PaganPakistan

8/9/2019 PaganPakistan

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Pakistan Studies

Pagan Pakistan


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Sequence Definitions

Culture Ethics

Paganism

Mehrgarh

Indus Mohenjodaro

Harrapa

Hakra/Ghaggar

Kailasha NA

NA Tribes

Egypt

Sumer

Babel

Phoenicia

Nineva

Crete Knossos

Minoans / Mycenaean

Arya/Huns/Medes

Achaemenid/Kushan Parthian/Sassani

Thanx & Q&A


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CultureThe word culture comes from the Latin root colere, (to

inhabit, to cultivate, or to honor). In general it refers tohuman activity; different definitions of culture reflectdifferent theories for understanding, or criteria forvaluing, human activity.

Set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual andemotional features of society or a social group. Cultureencompasses "in addition to art and literature,lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems,

traditions and beliefs".

Values (ideas), Norms (behaviors), and Artifacts (things,or material culture).


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Ethics

Ethics (Greek ethika, from ethos, character,custom), principles or standards of humanconduct, sometimes called morals (Latin mores,customs Colere), and, by extension, the study ofsuch principles, sometimes called moralphilosophy.


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Ethics

Assumption: thought to be true but not yetproved

Norm: what majority of people do in a role(standard behaviour) called normal

Value: ideal --- what people must do (moral /professional behaviour)

Belief: to feel sure of the truth of something,trust orconfidence in something / somebody

Attitude: a way of thinking about something / sb Behaviour: attitude & manners {habit (doing

sth. without thinking) & customs (practice,traditional or accepted way of behaving)}


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Paganism The Latin word paganus is an adjective meaning

"rural", "rustic" or "of the country"

Pagan is the Doric Greek word for fountain,source.

The term has historically been used as byadherents of monotheistic religions (such asJudaism, Christianity and Islam) to indicate a

person who doesn't believe in their religion."Paganism" is also sometimes used to mean thelack of (an accepted monotheistic) religion, andtherefore sometimes means essentially the sameas atheism or idolatry.


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Indus Civilization

The Indus civilization

poorly understood existence was forgotten until the 20th

century writing system remains undeciphered,

and it is not sudden disappearance, beginning

around 1900 BC what language Indus civilization spoke what they called themselves

As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro andthe recently discovered Rakhigarhi (the

best-known and possibly the largestcities), this urban plan included theworld's first urban sanitation systems.Within the city, individual homes orgroups of homes obtained water fromwells.


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Mohen-jo-daro Most city dwellers appear to

have been traders or artisans,who lived with others pursuingthe same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Theseals have images of animals,

gods etc., and inscriptions.Some of the seals were usedto stamp clay on trade goods,but they probably had otheruses. Although some houseswere larger than others, allhouses had access to waterand drainage facilities. Onegets the impression of a vast,middle-class society


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Hakra River Until about 2000 BC - 1500 BC,

the river was much larger, taking

water from other nearby riversthat now flow into the IndusRiver. The dried-out channel ofthe river continues into Pakistanwhere it is known as the HakraRiver.

Many settlements of the IndusValley Civilisation have beenfound along the Ghaggar andHakra rivers.

The Hakra is the dried-outchannel of a river in Pakistanthat until about 2000 BC - 1500BC was the continuation of theGhaggar Riverin India.

u1


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Slide 10

u1 may correlate to ghakhars where it corresponds to Swan River.user, 9/3/2007


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Harappa Civilization

2300-1900, 2400-2100, 2100-1700BC, 300+ years era

Domini (Thessaly) culture, ringedfortifications, copper use, tin fromAfghanistan & Copper from

Laurion, Attica

Chiefdoms: bellara, pirs

Functions: industrial, cattle,agricultural, administrative centers,

storage & redistribution

Products: cotton, heat, barley,dairy, metal, copper, gold, silver,lapis, ivory, peacock feathers, shell


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Harappan Civilization

#system: base-8, lunar calendar,

21.5 days from crescent to crescentmoon with 8 days dark interval as apart of any given month

Storage system with tokens

Occupations: music (drummer, lyre),boatmen, scribes, hunters, smiths,bazaar-keepers, irrigation engineers,builders, potters, shepherds, record-

keepers & millers.

Settlements (tinpali): assembly area(poduyil), public building (tinil),religious area (ambara).


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Harappan Civilization Costume: men, round caps with large

rolled brim & dhoti, women, elaborateheaddresses, horn-edd headdresses forboth sexes. Bagles & bracelets of clay,shell, & copper by women and by men inceremonial garb.

Houses (Kuti): 2 stories sq. or rectangular

Oil lamps with single & multiple wicks


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Harappan Civilization

Bull & pipal tree were important

Functional clans: admn.,defense, service

Within 300 years expanded tohundreds of miles on IndusRiver Valley, estern part of sub-continent movement

Annual tributes to central chiefs& attendance in some form atgiven seasonal rituals.


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Harappan Civilization Social organization: sun (pakal), moon

(tingal), stars (sukkal), rain (karugal), werecentral lineages.

Marital relationship as heart of the system.

Religion: amorphous & mythic, semi-divine paramount

chiefs

Cattle god (marag-an), cow- acacia (kali),mother (amban), aya or sun priest (pata-an), shamans & healers (maripur)

Shamanism: priest to contact gods and to

cure & to insure fertility &growth

After death concept, graves with furniture.


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Harappan Language 419 signs

BRAHUI

Affinity: Munda (Austro-Asiatic family)

N-India (Malto, Kurukh), C-Dravidian

(Kui, Konda, Pango, Gondi, Paiji,Kolami, Naiku, Telugu), S-Dravid (Tulu,Kannada, Kota, Irula, Tamil, Malayalam)

Language: early Dravidian but with Indo- Aryan and possibly pre-Harappanlexemes.

Writing as hybrid in origin, ideo-syllabicin character, and used almost solely fornaming and for record keeping.


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Kailasha Culture Occupations: music

(drummer, flute), boatmen,hunters, smiths, builders,potters, shepherds

Settlements: assembly areafor dancing between twovillages.

Products: cotton, barley,dairy, metal


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Kailasha Culture

Costume: men, rank indicated by earornaments, clothing varied accordingto the festivals and season, Chitralirobe. women, colorfully ornamentedelaborate headdresses, clothing issame for all, dancing dresses avaluable property.

Earlier, men to wrap sheet to exhibitpride

Horned head-dress is peculiar articleof attire.

Houses: multi-storied rectangular

Boots are soft reddish


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Kailasha Culture

Sia-posh Kafirs called Katirs, Kam,Madugal & Gourdesh

belong to Bashgul valleyWai Kafirs wear white cotton

clothes marching up Kamdesh alsowear red & white necklace

priest to contact gods and to cure &to insure fertility & growth

Priest has the biggest house in thearea


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Religion

Low form of idolatry, with an admixture ofancestor worship & traces of fire worship

Imra creator temple in Presungul

Moniprophet

Gish war

Baghist, Dizane, Krumai, Arom, sanru,sudaram, inthr, nong, parade, duzhi,shomde & Nirmali are common

Religious reverence to Kashmir


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Religion

Fairies (Charmo Vetr), demons(Yush), high-priest (Debilala),temporary priests (Pshur),conversation with gods, wisewomen, superstitions, sacrifices,miracles (fire standing)

Theoretic democracy

Parliamenturircities of refuge

Vengeance, adultery, theft, oaths,assault, inheritance


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Northern Areas Roof of the world

Meeting point of 3 ranges: Himalaya, KK, HK KK Pass(5575M) link Kashmir & Xinjiang Himalayan: Nanga Parbat (8126M) KM

Batura glacier 7th largest Khunjerab Pass, Mintaka Paass, ancient silk

route Siachin glacier(75KM)

Baltoro River of ice (62KM) 8000M + 4 out of 14 peaks: K-2 (8611M), Broad

Peak (8047M), Gasherbrum-1 (8068M) &

Gasherbrum-11 (8035M) LesserKK: Rakaposhi (7788M) HinduKush: Trishmir(7705M)


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Hindu-Kush Tribes

Rono, Zundre or Haraiyo, Khatar: Nager, Gilgit,

Ponyal, Yassin, Mastuj, Chitral from Rajoritypical Rajput give daughters to Syuds

Shin: from Shinkari, name exists in Pukli. Gor,Chilas, Tangir, Indus below Sazin, sensitive tocow, tall, tractable, good-tempered

Yeshkuns, Boorish (Brahui): Hunza, Nager,Punial, short, thick-set men (Harappan!), tartarblood mixed with them Syud, Krammi (Darel),Dom (Yasin, Nager, Chilas), Shoto, Goojer, likelow castes of Punjab pre-Aryan race

Kashmiris: shrewd, contempted by both Shin &Yeshkun

Goojer: high-landers, Darel, Tangir, dialectPunjab . Like Syud rank as a class rather caste


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Hindu-Kush Tribes Yassin:Kho of Chitral, women beautiful

with long hair, large eyes people.Shins, Battiga or Battiret Goojers TooriKho, LudKho, MoolKho,

KhoRasan Kashkar Bailm Nawankali Descendents of Tajiks from

Badakhshan Khowar language & most warlike Torwal & Bushkarik: like SiahPosh,

Punjab dialect clans Moolanor,Kootchkhor, Joghior, peculiar building

for safety, quarrelsome Chitral: solar calendar, cow, fairies,demons, magic, fire, axe-head, writtencharms, danials (women) fordivination, Barai (fairy) prophesying:Dards


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Dards Sirikolis, Wakhis, Shighnis of Munjan,

upper Ludkho valley, Sanglich,Ishkashim speak persin or Toorki haveUzbeg blood from ancient persin Zend

Kho of Chitrl & Siahposh. Tribes ofNijrao, Paanjsher & Gorband also

belong to them

Shin: goro, chillis, bushkarik, toralik,

(Sanakrit)


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Kho

Gaware of Indus Gouroei (Panjkora)

Ancient Khophen (Kabul Riv) Chaospes (KoonerRiv)Choes (combined Swat & Panjkora rivers)

ChoaSaidenSha (Kattas) Kho-ara

Khaisiraof Vishnu Purana

Cosyri of Pliny


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Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt Nile Valley

Civilization between about 3000 BC

System of beliefs

Burial

Afterlife

embalming (mummification)

Book of the dead

The weighing of the heart

Monotheism developments


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Sumer Sumer, southern part of ancient Mesopotamia.

May have come as conquerors from the East (possiblyfrom Iran or India).

There was in the 5th millennium B.C. a prehistoricvillage culture in the area. By 3000 B.C. a flourishingurban civilization existed.

Between the years 3000 and 2340 the kings of importantSumerian cities, such as Kish, Uruk, The sanctuaries ofthe goddess Inanna (who corresponds to theBabylonian Ishtar and is also called Nana or Eanna) andAnu, the sky god, date from the early 4th millenniumB.C. The temple of Anu, known as the white temple,

stood on a terrace and seems to have been a primitiveform of ziggurat. Uruk was the home ofGilgamesh andUr, of the Chaldees, in the Bible as the home ofAbraham, captured c.2340 by Sargon, 2060 B.C. underKing Ur-Nammu identified as a fragment of the code ofUr-Nammu. It predates the code of Hammurabi by 300years.

u2


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Slide 28

u2 samma uruser, 9/3/2007


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Babel Babel is the name of a site ("a plain in the land of Sennar")

where, according to the Bible (Genesis, 11:1-9), anunsuccessful attempt was made to erect a tower of enoughheight to reach Heaven - the Tower of Babel.

God confounded (confused) the languages of those who wereworking at its building, so they were not able to understandeach other and the project failed.

This site has been identified with Babylon, on the EuphratesRiver but there are different hypotheses on its preciselocation. god of Babylon, Marduk (identical with Bel)

destroyed (c.689 B.C.) by the Assyrians under SennacheribBabylon became legendary from the days of Nebuchadnezzar(d. 562 B.C.). The Hanging Gardens were one of the SevenWonders of the World

The noun derives from two roots: "bab" ("gate") and "el"("God"), "the gate to God"; BABEL, the native name of the citycalled Babylon (q.v.) by the Greeks, the modern Hilla. It means"gate ofthe god," not gate of the gods," corresponding to theAssyrian Bab-ili

The famous Ishtar Gate was decorated with colorfully glazedbrick. Among the Hebrews (who suffered the Babyloniancaptivity under Nebuchadnezzar, 562 B.C., king of Babylonia(c.605562 B.C.), son and successor of Nabopolassar,Jerusalem was finally destroyed in 586 B.C. and the laterGreeks the city was famed for its sensual living. Under the ruleof Nabonidus the city was captured (538 B.C.) by Cyrus theGreat and was used as one of the administrative capitals of thePersian Empire. In 275 B.C. its inhabitants were removed toSeleucia, which replaced Babylon as a commercial center.


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Phoenicia Phoenicia was an ancient civilization with its

heartland along the coastal plain of what isnow Lebanon and Syria. Phoeniciancivilization was an enterprising maritimetrading culture that spread right across theMediterranean during the first century BC.

Phoenicians established independent city-states like Byblos, Tyre, Tripolis as well as

Berytus, and others on the islands and alongothercoasts of the Mediterranean Sea.

When Egypt and the Hittites, were weakenedor destroyed, a number of Phoenician citiesestablished themselves as significantmaritime powers.

The Phoenicians (a Greek name for them,known to the Hebrews as Phut) were theancient Mediterranean Sea's (and beyond)best navigators (their talents hired byEgyptians and Persians alike).


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Nineveh Nineveh (Assyrian city of "Ninua") was an important

city in ancient Assyria. This "exceeding great city" as it

is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bankof the Tigris, along which it stretched for some 50kilometres (30 miles), having an average breadth of 20km (10 mi) or more from the river back toward theeastern hills. This whole extensive space is now oneimmense area of ruins.

Situated at the confluence of the Tigris and Khosr,Nineveh was an important junction for commercialroutes crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central positionon the great highway between the Mediterranean andthe Indian Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West,wealth flowed into it from many sources, so that itbecame one of the greatest of all ancient cities

Nineveh is mentioned about 1800 BC as a worshipplace ofIshtar

temples to Sin, Nergal, Nanna, Shamash, Ishtar, andNabu ofBorsippa


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Crete Around 1700 BC there is a

large disturbance in Crete,probably by an earthquake,although an invasion fromTurkey has also beensuggested. After that thepopulation increased again,and the palaces were again,even larger than before andwith a different basic plan.


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Crete Around 1450, the palaces

were again disturbed.Some time later, around1420 BC, the island wasconquered by theMycenaeans. After this,most Cretan cities andpalaces went into decline;Knossos remained until1200 BC.


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Knossos

Knossos is the largest Bronze Agearchaeological site on Crete, probablythe ceremonial and political center ofthe Minoan culture.

The centerpiece of the palace was theso-called Throne Room. This chamberhas a dramatic chair built into the wall,facing a number of benches. This room

has a tank which it is speculated wasused as an aquarium.


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Linear B Much of our knowledge of

Minoan culture comes from3000 clay tablets datingfrom two different timeperiods. The older tablets(written in Linear A) from

around 1750 BC have notyet been deciphered.

The newer tablets span aperiod from 1400 BC to1150 BC and were

deciphered in 1952 byMichael Ventris and JohnChadwick, who identified thelanguage, Linear B, as anearly Greek dialect


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Minoans The Minoans were an ancient civilization on

what is now Crete (in the Mediterranean),during the Bronze Age, prior to classicalGreek culture. The Minoans were primarily amercantilist people engaged in overseastrade. Many historians and archaeologistsbelieve that the Minoans were highlyinvolved in the Bronze Age's important tintrade (tin being used for manufacture ofbronze). The decline of Minoan civilizationand the decline in use of bronze tools seemto be correlated.

The civilization is named after King Minos,who in Greek mythology was said to be theKing ofCrete


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Mycenaean Mycenaean is the most ancient known form of

the Greek language, spoken Mycenae and inCrete in the 16th to 11th centuries BC, beforethe Dorian invasion. It is preserved ininscriptions in Linear B, a script invented onCrete in the 14th century BC. Most inscriptionsof these inscriptions are on clay tablets found inMycenae and in Knossos

The period ofGreek history from about 1600 BC

to about 1100 BC is called Mycenean inrecognition of Mycenae's leading position.

The epic poems attributed by the laterGreeks toHomer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, preservememories of the Myceanean period. Homer'spoems make Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, the

leader of the Greeks in the Trojan War.


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Trojan War

The Trojan Warwas a war waged, according to

legend, against the city of Troy in Asia Minor bythe armies ofGreece, following the kidnapping (orelopement) of Helen of Sparta by Paris of Troy.The Iliad describes an episode late in this war,and the Odyssey describes the journey home ofone of the Greek leaders. Other parts of the story,and different versions, were elaborated by laterGreek poets, and by the Roman poet Virgil in hisAeneid.

War took place in the 13th or 12th century BC,and that Troy was located in the vicinity of theDardanelles in what is now north-western Turkey.

On a diplomatic mission to Sparta Paris fell in lovewith Helen and, with Aphrodite's help, kidnappedor seduced her and took her back to Troy as hiswife. All the kings and princes of Greece werecalled upon to make good their oaths and retrieveher.


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PO-SE-DA-WO-NE

In Greek Mythology,Poseidon was the god ofthe sea, known to theRomans as Neptune, and

to the Etruscans asNethuns. He was also thegod of earthquakes and

horses. Benthesikyme wassometimes mentioned ashis sister.


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Scythia

Scythia was an area in Eurasia inhabited inancient times by a people known as the

Scythians. The location and extent of Scythiavaried over time from the Altai region whereMongolia, China, Russia, and Kazakhstan cometogether to the lower Danube river area andBulgaria.


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Bithynia / Hatti Bithynia was bounded on the east by the river

Sangarius, the Bithynians were an immigrantThracian tribe. Herodotus mentions the Thyniand Bithyni as existing side by side. They wereincorporated by Croesus within the Lydianmonarchy, with which they fell under thedominion ofPersia 546 BC

Hatti is the reconstructed ancient name of aregion in Anatolia inhabited by the Hattiansbetween the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, andlater by the Hittites, who were at the height oftheir power ca 1400 BC1200 BC. The capitalcity of both peoples was Hattusa (modern

Bogazky) in what is now central-northernTurkey. The term is derived from the Assyriandesignation of "Hatti-Land" for the areas to thewest of the Euphrates.


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Slide 41

u3 tanoli - hattianuser, 9/3/2007


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Phrygia

In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west centralpart of the Anatolian highlands, part of modern Turkey.It had a rich mythological heritage, as the homeland ofthe Great Mother Cybele briefly conquered by itsneighborLydia, before it passed successively into thePersian Empire ofCyrus, the empire ofAlexander theGreat and his successors, was taken by the king ofPergamon, and eventually became part of the Roman

Empire.

The Mother Goddess as worshiped in Phrygia wasCybele. In her typical Phrygian form she wears a longbelted dress, a polos, or high cylindrical headdress anda veil covering the whole body.

A musical invention that came from Phrygia was theaulos. or double flute. Marsyas, the satyr who firstformed the instrument using the hollowed antler of astag, was a Phrygian follower of Cybele.

u4

u5u6

u7


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Slide 42

u4 similiuser, 9/3/2007

u5 sattaruser, 9/3/2007

u6 marasiuser, 9/3/2007

u7 aulia khanuser, 9/3/2007


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Urartu

Urartu was an ancient kingdom inAnatolia, centred in themountainous region around LakeVan (presently in Turkey), whichexisted from about 1000 BC, orearlier, until 585 BC, and which, atits apogee, stretched from

northern Mesopotamia through thesouthern Caucasus.

Assyrian inscriptions from about1250 BC mention a looseconfederation called the Uruartri

or Nairi in North-East Anatolia, inthe region around Lake Van.These towns or tribes became aunified kingdom between 860 BCand 830 BC, under king Aramu orhis son Sardur I.

A


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Arya rya is a Sanskrit () and

Avestan word used by Hindus,

Jains, Zoroastrians, andBuddhists. It has a variety ofpositive meanings, usually inspiritual contexts. It is not to beconfused with the derived Englishadjective "Aryan", which in itssocio-linguistic meaning refers toIndo-Iranians regardless ofreligion or spirituality.

The Indo-Iranian term is from PIE*ar-yo-, from the same root asSanskrit rta, Iranian asha. Rootcognates without Indo-Iranianinclude Greek arete "virtue" andaristos "best".


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Arya rya- was also frequently used as a prefix of

honor attached to names, and sometimes asan integral part of a person's name. E.g.,

rysaga is the name of a Buddhistphilosopher and author[2], and ryabhaa is

the name of an Indian mathematician.

The important Sanskrit lexicon Amarakoa(ca. 450 AD) defines rya thus: "An rya is

one who hails from a noble family, of gentlebehavior and demeanor, good-natured and ofrighteous conduct. (mahkula kulinryasabhya sajjana sadhavah.)"


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Huns

Many historians consider the Huns thefirst Turkic people mentioned ineuropean history. References inChinese sources to peoples called theXiong-Nu (Hsiung-nu) go back to 1200BC. Their Xiong rulers, first mentioned

as a family in 1766 BC in the story ofChunwei and the fall of the Xiadynasty, may be the ancestors of thelater, better-known (to westernscholars) Huns

A group called the European Huns andled by Attila the Hun is considered,

with little certainty, to be the westernextension of the royal Xiong familycentered around Karaganda.


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Zoroaster

Zoroaster was one of the greatteachers of the East and thefounder of Zoroastrianism, whichwas the national religion of the

Perso-Iranian people from the timeof the Achaemenidae to the close ofthe Sassanid period. The name is the corrupt Greekform of the Avestan Zarathustra

(Modern Persian: Zartosht or). Its signification is obscure;but it certainly contains the wordushtra, (ishtar) "star.


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Medes The Medes were people who lived in the western

and north-western portion of present-day Iran.During the 8th century BC they were dominatedby the nomadic group of the Scythians. By the 6thcentury BC (prior to the Persian invasion) theMedes were able to establish an empire which

stretched from Aran (the modern-day Republic ofAzerbaijan) to Central Asia and Afghanistan

The people of the Mada, Medes (the Greek form

"" is Ionian for Mamdot) appear in historyfirst in 836 BC, when the Assyrian conquerorShalmaneser II, in his wars against the tribes ofthe Zagros


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Medes the tribute of the Amadai His

successors undertook manyexpeditions against the Medes(Madai). Sarjon in 715 BC and 713BC subjected them "to the farmountain Bikni," i.e. the Elburz(Demavend) and the borders of the

desert.

Under the rule of Sargon (Sarang,Arjun) the Assyrians completedthe defeat of the Kingdom of Israel,

capturing Samaria after a siege ofthree years and dispersing theinhabitants. This became the basisof the legend of the Lost TenTribes.


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Thales of Miletus

He predicted the solar eclipse of 28May 585 BC, which was rememberedbecause the Lydian king Alyattes andthe Median king Cyaxares were fighting

a battle on that day.

He did geometrical research, whichenabled him to measure the pyramids.

Gave rational explanations for physicalphenomena. Thales died after 547.


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Achaemenid The Achaemenid Dynasty is a dynasty in the

ancient Persian Empire.

The founder of this dynasty was supposedlyKing Achaemenes of Anshan (Hakhamanish).He was succeeded by his son Teispes ofAnshan. Two of his sons shared the throne asCyrus I of Anshan and Ariaramnes of

Persia. They were succeeded by theirrespective sons Cambyses I of Anshan andArsames of Persia. In 559 BC, Cambyses theElder was succeeded as King of Anshan byhis son Cyrus II the Great. The later alsosucceeded the still living Arsames (Ramses)in the throne of Persia. Cyrus II is considered

to be the first king of the Achaemenid dynastyto be properly called so, as his predecessorswere subservient to Media. Cyrus II managedto conquer Media, Lydia and Babylon whilehis son Cambyses II added Egypt to theEmpire.


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Cyrus II the Great Cyrus II the Great (about 576 -July, 529 BC) was a king ofPersia,

famous for his military prowess andmercy. He is considered to be thefirst significant king of Persia andthe founder of the vast PersianEmpire; he was however not the

very first king of Persia, nor the firstking of the Achaemenid Dynasty.

The name "Cyrus" (a transliterationof the Greek Ko) is the Greekversion of the Persian Koroush

(khusro) or Khorvash meaning:"Like the sun" -- in Persian khourmeans "sun" and vash is a suffix ofsimilarity.


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Behistun

The BehistunInscription (alsoBisutun or Bisistun, in modern Persian)is to cuneiform what the

Rosetta Stone is toEgyptian hieroglyphs: thedocument most crucial inthe decipherment of a

previously lost script. It islocated in theKermanshah province ofIran.


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Darius III

Darius III orCodomannus (c. 380 - 330BC), was king ofPersia from 336 BC to330 BC.

After the ambitious chiliarch Bagoasmurdered King Artaxerxes III of Persia in

338 BC, and his son King Arses in 336BC, he sought to install a new monarchwho would be easier to control.

Darius was deposed by his satrapBessus and was assassinated at Bessus'

order in July 330 BC, in order to slow Alexander's pursuit. Alexander gaveDarius a magnificent funeral andeventually married his daughter Statira atOpis in 324 BC


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Dorians

The Dorians were one of the ancientHellenic (Greek) races. Their place oforigin is considered to be the north and

north-western Greece, Macedonia andEpirus. They invaded the Greek mainland,Crete and other places throughout theMediterranean about 1100 BC. Theirinvasion was partly responsible for thesubsequent Greek Dark Ages.

Philip II (382 BC 336 BC) King of


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Philip II (382 BC 336 BC), King ofMacedon

Philip II (382 BC 336BC), King of Macedon(359 BC 336 BC)Olympionike, was thefather of Alexander theGreat ( Alexander III ofMacedon) and Philip IIIof Macedon.

Coin with likeness ofPhilip II Born in Pella


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Alexander the Great Alexander the Great (late July,

356 BCJune 10, 323 BC) was

King ofMacedon; he united thewarring and divided city statesofGreece and conquered Persia,Egypt and a number of otherkingdoms, all the way to theborders ofIndia. The conquests,their attendant spread of Greek

culture, and the mixing of Greekculture with more easterncultures ushered in the age ofHellenistic Greece acrossseveral continents.

Alexander most probably diedfrom an overdose of whitehellebore, a poison usedmedically in his time.Alexander was preserved in aclay vessel full of honey

Seleucid Kings


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Seleucid Kings The Macedonians (and especially Seleucus I

and his son Antiochus I) founded a great

many Greek towns in eastern Iran, and theGreek language became for some timedominant there

The many difficulties against which the

Seleucid kings had to fight and the attacks ofPtolemy II, gave to Diodotus, satrap ofBactria, the opportunity of making himselfindependent (about 255 BC) and of conquering Sogdiana. He was the founder of

the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Diodotus andhis successors were able to maintainthemselves against the attacks of theSeleucids; and finally Antiochus III the Greatwas defeated by the Romans (190 BC).


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Seleucid Kings

The Bactrian king Euthydemus andhis son Demetrius crossed the HinduKush and began the conquest ofeastern Iran and the Indus valley.

When Demetrius advanced far intoIndia one of his generals,Eucratides, made himself king of

Bactria, and soon in every provincethere arose new usurpers, whoproclaimed themselves kings andfought one against the other.


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Samarkand

Samarkand the second-largest city inUzbekistan, capital of the Samarkand region(Samarqand Wiloyati).

Lying on the trade routes (silk road) betweenChina and the Middle East, Samarkandprospered. At times in its history Samarkandhas been the greatest city of Central Asia.Alexander the Great captured the town in 329BC

Under Arab rule (from the 7th century CE),the city flourished as a trade center until thedevastation of the city by the Mongols led byGenghis Khan (1220).

Timur (Tamerlane) (1336 - 1405) was born atKesh, situated some 50 miles south ofSamarkand. Upon taking power as achieftain, Timur rebuilt the city to its formerglory.


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Bukhara

Bukhara is one of themajor cities of Uzbekistan,capital of the Bukhara

region. The majority ofcity'spopulation are Persian-speaking Tajiks. It formstogether with Samarkand

the two majorcenters of theTajiki-Persian culture andhistory.


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Tashkent, Bamiyan, Kashgar

Tashkent the current capital ofUzbekistan, has in the past been calledChach, Shash and Binkent. Forcenturies it was an important stop onthe trade route (the Silk Road) from Asia into Europe.

Bamiyan province is one of the thirty-fourprovinces of Afghanistan. Itis in the centre of the country. Its capital city is also called Bamiyan.Bamiyan city is the largest city in the Hazarajat region of Afghanistan,

and is the cultural capital of the Hazara ethnic group that predominatesin the area.

Kashgaris an oasis city located west of the Taklamakan desert, at thefeet of the Tian Shan mountain range in the Xinjiang Uygur

Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China (392426 N.lat., 76647 E. long.). It is 4043 ft. above sea-level. Situated at the

junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from Khokand andSamarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last two leading from Chinaand India, Kashgar has been noted from very early times as a politicaland commercial centre.(neel kay sahil ta b khak kashgar)


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Tocharians The Tocharians, (also spelled Tokharians) were

nomads who lived in today's Xinjiang who spokethe Tocharian languages.

They were known by the Chinese as the Daxia

although popular sources have argued that theywere in fact the same as the Yu-ezhi), by theGreeks as Tocharoi, and by the Turks as Twghry.

A branch of the Yuezhi (YusufZai) were theKushan, whose loosely-constituted empire was at

its height in the first centuries of the CommonEra, and stretched from the Indus Valley to theAral Sea, embracing much of the route of the SilkRoad.


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Kushan

The Kushan Empire (ca. 1st century A.D.- 3rdcentury A.D.) was a state that at its height, about150 - 250 CE, stretched from Tajikistan to theCaspian Sea to Afghanistan and down into theGanges river valley. The empire was created byTocharians from modern Xinjiang, China. They haddiplomatic contacts with Rome, Sassanian Persiaand China, and for several centuries were at thecenter of exchange between the East and the West.

The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term,traditionally transliterated Guishang, that describeda branch of the Yuezhi: a loose confederation of IE.


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White Huns The term Hephthalite derives from Greek, supposedly a

rendering of "Hayathelite", the name used by Persianwriters to refer to a 6th century empire on the northern andeastern periphery of their land.

In China they were known as (py Yanda) also written Ye-ti-i-li-do/Yeda/Yoptal but are documented as having calledthemselves Hua or Huer chroniclers recognizing that theChinese Yoptal terms came actually from the name of theHua leaders. The chinese classic describes them as of thesame origin as the Hua Country in China. Yanda has beengiven various latinised renderings, such as "Yeda Theirlater name Hephthal (which some sources indicate wereoriginally one of the 5 Yuezhi or families from Kushan)is supposed to have been a name derived from their rulingelite.


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Parthians

The Parthians were an illiteratenomadic people, thought tohave spoken an Indo-Iranian

languages, who arrived at theIranian plateau from CentralAsia. They were consummate

horsemen, known for the'Parthian shot' turningbackwards at full gallop to loosean arrow directly to the rear.

P thi


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Parthians Also during the 1st century BCE, the

Parthians started to make inroads into

eastern territories that had beenoccupied by the Indo-Scythians andthe Yuezhi. The Parthians ended upcontrolling all of Bactria and extensiveterritories in Northern India, afterfighting many local rulers such as theKushan Empire ruler Kujula

Kadphises,in the Gandhara region.Around 20 AD, Gondophares, one ofthe Parthian conquerors, declared hisindependence from the Parthianempire and established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the conqueredterritories.Coin of the 6th Arsacid, Mithridates I(171-138 BC).

Sassanid


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Sassanid The Sassanid dynasty (also Sassanian) was

the name given to the kings ofPersia during theera of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until

651, when the last Sassanid shah, YazdegerdIII, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the IslamicSaracens.

The Sassanid era began in earnest in 228, whenthe Shah Ardashir I destroyed the ParthianEmpire

( Artaxerxes, Artaxares, Artashastra) was thefounder of the Sassanian Empire ofPersia andking from around 226 until around 240.

Ardashir was born in the late second CenturyCE. He inherited a tribal kingship of the Fars

province, Persis, in 208. He rapidly extended histerritory, defeating his Parthian overlords atHormizdagan in 224, and occupying theircapitalCtesiphon. In 228, he destroyed the ParthianEmpire which had held sway over the region for400 years. He made Zoroastrianism again thestate religion.

Ghaznavid Empire


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Ghaznavid Empire The Ghaznavid Empire was a state in today's

Afghanistan that existed from 977 to 1186. Itwas created by Turks underKhan Sebk Ti-ginwith the city Ghazna (Ghazni) as capital,replacing the Samanids. Sebk Tigin made

himself lord of nearly all the present territory ofAfghanistan and of the Punjab. In 997, Mahmud,the son of Sebk Tigin, succeeded his fatherupon his death, and with him Ghazni and the

Ghaznavid dynasty have become perpetuallyassociated.

M h d


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Mahmud Yamin ul-Dawlah Mahmud (in full: Yamin

ul-Daw

lah Abd ul-Qasim Mahmud IbnSebkTigin; 971 - April 30, 1030) was theruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997until his death. Issuing forth year after yearfrom the capital of Ghazna (Ghazni),Mahmud carried seventeen campaignsthrough northern India and Gujarat, aswell as others to the north and west. Fromthe borders of Kurdistan to Samarkand,from the Caspian Sea to the Ganges, hisauthority was acknowledged. The wealthbrought back to Ghazna was enormous,and contemporary historians (e.g. AbolfazlBeyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give glowingdescriptions of the magnificence of thecapital, as well as of the conquerorsmunificent support of literature.

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