Concept of Person in Contemporary Thought", there were also Ihe meetings of the sections on logic and

metaphYSiCS, psychology and edu~tion, ethiCdI and SOCIal philosophy and the philosophy of religion.

The predominant place given !o the problem of the philasophi~al basis of the ideology of Pakistan was to be explained by the deme of official government dIld philosophical circles to prove that the state unily of the divisions of Pakistan, inhabited or peoples of dlnenng national, ethnic and linguistic affiliations, hinged on a common Ideolo­gy, The discussion of Ihis problem was oot WIthout I!S pracllcal Impll. cations, considering the evidence of separatist tendenCIes both J/l West and in East Pakistan.

, declared Islam the biJsis of this The speakers at the symposium . . I f r PakiStan and the best SULted religion for It. common Ideo ogy 0 h hi d t to 'b d that the vital core of Islam t al ('noll e I 8 H SiddIqi 0 serve , r

" ·d I ' I role was a monotheism radically d,stinct rom erform its I eo oglca, . . , Ph' of such religions as Christianity of Judaism. none the monot elsm ,. A Ih

b 'I I ned with social reform movemen.s. no _ h · I h d ever een I( en I I .. . of w IC I a f Islam in his view was its assocIatIon With er distinguishing feature o. I rd~r and eoon;mic Justice. B. H. Siddiqi 'd r humanism i:QCld 0 the L eas 0 , ._ t that a close bond existed between Islam d took to demonsu a e d o.lso un er . Ih t the SOCial Justice and humanism espouse d mmumsm, except a an co the eternal laws of the Ouran. I had to rest on d th I by Is am d there were many speakers who argue 11 h other han , ..

On len had assumed in Pakist<l!l ,today It could not sene in the form Islal e the ideologiC<.l1 basis of the stale, It would ' I Y To becorn Yet as an Ideo og. 'a 10rm comprehenSible to the people and Its esented III .. have to be pr . tep with modern SCientific and techntcal pro. . brought JIlto s 1ynamLsm

gr('ss. , I., mission assIgned to Islam, many speakers f the sLngu . . In view 0 f their way to defend It agalllst the thrusts of ' went out 0 h

!It the sesSIOn he .keynote of the papers presented at I e sym. . This wdS I llateriallsm.

117

:eived 196·:

Isophy

enccs) now 0

. Hc! Islam, Paki·

s the

!Jrlic/CS

n the J othc!

akisfan Hand akistan

po..llUll (>11 'ThE> Cuncept of PN~OIl III Cl>1l1l-'mpnlM), Th"l1~'" Ih", 10

,hdrdctefJslll' \1(.'1Il)! ProL Inhllll'S lOtrodllclmy p,'I'('f I WlllC 1 hl' )1 "!h\

10 IH(lH' lh'" rooson or COIlSCIOllSllt'SS CdrHIO\ he ('\pl • It' I )y lh,' n

tUfdl SLWIlC{,S and Cdn only he Ull(\l'rstoo.1 hOIll tht' st,lldPOlllt )f fl'

II!:!ious dOl!mas an approd'l, she did not bdrk up wtlh Illl)" so It'IIILIJ( arRumenls. by the way_

DUrlUg the .!;essioll the members 01 Ihl' SO\'!('! dl'le\!.IIItIll I,,,k p ,Ht

in Ihe discussions of the P<lpers and spel.'Chcs ,md dlso lurthNl'd till'if

contacts with the scholar!' ..... ho hdd COIllt' to R<lJsh<lh: from tllffPH'nl parIs of Pakistan. Eadl of the Soviet delcQat('s Rd\'(' d llullllwr of puillic lectures in Rajshahi dnd Dacca.

.,- r !\(\frbko\

Repnnted flom Voprosy liIosOUi,

No.9, 1968

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Marx K" EnRt'ls E, "Mdndf!'iln of the ':':()mmUnls! Party" Sclrctrd Works in Two Volumes, vol. I. Moscow. 1958.

:Vlarx K., "Moralizuuyushchaya knLka kr.~lkuyusnchaya moral", K. Marx dncl F Engeb, ColirCIf'd Work .. [21 d RU~$. Ed.). vol. 4. Mos. cow, 1955.

Marx K., "Doklad generalnor;:o soveta 0 prave nasledovaniya", K. Marx and F. Engels, Coliectcd Works, vol. 16, 1960.

Engels E, "Yuridichesky sotsialism", K. Marx and F. Engels, Collec/ed Works, vol. 21, Moscow, 1961.

Engels F.. "Spf>cial IntroductIOn '0 the Enl!!lsh Edt;o:: (.! ·So-.db.) Utopian dnd $cicnti hc''', K ~Idrx and F. Engels. Selected Works in Two Volumes, vol. 2. P!:"iH

Engels E, Engels to C. Schmidt, October 27, 1890, K Marx and F. En­gels, :'elcclcd WOfhs in Two Volumes, \'01. 2, 1958.

r"larx K., Engels r., Thc Fi/st IndlQll Wal 01 Independence 1857-J859, Moscow (s.a).

Lenin \'. I., "How the So< Idllst·RevoiutiOflar:es Su;n. Up :he Re\·ol.utlOn and How Ihe Revolution Has Summed Them Up Collec/cd \\ olks, vol. 15, fI.·losco ..... , 1963. .

Lenin V. J. "ClasseS and Parties ItI Their AttItude to Religion and the Church" Collrclcd \rorks, vol. 15. 1963, .

L - V I :'Th AWo:lken:n£ of ..\5:a". CoJ/ectcd \\ arks. vol. 19, 1963. l en.m V· I -, "Thee Slate ~nd Revolution", Col/ecled WOlks, vol. 25, 1964.

Lenlll

y' 'I' "I perialls'm, the Highest Stage of Capitalism", Col/ec/ed enUl .', m Works vol. 22, 196~. "E Aid

L ' Y I' "C ",pectus of Feuerbach s Book xposltlOn. na YSIS an enm '" 0 of Lelbmz' ",-Collected \Volks, vo\. 38 Critique of the PhilOSOphy ,

.1963. "cond Cougress of the Communist international",-Co/-LeJl.itI V. I., Se 31 1966

Iccted WOlks, vol. '. f ihe Communist International".-Collec/cd Lenin V. I., "Third Congress ()

Works. vol. 32, 1965.

Memoirs, Political Pamphlets, Articles, Speeches

IVins Freedom. :\n Au/obioglaphical Nartath'c, Azad A. K, Indio

So '''Y 1959 I of J"'I"e",-Th .... Pokiston Times, m~, I' "Th~ isian1ic ('oncep "" ... ... Fazl-i-HamH,

22. II. 1963. 's COllcr)t of God's Mercy",-The Pakistan Times, Faz\_j_Hamid. "Islam

I. 111. 1%3. 119

~eived

I J96·; 1Sop/lr icncc~J

now a J-J('f

Islam,

Pnki­

Is /he ClrUclcs

n /he :l other 'okislan 61 onJ 'okis/on

rd7!-dldn1J~i. "!be SPirit of ~h?rily':'-, ,Th~ ~~ki.~(an .. Tim('.~, IS. IiI, 1%3 /"a:r/·j·ll,lIllld .. Il-had 111 I:-'/,IHI. r.1I '(//,1.\[01/ 111/1.'" ?!'. 1\ Iii " Jtnlldh M .. Speeches and \\'filings, Lahore, 1950, >.

Jmnah M., Speeches as Governor-General 01 Poki.~tan 1947-1948 ~ . . "'d· Tach: (s. a.'.

Khan M. 1., "Difference of Ideologies: Islamic ilnd Western. .. I I • S atnir Rel'iel\", \'01. X,XX\'JIJ, 1960, No ....

Lel/efs 01 Iqbal to Jinnah, Lahore, 1956. Malik A. M., Labour PfOblems and Polic}, in Pakistan, Kdrdchl, 1954 :\faudoodl A A., Political Theor}, 01 Islam, Rdmpur (S.il.). MdUdoO(h A A., Nalionalism and India, Palhankot, ,(j,17 MdUdoodl A. A., Convocation Address, Rampur, 1951 Maudoodl A A., The Economic PlOblcm of 'Ion and lis Is/amic So.

lution, Rampur, 1954.

MaudoodJ A. A., The Ethical View-Point 01 Is/am, Rampur, 1954_ Maudoodi A. A, Islamic Law and Constitution, Karachi, 1955. Maudoodi A A, The ,""lessage 01 Jamaat-i-Islami, Lahore, 1955. Maudoodi A. A, The Oadiani Problem, Karachi, 1956. Maudoodi A A, Process 01 Islamic Revolution, Rarnpur, 1959. Maudooli A A, The Blessings 01 Humanity,. -The VOice of Is/am,

vol VIII. 1960, No. 12.

\ faudoodl ~. A" "Political Concepts in the Ouran", The Voice of h/am, \'01. IX, 1961, Nos, fl, 7.

M:ludoodi A A., Towards Understanding Islam, Delhi, 1961. Mufakklr, '!\lasser's Islam ic Sociali<:rn",' -The Pakistan TImes, 31. iJ!1. 14, IV 1963.

I'''\-).>'''Y_li~!i )JI 0l4~) _)4 ..... · ... u.~-lI1 .. "'" J J.r.J

I' ., t - )y> 'Y - c.~ JJJ -'"" - J.>-:''' u~.ul j.J~ I" , I -JY:>'Y - C.~Ji .i.e ... -I$JJJ.J'" .u;"::l,,-!I -'-:­

" .,. JY:> ':} - ~ j ..:..::s::i:.... lC .. _ I$J J J.J'"' .uJ~ J! t .1::_

-)J<'Y-\f'":A_1 rlk; <J1k __ \.PJ'J- <!J'Y"I ",..

I"" -Jj~'1-JJt J..l;..-.r.:-~' 01,}-0L;. J..~I .1::-

. ..

--'---"--

Ph ilosophical Works

A HI.~I()fY 01 ·"'Iuslim Plll/oSOPhy, ed. by M M I. 1(6), wII, II, 1%6. _ .

Sharif, Wiesboden, vol. Ahmdd A . "Sources of Iqbal's Perfect Man"_ Ahmad K D" "Re.lson and Faith",_ Pahlslo~/q~al, vol. 11[, 1958. No. I.

I, 19')8, "JI)_ .J. PhIlOSOPhical journal, vol.

120

.\IUll,ld 'fI.1 ( Till' I'III/f), f)flhy 01 tho Tf'(J('hinll.'1 0/ lsI '" h. Inn 1'1.',:. ., ·=····,'.2·

A/nldl M.,. ','/WllII1II1H1 dllll J;lhl(!i" 1'100/, Vol II, IIJ()(), No.1. All S_ A, 'r hI' ltll'f)lo~y )1 "<ilk Ian", Pakl.~tcJn, vol. VIJI, 1959, No.1 Azral D. !-.-l, "NdtJOlldl ("JMrdc:lj'r". Pahi.,'an Phllosoph/ral Journal, VOl, V, 1%1, No. I. Azral D. M" "Plillosophy Brohi :\. K. "In D"rl'jI(j' Choudhurl S,Z" "Hf:clsrlll

vol. I, 19.')B, No. J.

III blsl i'dkisldfl",_ Paki~/an. 1962. t\o 2 l{plt1!:on" Pahis/an, vol. V, No.2

,Hid [..11111" Pahi~lon Phi/asophiw/ JOUrnal,

Dar B. A., "The Ide,1 of S,11'1II Ifl IqlHI and MJlion",_ -Iqbal. f, 1952, No. I Vol,

Dar B. A., "Intellect d/lll [lIlIlltUJ/1 III Berg~rm dnd Suhs' ,_ Iqbal. vol, IV, 1956, No. ;J,

Dar B., A, R('ligiou.~ Thought 01 },ayyid Ahmad Khan, Lahore, 1957. , Dar B. A, "Philosophy in Pdklstan", ·Pakistan, 1959, No.3. Dar B. A., "What Is Islami<.: Culture?"" Islamic Cul/ure: a SympOsium,

Ka rachi, 1959. Dar 8. A, Ouranic Ethics, Lahore, 1960. Oev G. Ch., Idealism and Progress, Calcutta, 1952. Dev G. eh., "A Glimpse of the Philosophy of the Future" Third Session,

Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1956. Dev G. Ch., "[dealism, a New Defence and a New Application", la.

hare, 1958.

Dev G. Ch., "Need of Philosophy ill the Modern WorJd,"-Pakistan Philosophical Journal, vol. II, 1959, No.3. _ . ,

Dev G. Ch., "Basic Human Values",--Seventh Session. PakIstan PhIlo-sophical Congress, Lahore, 1960.. _ ".

Erfan N., "What Is Common Between EXistentialists and Iqbal ,-Nmth Session. Pakistan Philosophical Congf(~ss, Lahore, 1962.

Hakim H. A., Islum and Communism, Lahore, 1954." Hamid A, "The ,\ldter,dJisllc ConceptIOn of History -Iqbal, vol. 11,

1952, No. I. . R , 38 HamiduJlah M., "Islam and Communism",-The IslamIC eview, va. ,

1950, No.3. /. L h 1959 J Th Ideology 01 Pakistan ancl lis Imp/ementa IOn, a ore, '

lqbb." '-,' TellC Development 01 .\rc-/ophy$iC~ in Persia, London, 190R Iq a ,,,., • ~I I I hal M Islam alld A/lnlGd/sm, L.<1lore s. a,.

Iq M. "The Recons/ruction 01 RCliglous T/rought in Islam, Lahore, 1962 . Iqbal., . Symposium, Karachi, 1959. IslamIC CUI/UTC. a, , A ldr(>ss" . Sixth SC$sian, Pakistan P/rilosophical Jilani G., "PresJdenlm ( ,

Congress, u,hore, 1959. . " p ,._ to Philosophical I - G "Problems of NatlOllal Character, - an's n

JI dill., I III 1959, No.1. Journal, ;'~,dst~ntidliSm'" Eleventh Session. Pakistan Philosophical

Khanum N., 1964

Congres~" La~~!eper(eCI Man", Iqbal, vol. J, 1952, No. I . Khatoon J., Jq 1 God /llan and Universc in the PhilosophIC J The Place 0 , Khaloon·, b I Kardchi, 1963.

System of Iq a, d Education".- Pakistan Philosophical Journal, Lan I "Psychology an

I v~i. f, 1958, No.3. d Social Change" -International Social Science A "Islam an •

Latif S. ., I V 1953, No.4. Bulletin, V~it D~pends upon Ihe Nature of Response",-Traditional

Mekhry G. ivL South.East Asia, 1958. CuI/utes In

121

:eived /96·:

·sop/l~'

ence;;) now a

H" Islam, Paki­

$ the

~rlic1es

n the

fa/her 'akislan )l and 'akis/an

L..-,.rir ( :\. '\f".:I1 KnOWrOll~c' 11 ()I lie ,l.ahott' Iq:'iti

W. ~fLr C '\' Reason otnd Fotlth" 1(1)8, No i,

J'alil:slan I'lli/osuphJHlI )Urll<J/. vol.

Q<idtr C A. 'Economic Dt,ye!\)pment <lut! l\lmdl \ dlut' , It $tan Tlmc~, 13.1. 1963. Til' Pu.

Udd:r c. A_, "Y)uth and Pak'.~:dll 14. 1\', 1963.

fdl'o!o~y" Th\ Pull/stlln T '1lt'

Qitdir C'. A. Ex.istentialism. A Crlti('a/ Examination, I.lhoTc, 1965, fJayym .\.RI~ic Human Yalth.'''· ,"cn'nll, S,'s,~ioll Jlaki~f(/Il Pili.

losophical Congre"s, Lahore, I9\iO, Qureshi I. H" "The Problem ()( t\'ollionill Ch<lJad{'f",

sophical Journal, \"01. V" 1961, No, I. RaflUddin 1\1" "National C'harllcter" Puki.,ton Pl!ilo.~opl1i('al JOU/flO/,

voL V, 19tH, No. 1.

Rahman F., "Communism, Islam and Scienttfic Social Order",/s/amlc Re\,/('I\', vol. 44, 1956, No.5.

Rahman r" "Challenge to Modern Ideas dnd Social Values of Muslim Society,"- --Pakistan, 1958, No. L

Rdhmotn E, "Muslim Modernism in the Indo·Pakistan Subcontinent", Bulletin 01 the School 01 Orient and Afric.'a :::itudic~, L"'ondon, vol. XXI, 1958. ~

Rahman F. 'Reality and Value' Pakistan Phi/osophl('ol Journal, vol II, 1959, No.3.

R<ihnan r V,I%

"The Sell and Ideal" o 3.

·Paki.~tan Philosophical Journal, vol.

RaJ.IT ~n F t "-ltlstence, Notion of Self-Consistency and Tntuitton",­Eleven/n Session. Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1964.

Rasbe_d \., R('i,!;on and Faith",- -Pakistan Phi/osopltical Journal, vol. .I, 19: 3, .0 3.

C' 1 q K 'Basic Human \'<i]ues ,- Sevcn/h Session. PUhrstan Philo. sophiClI Congress, Lahore, 1960,

Sadiq K.lJ. 'Philosophy of Life",-Pakistan PhiJosopllical Journal, vol.

VI, 1962, No.2. S;dd~q: M., MarXism Of Islam?', Hyderdbad, Ill51 S:r1d.qt M" "SociaLs lie Trends in Is]am",-fr/bal, vol. L 1%2, No. I. Siddlq .. \1., Whal h Islam?, Rampur, 1954.

Siddiqi M., "IndiVidual and Social Aspects of Morality",-Pakiston, vol. II, 1959, No, 4,

Siddiqi M., "The Problem of National Character" -Pakistan Philosophi. cal Journal, vol. V, 1961, No, 1. '

Shal.ou1

S. M. "Islam and Social Welfure", _ The Pakistan Tjmes, 12. X. 1~62.

::iharif M._ M" l'!uslim Thought. Origin and Aehie\'cment, Lahore, 1951.

"'~arif M. ~r., "Dwlectical Monadism",_ Tlte ConlC'lnpofOfY Indian Plli/osophy-, London, 1952.

"-h, rif M. M. "The Good Lile and Cthzensh,p' -:::i,xlI, Sesl.ion Pakistan PhJJo.~ophl(al Congre.~s, Lahore, 1959, .

~h .if M. ~t. .. \bou~ Iqbal and His Thought, lahore, 1964 h • f M. M .. hlamlc and EdU('Q/lonal Studies, L<thore 1964 'hi! f 1\1, t:~, -Studies ill Aeslhetks, lahore, 1964. ' -

Vanid ~. A. Iqbal. Hi.'; Art and Thought, l.ondon, t959. V~hid In/lor: IUion 10 Iqbal, Karachi (s. a.l.

1~2

", :OJ .... , , , j' "". .. • • .s'''' , . 11 -'", •

\I,n .~ ... , .lJ ,t.. JI "I \ II,. rt •

-JJ':~ ., " . • l"'rv ~,

Yo

\ ... rh ) - ,-,LA .. , ""WI \ .. I 'I j I T)-L:'" ,,' • J::. \"'ot_)~'i .. • . UT"" .L..

1 .. '\ r - I}"j ..:._l~ ~ ..... ...,n_J ..... "

\ ... ' '\ -)Y> 'j - ~:r.-I S~.J:oe. J ,.PJj,~" '':l' 'r-4.

Works by Pakistani Historians, lawyers and Economists

Ahmad -\. :-'-1, f~/amic LOI\' in Theory md Pn :Ii~e L~' Ahmad J., "Secular Demonacy and ISHmic Slate' T e I'll :('., ::

12. IV. 1963, Ahmad M., Govell1ment and Polilics in Pakistan, Kara(~ 19SCI Akhtar S. M., Tlte Economics 01 PakMan, Lahon 1951 Ali M. K" "Attempts to Stifle the Voi e of Pakistan,

mes, 3. V. 1963.

. ....

Azad M., The PrinCiples of Stafc and Go~'ernment 'n Islal Los Angeles, 1961.

Berkeley-

Aziz A., Discovcry of PaJiislan. L:lhore, 1951. . Aziz A., Islamic Modernism in India and Pal,slan

ford, 1961. 1157·1964, Ox-

Beg A., The QuiC'l Revo/ulion, KdfdCht. 1959,. Brohi A. K., Fundamen1dl Ldll' ('~ Pdk:s:.:m !:'at I 'h Choudhury G N., "The Isldmil' (oncep! of Slate n Pdl J~l n ,

vol. VIII, 195B, r'\o, I, Choudhury G. W" COlls(itulional DC\'(~'lopmcnt in Pakistan, Lahore,

1959, r'_ I \ b" C 'I HJ'J ." Ch II Y G 'V "Pdkisldtl under vetle"l ," yu . urrtn -30,.,. o\!( mf , •. ,

vol 40, 1961, No. 235. ,. " A Islamic JuriSPlUdl'flC('. KlrdcJu, 1~2.

Farukl K. ""II 'c Flmily Law in PakIstan III the Conll'ltt of Mo. Farukt K. A, 5 a, ~Io\"{'~letlt~ in the World of Isldm' ,-Islamic Review, dem RefornllS

vol. 53, No, 5, 196~i Economic Planninq. A Cas, Study 01 Pakistan, Haq M., Thc St~alegy .

K<'zfac~pi. k'96,st!'n's New Dispensdtion' ·Commonwcalth JOurnal, vol. Islam ., a

V, 1962'"N,O. 6',wd Tot.tlltoHidlllsm" Khan M, I., Is am

Islami R('\'i('l\ \"oJ. 36, 1948,

No.3. . 10 &SI(, DemoNQer, KilTiU hi, 1960. Khan S., An /l1lfodurIIJ~;COI09}'.COn.~tilution.LoI\ ·Forelgn Policy, Kh S Paklslan an ., Ka·

raehi, 1961.

eived 196·;

sopbr ~n('esJ

10W a lIer

Islam, Paki·

;) the 1,/icle5 n /he la/her akislan 51 an;/

'ok is/an

\!os/('m .Va/iona/ism it! [milO (]~.l PJkljlan, \\' :stlLlIJ;!ton 1% Mdllk Ii. 'D po/Hirol Par/h.'s in ralliS/On. Lahore \fl.\. "Id/Illuddlil .. I C I Sl U·'tUTf> of I ' " ' , G A ·'Ec()nOOllC.s ill I Ie :-.<,': <l . r ~ m r lkl .<11 Par\("5 ~., .

vol ,"Ill. 1 Cl58, 1'0. I . . h'l H "The Concept of So.,Vt'c('I'!nly lInl EXN: It.v IOV In.

Qurcs I ,; p" 0 '('cdmg s of the 2m ,\f/·Pokislun rom 'al lonf("cn" menl,--(l. Karachi, 1952. _. _ .., _ 'h I H The' Pakistani \\ or 01 Lik LIII.· t, 1:b7

QUTe5l .. , ,n' 'l I Q -II I H Pakistan. An Is am/( erno, ral}. ,.\1,(11(> 1I.1I.),

Q ures.h' [' H "' The D('\'c/opmcnl 01 fndo-,\luslim Culture LlhuH' . d.) ure5 l, .. h I' II I TI I '

Q h ' I H 'Islamic Elements In lE'O I 1(.\ IOU~ 1\ of P<lkj. ures J • -, , 'E ")' stan", -Tradition, Values, and .sonD- ('onarnl( en' opm('n/. nur_ ham, 1961. _

Qureshi I. Ii .. ''The Background of Some. Trends In ,lsI,lm!C Political Thou~ht",,- Tradition, Values and Soclo·EconOrlll(' n('\'C'/opml'llt, Durham, 1961.

Qureshi I. H., Aspects 01 tile Histor)', Cul/ure and RC'/iglon 01 Pakistan, B,m~kok, 1963.

Sayeed K. B" 'The Jamaat-i-Isl?"u Movement Jtl Ptlklst,Itl",- Pacilit Affairs, vol. XXX, 1957, No. I.

Sayeed K, S, "Collapse of Parliamentary Democr<lCY !Il PilkIS!,W' -Thc .\lidd/(> Easl JouTllal, vol. XIII. 1959, No.4.

Sayeed K.8., Pakistan. The Formatl\'e Phase, K~radli, 1960. Sdyeed K. B., "Pakistan's Basic Democracy", _'liddle East Journa/, vol.

XV, 1961. No, 3, Sayeed K. B., "Religion and National Building in Pakistan", -The Middle

Easl JouTlla/, Summer 1963. Shafi M., Eleven Years 01 Lllbour Policy, Kaxadli. 1959. Sulery Z. A. Whilher Pakistan, London, 1949. Sulery Z. A .. Pakistan·, Lost Years. Being a Survey of a Deco/(: 01 Polilics

1948-1958, Lahore. 1962.

\ ' 0 'f )-,,,')I-./lii ~1 .r. ..,.r?,-.J .. ::,_.d .. ~ - Jl:J1 .J..~ - J. )~ - oJ.l.:.--~J~IH_~l_ ~L.. .. )J1 Jl:JI-0l..:.c1 ~

- ''\oV- (

Official Documents

The Conslituenl Assembly 01 Pakistan. Ollkia) Reporl. Debates, Kara-chi, 1949-1956.

The Conslitutlon 01 the Republic 01 Pakistan, Kdfdchi, 1962. Economic Survey 01 Pakistan, Rawalpifldi, 1963.

Inl1oducllon 01 Bwfic Democracies in Pakistan, BuredU Or Ndtional Re­conslrucllon, Government oLPakislo.ln (s. I , s. iJ.).

Report 01 the Court 01 InqUiry COll!;lilU/Cd under Punjab A(·t II 01 1954 to Inquire into the Punjab Disturbances 01 1953, ldh(,re, 1954.

Rcport 01 Ihe Commission on NatiOnal Education K ' h' 1959 , arac 1, . Specches (lnd Documcn/s 01 the Indwn Com/lit/lion, 1921.11)47, vol. 1,

Bombay, 1957.

/24

Monographs Ind Articles

,\OIke),(>v ~. r, (I 1(' 1(' VfOl 11 ) poll he lI.lyl' vlf'IY,ldy ~fukhamr, _1;Jd I( Jld 1\ ,'I :>y vo !:>kOVT' I,· 11yr p.>r~, "Jo I

,\1 Ik e ".J ) Vy 1(1)" 1_: '1IIYllVII • i/ltel I pod ~ll1khammad Iqbal, f., CI ow, I<J: I.

BdI'lhIlSht' u h v. V h v"/lw.~y IJ Pllku!/om· r,.shkent 19.n l!<Htolti v 'Khollil sUltan', f.iJf 1.1IaUlo, vol. I. 1912. [ldtdlov E. Y "Osn lVllI)'e n,lprdvlent),<l Id,.VlllYd filosofskoT mysll v

;,lrdn"kh Alii I Afnkl', Voprosy fl/owl/f, 1964, No. 12. Beldyev y, A, "I!wl/man.~k()yl' Iwktonts/vo, Moscow, 1957. Bcldyev Y. A., Araby, Islam i arabsky k/lalilal v rannee srednevekovye,

fl.-Io::;tow, I GuS. 13elt'nky :\, B., N(J/.~ior!fJ/noYT' IlIolmzhdr'niye Indonl'zii, Mo~cow, 1%5. Bertt'ls Y. E. 'Sulism I slIllysko.lYd hterJtuf<l·.- Izbl()Omye /wdy, :Vlo~,

cow, 1%5. BrutenUi K. N., Protiv idro/ogii sovremennogo koJonlaUzma, Mos­

cow, 1961. Brutents K. N., "0 nekotorykh osobennostYdkh sovremennogo natsional­

no-osvohod:teIJlo~o r!vizheniY,j", Voprosy /ilosofJi, 1965, Nos. 1, 6. Drobn!tsky O. G" KUZmtnd r. !\, I\rilika $o~'remennyktl burzhuuznykh

cliche.~klkh kontseplsy, :Vloscow, 1%7, Dyakov A. M" Notsiana/ny vopros I angliysky imperiolism v Indll,

Moscow, 1948. Oyakov A. M., Indlya vo vrcmya i pos/e vlotoy mirovoy voyny (1939-

1949), Moscow, 1952. Dyakov A. M., Nolsiono/ny vopros v sovr\,mennoy Ina iI, .'loscol-\", 1963-Fi/oso/skaya cntsik/opedIY(J, vols. 1-1. Mo~,'ow, 1960-1964. Gankovsky Y. V., Narody Pakis/anu. Moscow, 1964. Gankovsky y, V., Gordon-Polonskaya L R, Istoriya Pakisfana, Moscow,

196\. k I h' P Gankovsky Y. V., Moskalenko V. N., Politiches oye po oz ell/ye v 0-

kis/ane Moscow, 1960. G)Idon-POl~nskaya L. R., Musu/manskiye techeniya v obsches/vennOI

mysli Indii i Pakis/ana, Moscow, 1962. , , S N Iz istorii lIIosof/i Srcdnc~1 Azil I Irana (VI/·XII vv.), Gngoryan . .,

Moscow, 1960. S d d ., yo li/osolJya narodov Bllzhn~'go i re ne· Grigoryan S. N., Sre neve"ova

O Vostoka, f'o.' loscow, 1966. . g , cm('nnogo natsionalno·osvobodltclnogo dvizheniya,

Ide%glya sovr 966 Moscow, I, .. d by Ivl A. Dynn!k, M, J. lovchuk a.o., vols. I·VI,

Istof/yO 11/050 II, e . ' MoscoW, 1957·19G5. V t k

. . vcdcniya mysillc/el slran Blizhncgo I Srednego os 0 a, 17blOtJ/uyc prolz.

MoscoW, 19b1. , , (' ~Ioscow. 1<15-',

Kobus· nom " IS/(lII1. Qc/lcrkl, Mosc<?w, 1962, Klunovlch. L., ,dars/ v Bhzlw('go i Srednega Vosloka, "'o~cow, 1956. Kons/ilutslYa gos~%3. Koran, MoscoW, .

I 1M In En.l!'hsh: A. M, Dyako ..... 111e Nahona/ Prob/(>m • Also ,l\'dld 1966

'd Moscow,· . d P 1 In India fo oy, I bit'! Ifl English: V V. Ganko\'sky, L. R. Gor I)n- 0 on-.' Also ,wa l d 01 Pakistan, Moscow, 1964.

A !llslory skaya, 125

:ciVrd 119M ).~oph~'

icncesJ noW (I

1/('1

Islam, I Pakl­i.~ the w!iC'les In the d olher D(lkislan '61 01';/ lIaki~tan

•

"

,alnJ-)$\'ubo (('/(Jor(' ,L II' I ('lIh' , " ,

19,~". Iv'). 13. ,,"Qlara /O,',lI :I,i, ;"losC"(m, J!lh "01 Lj' .l) U '",.a inclll ~ .W • '1

"() n h" 11 I \ 11 ItS",>I' 1111 OW, )odlll' II (Iv. mira )/ :c.li.n a, \,1:,'1, f\,o R (l

lelll\ 1"Ob/~ my

().~Irovtr~nov Y "Sot! :1hSIII"hl'sk're doklnny . VJYI' h~llk 1Sj'. dn: [OllllY sotSLllno'YI' ,>l,.a!('J/.h,III1YC \[110\ lVa 1).1, kU J

m zh:fWIJfOdm)'I' ""OS/WnlrQ, r.lo_~r,)\\, I'lld. No I.

Pl{'khill 0\' C y, 0 r(,ligl' I '.<;('1/;.\'; "In:>('!)\\', i'l.e,H, R, ,ty ..... ,1\ \, (: \" 1111 1 S \., l' JIll .!lY I'k IOllllk

\[,hl \\1 Q)8 ]I lk~s( lila , Rokili K., I\atan i "Ommunizm. :\Ioscow, 1!120, ShmelyO\' N, P .. Idcologl imp('ria/isma i pwbkmr sJaIJor07\'ilykll .~Iwn,

\1 , q 'J . usc-ow, .lI. Smimol N. A.. SOI'femCIIlI), i.~/alll, r..rOSCOw, 1 (BO. Solutel' A, ";'\<llsiOllaltwYiI dcmokratiya· put k sOlsidlnomy progreso

s\! Problemy mira i ,~olsia/il'lIO, Iqfi:1, N(l. 2. '<:()\' "Ill' 1/ 0P' nal: iOIl(Jlnu-o."i\·obodi/dlloy CI\·IZ!JCIH'(' I

bUL.l:/UlI~i}U, :>, ll!lle_ 19h1

SO\"f(,In('nny obr<.'kli\·ny idcolillll, l\loscow, \tlt.>:l. Tyagulll'ilkl) \ NdWdy proliv kapilalistu:heskogo puti",

1%2. l\(). 1:;. !\ommunisl,

UlY;lJ\ovsky R., '·Ekononiicheskayll. nel.d\·isimost- -blizhayshaya zadach/! osyoboditelnogo dvi2heniya v AZii", I\ommunist, 1962, No. 1

UlYdllO\"Sky R .. "~ekotorye "oprosy ll(>kdpitalisUchesko~o rM.\"iUya )5\'0:>0 ivshikhsya s\ran",-- 1\0mmunisl, 1966, No. L

YurpYl( h L 'Saiyi Akhmad-khdll j 7aTozhdenlye nlllsulmanskogo 0[;' Shchilll ogo d"izheniya v ludii" -Uclleniyc :zapiski Tikllookeanskogo Ilsli/ula \.N SSSR, \'01. 11, ~10scow, 19~9.

Zhukov Y M. '0 Ilekolorykh voprosakh nalsionalno-osvobodilelnogo dv·~.hemy v stranakh Vostoka",- ·SllOi/eISI\·o kommunizma-delo n II/IOIIOY Iyudcj Iruda, Moscow, 1959.

7.hukov Y M., "Leninizm 1 sonemenrllye problemy natsionalno.osvo­h)dl t!l/l)go dVizheniya",-Vc/ikoye 10r:zlIeslVo ide; leninizma, Mos­'ow KiO.

• AhllOt F. ecline 01 the I\fu~hal Empire and Shah Waliullah' ,_ Tlte

MU1!im \.,oJ/d, V)j Ill, 1962, ~o. 2-Ahbot F., l:>lam alld Pakislan, New York, 1968.

AdaOl~ ~h., "Islam in Pakistan",_ -Modeln Trends in World Religions, La Salle (111.), 1959.

Alhiruni A. II., Makcr.~ 01 Pakislan and Modern Muslim Inriia, la-noe I ()50

Asian Nalionalism and Ille \\/esl, cd. by W H II d N Y k 1953 8 ·'1 \N ~ f .' ,. ,. . 0 an, ew or, . ". '.' . '~(l JOlla Jsm and Commun;.~m ill EOSI ASia, Carlton, 1953. I he Hasr 'mo. [dt If'S m Paklstull' MUll kind I, N I 19G1

Bprn lTd L ", n n I I' , vo. -, tnem lef, - )Q') l' IInl !ll ,n( sl,un",_ fnlelnal/onal Allalrs, vol. XXX,

Bi ~fam '" I r, (;limp.~("s af {qOOts Al;ml d 'f! I . 1954 131 r"ltler L, 'P-ill; lim ill1(1 Modem Isl'ImiCan N r IOUa, 1/, in.<lhOre,.. Th

l\1iar/I(.' £)51 lown!'!1 yol X, ' M7 N d IOnn 1St leory ,--- c . . '. - . .,-} , O. -1' vol XII 1%8 N I Blndt-r L, RdlgJon and POlilics til Pakistall D 'k I . - . . , o ..

UIJllb.dUIO E.. Some Tlieofc/lcal and 'PIU(:IiC~~ (~I!Y L?~ An~eJes,. 196 1. (:Io(t oj Paki.~/an, Karachi, 1956. ·~pecls 01 Ille IslanZlc

/ " _'(J

, r , (l~h'II .. , ,

" r k 'I, " " We -J. \ X\ol I I'll J I I'll (In (JI II ~/

( 11111 K Il p)/ , (:o/t 'i aJ< Ilpb H r Pl1, 'Ull rn allly I

on JIll nl'y L '" /.JJW In lop -'.} (. JI I"

(fell'l K 'T I It (> h.; , If P I 111 In,' 1/11.\1/ 11 Ul 0

(ril' '! ~ , , .:JI~lcll'v. 1 ~u lolu'!h )f", I.

:Jl'v .G-

o'! 1947 IS' ,

" p , , • , o

" ,

a/~JVII , n l )h:

I'f"ldmdn II. A C(m IJ/ullon lor I' ~I lI...n 1.'_ JI~ Frf'~ldHCI A. nl.., m JI 1-1 • I k. I n '"he

/lJ/I. v --" , , f'l1I·dl,lnd W "fvf'dem

vol. X. j(JI,(J. '0 ) n 1e ( e ), I " " ' , ~ )(' )/ogus,

rlJlf'/son H. J.I )13jL 1 ,:

Politks, V)!. XXTl. 'V ~, '< ,

" ,,' " Ghosh A. "Paklst,n l~up ""~ Den, ~'01 ", Gho<;h A, Pu}f./.~/an I')r/cnl. ~'--W .. , 19:1.

~o.

Gibb II.AR Modern Trenls II I 1"[111, C _ Ii!.). Gibh H. A. R .\Iohamm rl 1. ,.. ]1 Gibb H A. R "Islam in h Mo" Tn World Th

and ,\Iu.'llirl Aftica. N·w v k 1961. Gopdl R Indiun Mu /1m :JI_IC 1 1 )I

IllStl

,

, Crune ),IUIII ., '" .... I ~ F '·P,b,,, , al n' m'

WcM, London. 19~ t.

y ~'ob A1

194j J.

GruII(>hdurn (i. F. \Iod~'rn I~/( m T"c', rt ,1 1 ( J/"' ,,:JJ 10 ley-Los :\n~elf'S, 196:!. _

Hah,lchy S .. "Plopprly R o.:h'_ .,111 t 11/, ': Mus Law R('\'jcw, vol. 62, Iq61 ~( 3.

Hale-pold A. \V .. "Shah \\"ll:ullllh'o LO~( ~p )~ Plillo.~oplIical Journal. vo]. J" 19-"'3.~, .1.

Halpem M .. "Implicalion~ '~', (°,

11 mUIl.~m for

,w

'y'

, h.

o ~I ..:.J/ 0'

v

lhl 'he

,

Pakidan

World, vol. XLIII. ]Q5.l I~O. . " ·h· . EI "1~llIm [Inri Communism n he:..li Ie" E.. HdS Iml ., 0 . ConiC "IJ~o·

!Of RCI'i('II", II"l.'i3,No. I ·Ih " Yrr E "TIle Probll'lIls of Pakistan Ifln\erho __ , A .. )11 VOlI. 56

1960, No. 207. / I"'." Lo d vo, I' ,.52 . , PI 'losopl!l' Ea.~/l'rn anc ~ _~ t rn, non. . _, . . Hlslory 0 II. -. IQ'i'I

. H ('[s/alll, P,}f]S, .' -. La e " MdSM' ., "d" \\ arId R('lifJion.~ cd. by J. \1. Ril, ~ ~a, ~,..l e. Modcrn Tren ., w .

. (111). IIl.'ititt' Indian .'Ius/in;.,. 10ndol1, 196',. fl,luJeeh \1:, "The l\lnslituIIOll<11 F\'?lut:OI: 01 Pak Newman K .. J_. X..::"\:\"III. 11)1;2, :\(1. J.

Alfon.-. .. ~iOl~£Y in Pak!~t.ln· lournol 01 ..\. :W SlUr. Owen J. E. •

, QtiO I'll. 1. , .... ",'.,.,u . . . '"\t'\\' \.-" ~ "P,lkisl,!n. Jhe .

No. 201. wt'r PolitiCS dnd :he r lnst:lut!on' " Pakistan. pOl'i'i No. ]RI.

celll hN. \I,','h·· lind M(\{lernlsrs" \"\ tI ~ "p/lkislall. .

t\<). Ilill

Round J lbl('

I, -

"' , , , \

'n';I' d

n 19"''' o.wpl!r 'irnees)

nOli" a

~ /ler

I~/alll,

:1 Pnkl­

;!I Ihe

u'I;r/r3 111 Ihe Id other

Pakislan 161 and

Paki!llall

...,.. L T "Ill,.,k Thought of India. London, 1953. -.. a. L J. '"The !eI'mlC 1.._ And Constitution" -]merRO"

A'rh, YOl. xxxvm. 1962. No.3. 'OIlGl ......... '0' T'-: It-'1aI c.tH:epl oJ Preedom. Prior 10 th~ Nlneteenlh c.nr,-, 111 : I, .980 . ...... "". W. L P •• ·]I.chl 'I' of CooetituUon Buildine in PakiMan"

Ana Rev .... 1962. No. 215. ,­n.m 1l0III lhe Gallow .. RavtdpJndl Conspiracy Caae, Bombay 1951 ",. .,111 0/ Pot'stIUl, CAlcutta. 1955. • .

I 8., "Social Change in Pakistan",-SoC'/OJogy 01'Id vol. «. 1960. No.3.

.... In'o Paleis'an, Patne, 1954.

oIl.lam, ed. by H. A. V. Gibb and J. H. Kramers.

of Controlled Democracy in Pakistan",_ . 1963, No.5.

11<41 ACtiVity in Pakistan. 1947.1961",_ Quarlerly, 1962. No. t.

In India. London, 1946. GI an lllamic Slate, Lahore, 1951.

lab. In Modern HI.tOIY, Princeton, 1957. 'x, PGk"'OII. ed. by P. BFilillignet. Dacca 1960.

1,lsm aDd 1M West",-Cenlury. vol. '152. 1952 •

01 Bclenllllc Managemenl, New York. 1917. CIIId' PaklalfUt. Calcutta, 1959. Konc:bl fl .•. ). T,. CoftlO/ldallon 01 a Nollon, New York.

•

Abbasids 48 ai-Afghani. Djamal ud·DlD. 23 Ahmad, Amin 109 Ahmad. Alhar t 10 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam 53 Ahmed, M. 96, 111 Aird, J.5. 98 Alexander. S. t 16 Anikeyev, N. P. 11 Aristotle 35, 103, 104, III Ashraf. M. 15 Aslam, Qazl M. 1OG-102, 117 Ala, Abul Kba5?n 87 Atrya. 8. L. tOO

8elayev. Y. A. 16 Bentham, J. 101 Berestnev, V.F. 110, 113 IIe,,,,,,,n, H. 29, 30. 37, 104, I,. Bertels. Y.E. 28 B!I re lenet. P. 98 Binder, L. t 6 8mbl, A.K. 16, 45. 88, I lOt "' Browne. E.G. 30

IS, 78. 117 M III 115 103, III

110. 117

7-9, II, It, </0, "'51. 68, 117,

50 12, 58,

;,;4D,;.I::' '03, III

_Ie._. A" 117. III

...... L 58, 511 til .... 3D. ... I.

Het 11Iam, PaId­

.. .110 GlIIC_ I. /flo .,""

V'nill, \.1. 10.1, 10.'>, !HI; 1."\'I.str,uIMi, ('. 'lR LiMIU.l! Ali Kh.m Hoi

I\fdh.ldl'vd J.'> f-Iallk, AM, 78 f-Iahk, 0. 82 dl-M.HllUJI -Ill Mallsoor, ft'rOle ud-Oin 15 Marx, K. 46, 58, 69, 74, 10.1,

105 ~1.1S~(·. H. Ih MaudOO<!i, Alml Ala IS, 45, 47,

m, 82, 83, 87, 89, 91 Milton, J. 50 Muminov, Ulf 99, 100, 109 t. luhanlm,ld Ali 86

N('wmatl, K G, 110·112 Nif.>ILSCht' 30, 31, 37

Oizerllldn, TI, 110 Omelyanonky, t.1E. 99, 100, 109 Ostwald, WE 104

Pavlo\', I p, 114, 116 Perry, R. 56 Plato 35, 111 Plekhanov, G.'" 48 Polonskaya. LR. 10, 17 Pushkm 107

Qadir, C.k 40, 44, 117 (Jayyum, Abdul 55, 56, 110 Qureshi, IH 15, 16, 57, 84

Radhdkrishnan, S. 96 Rahuddin. M 57, 61 Rahman, Fazlur 38,110, 11 6

1{" .. h~(',I, AI ,II 40 110 H, 1M." II 101 .1 ~'n IIIIIJI I:J I ~II ]'

I 'II

1~\l5S"'1. II rlr.1Il1 I II,

S.ul"l, K!; )1 s..nt",'.lIld, (" II> S.uYlti, 1'.1.,'\ 2.'; S"yt'\'d, K Ii. It> Sdlt'l\JIl~ III S('hillp, P lUll SI'IIlYll!lO\', V.S I IIi Slltlkt'.~ Ilt'.nt', \V :1,,> Sh,lnkdl.j :15 Sh,mf, t.l.r..I. 15, :\.\ :Iii, :18, J!'l, 4!'l

51, (i i , 'hi. !'J7, ')'1, 10l), 110' ILl,ll(i '

Sht>JnkhOVd, \.\ IUi,I17 Slddltti. IlH. 117 Siddiqi, Rd/.Jutldin q<:l Sm(>I, RY, d(' 1(; Smirnuv, 1'\ . .-\, irl Smith, W.e 16, 17 Spinoza 103 Slep,IIlYdnls, M 9, Ilfi Sulery. Z.A Iii

Tdylor, FW. 78 Tolstoy 107 Toynh('€" A.\, 112

\\'dl ulldh, Shdh 18·20 \VllItt'hl',1(1, A 116

YUrevich, L.l, 17

Zaidi, I.H . 110

CTtn.l ... " ..... M .. p ... :tlT.I THrp.l ... o ...... ~HnOCO~H~ H C04Hor.orHR

s nAKHCTAH£

, SR

lfCC VI: f HI 1 ':II).,

I/(')Op/I),

~.'lcn('c.",J

• now a lIt' 1/, I

In 1.,Jom, 'nd Pukl-

/;'1 I he

)/ 0"1(1("

In the

lnd o/he Pak/J/an

1961 an .. Pall. : In

•