Centre for Development, Environment and Policy

P523

Managing Knowledge and Communication for Development

Prepared by Jacqueline Ashby with Nigel Poole and Lucy Allan © SOAS | 3736

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ABOUT THIS MODULE

The idea that knowledge and communication are powerful drivers of positive social change that can be harnessed for improving equality and in reducing poverty is highly influential in shaping current development strategy. This module is designed to examine this idea critically by analysing how the development community has used knowledge and communication concepts to meet development goals.

The growing penetration of the internet to remote areas of the world and the rapid uptake of mobile phone use by even the very poor are hailed by optimists as a revolution equal in its development potential to the 19th century industrial revolution in Europe. More sceptical analysts of this phenomenon point to the widening gap between the social groups who know how to use the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) and others who are excluded and thus are increasingly left behind. The approach of the module is to show first, how this debate is grounded in fundamentally different concepts of the role of knowledge and communication in development and about the nature of knowledge and how it is created, shared and communicated. An understanding of this conceptual background provides a foundation for a critical appreciation of the pros and cons of the information revolution and its implications for growth, inequality and poverty.

With this foundation, the module then analyses specifically how this debate influences knowledge and communication for development in several arenas – namely, health, education, governance, agriculture and the environment. What will become increasingly clear as you work your way through this module, is that technology-driven approaches to the use of knowledge and communication for development – that is, approaches that are inspired primarily by a desire to increase and improve the supply of ICTs – run into numerous problems and more often than not, fail to meet their development objectives. Moreover, it will become evident from experience that the problems are not primarily technical ones related to cables and wires. Most often, they are the result of the institutional context and the social, economic and political relationships into which ICT-based interventions are introduced. Nonetheless, we see important examples such as the use of community radio for health education, and mobile phone applications which expand access to microfinance for the poor, where ICT applications have had a transformative impact, opening up new avenues of access to learning and new opportunities for underprivileged people in poor countries.

One reason for this discrepant experience lies in the way development practitioners interpret knowledge. One way of looking at knowledge is as a stand-alone commodity that can be produced, packaged, stored and transmitted. Alternatively, knowledge can be seen as the result of social exchange among different actors and their unequal power relations that determine whose knowledge is defined as legitimate, what is considered credible knowledge, who controls access to knowledge, and what is the appropriate information and communication technology and policy framework. Both perspectives on knowledge have been used to design and implement development interventions with varying degrees of success and neither is immune to shortcomings.

A question that runs through this analysis is how the critical understanding of conceptual approaches can help us understand better the strengths and weaknesses of current development practice and so improve the design of knowledge and communication-based development programming.

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STRUCTURE OF THE MODULE

Part I

Essential concepts of knowledge in relation to power structures and society

In Part I, the role of knowledge and communication for development and, in particular, the use of ICTs as an enabler for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is discussed in relation to inequality of access to and knowledge of how to use ICTs, known as the ‘digital divide.’ In Unit 1 we explore how different worldviews and explanations of how development occurs are used to formulate strategies for tackling a deepening social divide – between those who obtain knowledge and skills valued in the global world economy and those who are disadvantaged in this respect. Unit 2 focuses on explaining knowledge as socially constructed, on what this means for interpreting the dichotomy between ‘local’ and outsider or expert knowledge in development interventions, and its implications for participatory approaches to knowledge sharing and creation. An important aspect of this discussion is to approach any development intervention as an effort to innovate. This requires us to examine how approaches to the use of knowledge are related to different models of innovation.

Based on this discussion of the nature of knowledge and innovation as socially constructed, we are then in a position to look at the nature of power and the power relations that play a fundamental role in the social construction of reality and knowledge. The different ways in which concepts of power have been integrated into mainstream development discourse in ‘buzzwords’ like participation and empowerment are analysed. This leads us to the discussion of reasons why a neglect of power relations can lead to unintended outcomes for development interventions. We explore examples of this phenomenon in development interventions where ICT applications and participation by the poor are an important ingredient in decision-making.

Part II

Communicating knowledge for development: organisations and policies

In Part II, the issues relate to how knowledge is negotiated and constructed through communication processes that involve inequalities of power. These provide a background for an examination of development communication, the term widely used to describe the communication and media activities institutionalised in international development organisations since the 1950s. Here, we analyse how different worldviews and institutional settings affect the use of communication and ICTs for development programming. When looking at the ways ICTs have been applied to or harnessed by international development, the emphasis is on understanding that the technologies alone do not produce development impacts.

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Different concepts of how knowledge is created and used, and alternative models for development communication are analysed in relation to the use of information for policy-making. Using examples, the rational model of policy-making that places a high importance on the use of evidence is contrasted with the negotiated policy-making model that places a higher importance on power relations for giving credibility to knowledge from multiple sources. The discussion of information and communication including the use of ICTs for policy purposes illustrates important principles and good practice for using knowledge and communications to exert policy influence.

Part III

Knowledge technologies for development

Part III discusses the issues covered in Parts I and II related to the use of knowledge and communication to address development goals in relation to specific sectors and development programme arenas: health, education, governance, agriculture and environment. In each we look at trends in the use of ICTs and development communication and link different approaches to communication to alternative development paradigms. For example, we examine critically how participatory approaches drawing on concepts of empowerment have built important experience with grassroots approaches to communication. For each area there is a discussion of how ICTs have been used and the implications of this experience for the design of interventions to address development goals. Throughout, the discussion highlights the perspectives of ICTs as a transformative technology that fundamentally changes development opportunities and the contrary view that ICTs are merely a tool.

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WHAT YOU WILL LEARN

Module Aims The specific aims of the module are:

• To explain and contrast different conceptual approaches to the use of knowledge, information and communication for development and the debates around these.

• To analyse how different conceptual approaches to the use of knowledge, information and communication have been applied in development strategy and practice.

• To evaluate the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for different development programme areas including health, education, governance, agriculture, and the environment and, in particular, their usefulness for tackling development goals of reducing social inequality and poverty.

• To appraise the strengths and weaknesses of knowledge-based development interventions involving ICT – applications, based on a critical understanding of the conceptual approaches that underpin them.

• To show how this understanding can be applied to strengthen development practice and the design of knowledge-based interventions that rely on ICTs.

Module Learning Outcomes By the end of this module, students should be able to:

• critically compare concepts of the contribution of knowledge to development from different development paradigms and how knowledge is expected to contribute to poverty reduction, increased inclusion of the poor and greater equity

• understand and critically assess how knowledge creation is socially constructed through social relations and evaluate the implications of this concept of knowledge for development programmes, projects and policies

• articulate and interpret reasons why analysis of power relations is useful for understanding knowledge and information programmes in a development context

• compare and critically contrast different models of how knowledge and communication are expected to influence policy directed at important development goals

• critique inappropriate use of ICTs for development goals in a variety of sectors and describe and interpret key lessons from experience, particularly with reference to their advantages and disadvantages for the inclusion of disadvantaged sectors of society in developing countries

• specify and interpret crucial enabling factors that contribute to successful communication interventions for development purposes

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• identify and critically assess key principles and practices that may help improve the design and social impact of knowledge and communication-based interventions.

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ASSESSMENT

This module is assessed by:

• an examined assignment (EA) worth 20%

• a written examination in October worth 80%

Since the EA is an element of the formal examination process, please note the following:

(1) The EA questions and submission date will be available on the Online Learning Environment.

(2) The EA is submitted by uploading it to the Online Learning Environment.

(3) The EA is marked by the module tutor and students will receive a percentage mark and feedback.

(4) Answers submitted must be entirely the student’s own work and not a product of collaboration. For this reason, the Online Learning Environment is not an appropriate forum for queries about the EA.

(5) Plagiarism is a breach of regulations. To ensure compliance with the specific University of London regulations, all students are advised to read the guidelines on referencing the work of other people. For more detailed information, see the User Resource Section of the Online Learning Environment.

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STUDY MATERIALS

Textbook

There are two textbooks for this module.

Unwin T (ed) (2009) ICT4D. Information and Communication Technology for Development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

The editor of this book, Professor Tim Unwin, is UNESCO Chair in ICT4D and Professor of Geography at Royal Holloway, University of London. He is currently a high level adviser for the Global Alliance for ICT and development. The book strongly advocates for the view of ICTs as a transformative technology, although it pays some attention to critiques of this view and is frank about the failures and shortcomings of many ICT4D-inspired development interventions. The book should therefore be read critically. To participate in and benefit from the ongoing debates about ICT4D you may find it interesting to visit Professor Unwin’s ICT4D blog:

Available from: http://unwin.wordpress.com/ [Accessed 18 June 2013]

At the moment there is not an adequate textbook that gives a balanced view of the critical perspective on ICT4D which means that this must be obtained from the journal articles recommended as readings. It is therefore important not to rely exclusively on this textbook for your reading.

Castells M, Fernández-Ardèvol M, Qiu JL, Sey A (2007) Mobile Communication and Society. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA.

This book is an introduction to trends in the spread of mobile communication worldwide, including demographic trends in mobile phone use related to gender, ethnic and national differences and their relationship to globalisation. Manuel Castells, sociologist and author of more than 20 books on the topic, is one of the foremost contemporary communications scholars and is currently Professor at the University of Southern California Annenberg School for Communication. In this collection, Professor Castells and his co-authors approach mobile communication from the perspective of social analysis.

Key Readings

For each of the ten units, Key Readings are provided in bound volumes. These Key Readings are drawn from a wide range of sources including books, journals and the internet. They are authored by individual researchers, analysts and practitioners, and also through the collective efforts of diverse national and international organisations. You are expected to study the Key Readings as they contain material which will be used in examination questions.

Further Readings

For each of the ten units, Further Readings and References are also listed. These texts are not provided but many are available on the internet. Students are not expected to follow up each and every Further Reading, but can follow up specific points of interest. They aim to provide a range of perspectives and more depth on the unit subject matter.

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Multimedia

The e-study guide includes video and audio materials which are listed at the beginning of each unit. These materials may also be used in activities.

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INDICATIVE STUDY CALENDAR

Part/ unit

Unit title Study time required (hours)

Part I Essential concepts of knowledge in relation to power structures and society

Unit 1 Introduction to knowledge, communication and development 15

Unit 2 Creation, identification and codification of knowledge 10

Unit 3 Concepts and theories: critical analysis of knowledge, power and society

15

Part II Communicating knowledge for development: organisations and policies

Unit 4 Development communication 15

Unit 5 Technologies and trends in their use in communication and knowledge sharing for development

10

Unit 6 Knowledge and communications for influencing policy in development and poverty reduction

10

Part III Knowledge technologies for development

Unit 7 Communicating knowledge for health 15

Unit 8 Communicating knowledge in education 15

Unit 9 Communicating knowledge for natural resource management

15

Unit 10 Communicating knowledge for governance 15

Examined Assignment

Check the online learning environment for submission deadline 15

Examination entry July

Revision and examination preparation September

End-of-module examination October

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AfriAfya African Network for Health Knowledge Management and Communication

AKIS agricultural knowledge and information systems

AMIS Agricultural Marketing Information System

AMREF African Medical Research and Education Foundation

APC the Association for Progressive Communications

ASCA Accumulated Savings and Credit Association

BoD burden of disease

BOP bottom of the pyramid

BRAC Building Resources Across Communities (formerly Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee)

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CGRH Committee for the Management of Water Resources

CI Communication Initiative

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

CIDOB the Confederation of Indigenous People

CIFOR Center for International Forestry

CLASCO Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales

CNN Cable News Network

Consad Consortium of Food Safety and Local Development

CPR common pool resources

CYP the Chawama Youth Project

DALY disability adjusted life year

DC District Commissioner

DFID Department for International Development

DOT Force Digital Opportunities Task Force

DOTS directly observed treatment, short course

DSS demographic surveillance system

DVD digital versatile disc (formerly digital video disc)

EDI electronic data interchange systems

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GDP gross domestic product

GIS geographic information system

GKP Global Knowledge Partnership

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HDL the Humanities Libraries Project

HIS hospital information systems

HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome

HiWEL Hole-in-the-Wall

ICD information and communication for development

ICT(s) information and communication technology(ies)

ICT4D (ICTD)

information and communication technologies for development

IDPM Institute for Development Policy and Management

IDRC International Development Research Centre

IEC information, education and communication

IEEE/ACM Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers/Association for Computing Machinery

iEHR integrated electronic health record

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFIP International Federation for Information Processing

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

IICD International Institute for Communication and Development

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

IMCI integrated management of childhood illnesses

INADES Institut Africaine pour le Développement Economique et Social

IPCC the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IRI the International Research Institute for Climate and Society

ITC

India Tobacco Company

ITSA Information Technology Standards Association

ITU International Telecommunication Union

KACA The Kenyan Anti-Corruption Authority

KP Kyoto Protocol

LDC less/least developed country

MDG(s) Millennium Development Goal(s)

MOH Ministry of Health

MTV music television

MWC Mobile World Congress

NGO(s) non-governmental organisation(s)

NRM natural resource management

ODI Overseas Development Institute

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OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OLPC One Laptop per Child

PAR participatory action research

PC(s) personal computer(s)

PDAs personal digital assistants

PLA participatory learning and action

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

R&D research and development

RADECO Radio Assisted Community Basic Education

RAPID research and policy in development

RHIN regional health information network

SARI Sustainable Access in Rural India

SDC Sustainable Development Commission

SDP Smallholder Dairy Project

SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

SMS short message service

T&V training and visit system

TB tuberculosis

TEHIP the Tanzanian Essential Health Interventions Project

TESSA teacher education in sub-Saharan Africa

TKRP Traditional Knowledge Revival Pathways

TNO Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek

TOT transfer of technology

TRIPS trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights

UHIN Uganda Health Information Network

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

US United States (of America)

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VERCON Virtual Extension, Research and Communication network

VHF very high frequency

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VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol

VSAT very small aperture terminal

WHO World Health Organization

WLAN wireless local area network

WTO

World Trade Organization

YMRC youth-managed resource centres