OXFORD UNIVERSITYPRESS Published jointly with

THE ANNENBERG SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATIONS, University of Pennsylvania

INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMMUNICATIONS·

Today we refer to the "communications revolution;' one that is far from over. The term has become parr of our everyday vocabulary; the phenomenon has become part of our everyday lives. But this revolution actually began thousands of years ago when sound and body language were joined by words, and today finds its form in

. telecommunications and other rapidly evolving technologies. In recent years, communications has.emerged as a new field of study as scholars, s1:jJdents, and the general public seek to understand the myriad ways human beings influence and inh;ractwith one another.

.A:nauthoritative new reference to an expMding new field

. To meet the need for a definitive reference to the burgeoning field of communications, The Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania and Oxford University .Press are proud to present the four-volume Inter­national Encyclopedia of Communications (fEC) ..

The lEC represents the first attempt to survey-and, in many respects, to define-the communications field in a clear, comprehensive, and authoritative way. A thorough and up-to-date reference, the fEe covers all aspects of communication-individual and institutional, cultural and technological, practical and theoretical-in every part of the world. Broad in scope and interdisciplinary in coverage, the lEe contains more tha11550 original articles written bya distinguished international group of contributors. These articles, which range in length from 500 to 4,000words, are highlighted by 1,100 photographs, line drawings, maps, and tables. Together they present a complete visual and verbal panorama of the field of communications.

An astonishing array of information in four accessible volumes The lEC spans the vast array of people, places, and phenomena that fall within the realm of communications. In some 1.2 million words, it covers:

.• Systems • Behavior • Institutions • Social effects • Modes • Theories • .Media • Individuals

.• Technology • And more .... WIthin the various entries, thousands of subjects

are discussed: from simple physical gesture to . speech, language, and alphabet; from fire signalw. space satellite; from clay tablet to microchip; And, unlike other encyclopedias, the I EC approaches each topic from the unique perspective of thecom' munications field, discussing. communications research alldscholarship as well as the links be­tWeen communications and a host of other disci­plines_including anthropology; art, education, . history; journalism, law, linguistics, literature, mathematics; philosophy; political science, psychology, religion, science and technology, and sociology.

To guide readers quickly and easily through this rich mine of information, the lEe is alphabetically arranged, contains abundant cross-references and blind entries, and concludes with a topical guide and an e)(tensive analytic index. In addition; each article IS followed by a bibliography that has been supplied by the contributor.

A monumental achievement with a wide range of appeal The publicationofthe lEe signals a new stage in the evolution of the communications field:. as an area of knowledge, study,pracrice, technique, and research, and as an academic discipline in its own right. A singular source of information encompassing a broad range of disciplineS, d1e lEe is destined to become an indispensable refer­ence for students, scholars, educators, profession­als,and general readers,and an essential resource for every library.

January 1989· 2,000 pages; 500 pages per volume 650 photographs; 400 liue drawings; 35 maps; 30 tables (the set);Trim size: 8112" x 11"

. ISBN 0-19-504994-2

From the Preface'

. .

"~ include in communications all ways inwhichinformatiOlI,ideas, and attitudes pass among individuals, groups, nations,andgenera.tions. We offer entries on thehistbfiesand social roles of media from cunei-

. form tablets tQcol11IDunication satellites, from the genres of Nineveh to the genres of HollYVVood.Otherentries examine communication . processes from psychological, sociological, anthropological,andother . perspectives. Individuals who have enriched our understanding of these processes or who have madepioneering contributions totheevolution

.. of media are discussed throughollt the.work, in some cases in separate 'name entries?1be roleandin.fluenceofthearts; edl1cation, religion, commerce, joumalism,politics, and other social activities inthe diffusion of ideas are examin.ed, as are the institutions that have grown . up aroUlIdthem: libraries, museums, universities, broadcasting . systems, advertising agencies, data banks, andtelecommunic:ations networ~s. Roadblocks to communication, psychological and societal, are analyzed. Thehistoriccommmllriications impact of such developments as exploration, colonization, migration,revolution, and war are considered. A number of entries focus on forms of nonverbal communication-emphasizing that although each stage in communications history has added new ways of communicating, all have remained with us, in patterns of ever-growing complexity. Nmnerous types of animal communication, and the light they throw on human communication, are also examined. Special communications phenomena and problems in various parts of the world are analyzed, and the challenging tasks of intercultural communication form a pervasive theme in the work:'

-Erik Barnouw, Editor in Chief

Unfold to see sample pages ....

SAMPLE PAGES (Actual size 81/2" xlI")

Unparalleled in scope .... Uniquely detailed in coverage ... The definitive communications reference for students, scholars, and professionals The following examples illustrate the extraordinary range and depth of coverage that characterize the lEe:

276 I CINEMA VERITE

CINEMA VERITE

Film technique in which lightweight hand-held cam­eras and portable synchronized sound recorders are used. It was made possible by the technological breakthroughs in camera design in France in the late 1950s and in the United States in the early 1960$. The term also embraces innovative approaches to DOCUMENTIIRY filming in the same period, best rep­resented by the work of Jean Rouch in France and Drew Associates in the United States.

Cinema vente represents an attempt to get closer than other film genres to the untempered reality of life. It avoids using professional actors to play roles and depicts insttad the lives of real people in real situations. It disavows the artifice and reconstruc­tions of the documentaries of the 1940s and 1950s and tends to reject both commentary and music. The cinema verite film has no preplanned script, but rather relies on spontaneity. Cinema verite is, in a sense, "found" on the editing table, where the ma­terial must be organized in sequence.

History. The ideological roots of cinema verite can be traced to the writings of the Soviet filmmaker DZIGA VERTOV-whose newsreel Kinopravda (Film Truth; see Figure 1) inspired the French term-and to the influence of the u.s. documentary pioneer ROBERT FLAHERTY. In his essays Vertov denounced the fiction film and asserted that the proper material for film was to be found in the ongoing events of life. Flaherty's contribution lay in his emphasis on nonpreconception and on the necessity for filmmak­ers to be open to all the nuances of a situation. He emphasized detailed observation-the key to cinema verite-and the role of the editing process for "find­ing" the film.

The practice and theory of what is termed cinema verite actually varies enormously from filmmaker to

Figure 1. (Cinema Verile) Dziga Verwv, KinoprmJda (Film Truth), 1922. Lemn in his casket. National Film Archive, LondonlSovcxpon.

filmmaker and from country to country. The term was first used in reference to Chronique d'un ite (Chronicle of a Summer, J961), made by anthropol­ogist filmmaker Jean Rouch together with sociologist Edgar Morin. The film follows the lives and concerns of a group of Parisians in the summer of 1960 (see ETHNOGRAPHIC FILM).

Rouch's work in cinema verite reflected a belief in the camera as a catalyst that could encourage people to reveal their true selves. It involved considerable intervention and probing by the director. Although Chronique was edited to its final version from twenty­one hours of filming, Rouch also declared that editing was wrong and that material should not be lost in the cutting room, since that falsified reality.

The pioneers of cinema verite in the United States--­reporter Robert Drew and photographer Richard Leacock-used it in a somewhat different way, which is often termed direct cinema. Unlike the Rouch method, direct cinema avoids all directorial influence on the filmed events. Theoretically the filmmakers are like flies on the wall, totally uninvolved in the scene being filmed.

Leacock, who had been cameraman for Louisiana Story (1948) and had been deeply influenced by its director, Flaherty, began his collaboration with Drew in 1957. With the support of the Time-Life broad­casting orgalllzation, they modified their equipment to allow a freer style of shooting. Later they were joined by Albert and David Maysles, Donn A. Penne­baker, and Gregory Shuker, and under the banner of Drew Associates made a group of films using cinema virite methods that defined the dominant path for cinema verite in the United States for the next decade.

The most important of their films was Primary (1960), which covers the struggle between Hubert H. Humphrey and John F. Kennedy during the Wis­consin primary elcction in the 1960 U.S. presidential campaign. What was new was the intimacy of the filming, the sense of place and character, and the humani7Jtion of the electoral process. Drew Associ­ates then made four one-hour documentaries for ABC Television's "Close Up" series and another ten films between 1961 and 1963 for Time, Inc., under the title "The Living Camera." These films include Jane (1962), which follows Jane Fonda rehearsing in a Broadway play, and The Chair (1962), about the possible reprieve of a man sentenced to death. Most of the films show what critic Stephen Mamber calls a synthesis of cinema veriU! techniques and fictional concepts of character, action, and structure. This can be observed in the films' dependency on a crisis structure in which people are seen living through pressure situations that 3re resolved in the last min­utes of the action.

A third pioneering example of cinema virite is represented by the work of a National Film Board

of Canada unit under Roman Kroitor and Wolf Koenig, who proposed a series of experiment~ for television under the title "The Candid Eye." Intimacy and spontaneity were to be emphasized, and no formal scripts were to be submitted-merely a list of titles and sequences. The films were to be shot as freely as possible and structured in the editing room. The first film released in the series was The Days before Christmas (1958), about people's activities just prior to the holiday. At least six filmmakers directed sequences for it. While Kroitor, Koenig, and producer Tom Daly set the tone, undoubtedly one of the most interesting filmmakers to emerge was Terence Macartney-Filgate. His two films-Blood and Fire (1958), about the Salvation Army, and The Back Breaking Leaf (l959)-are often regarded as the highlights of the series.

A number of the unit's filmmakers had an influence on foreign cinema verite work. Macartney-Filgate, for example, was also on the Drew team that shot Primary. Another occasional member of the group, French Canadian Michel Brault, was the principal camera operator on Rouch's Chronique d'un lite.

While the Drew films used the crisis element to provide a certain structure, form was generally the one problem that the "Candid Eye" films failed to solve, even with the help of occasional narration. A film that did work well in this regard was one of the last films in the series, Lonely Boy (1962; see Figure 2). Directed by KOelllg and Kroitor, this portrait of pop singer Paul Anka foreshadowed later pop por­traits such as Pennebaker's Don't Look Back (1964), about Bob Dylan, and Gimme Shelter (1970), by the Mavsles brothers and Charlotte Zwerin, about the Roliing Stones.

Apart from various show business portraits such as Meet Marlon Branda (1966), the Maysles brothers also produced an extraordinary portrait of four Bible salesmen in Salesman (1969; sec Figure 3) and a humorous, complex description of a mother-daughter relationship in Grey Gardens (1975). The Maysles's work was characterized by an attempt to break away from the Robert Drew cri~is formula and usc cinema verite in a more open and nondramatic fashion.

One criticism of the Drew-Leacock-Maysles films was that they failed to use cinema verite to address social issues in any depth. This was remedied in the United States by the work of Frederick Wiseman, a lawyer turned filmmaker. Wiseman's first film, Titi­cut Follies (1967), gives a scaring picture of an insti· tution for the criminaJly insane. This was followed by fourteen films over the next decade and a half, including High School (1968) and Law and Order (1969; see Figure 4). Wiseman's films deal with the main tax-supported institutions of U.S. society and tend to examine the ways in which bureaucratic power is manipulated within these institutions.

Figure 2. (Ci'lema Ven'te) Wolf Koenig and Roman Krait()r, Lonely Boy, 1962. National Film Board of Can­ada.

Figure 3. (Cinema Verite) Albert and David Maysles, Salesman, 1969. Maysles Films.

TfHlE ARTS: More than fifty articles are devoted to the wide spectrum of the arts. Both traditional and contemporary genres are fully explored-sculpture and song, portraiture and posters, cinema verite and video-as are such unexpected modes as body decoration, comics, masks, and typography. There are also separate articles on major art movements throughout history, from classicism and romanticism to expressionism and the 20th-century avant-garde. In addition, the IEe links the arts to many other areas, such as anthropology, sociology, religion, philosophy, and psychology, to provide a sweeping interdisciplinary view of this important field.

380 I COMPUTER: HISTORY

"Telephone Switching," Scientific American 207 (1962): 133-143; Herman H. Goldstine, The Computer from Pas­cal to VOII Neumann, Princeton, N.J., 1972; Rene Moreau, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Ain,i naquit l'informariql1e), trans. by J. Howlett, Cambridge, Mass., 1984; Abbe Mow,howitz, The Conquest of Will: lnformatim, Processing in Human Affairs, Reading, Mas,., 1984; MonTgomery Phister, Jr" Data Processing Technology and Economics, 2d ed., Bed­ford, Mass" 1979; Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Rea50n. San Francisco, 1976.

DONALD A. DUNN

COMPUTER: IMPACT

This entry examine, the social ramifications of the com-puter in a sene~ of seven articles:

1. Overview 2. Impact on Military Affairs 3. Impact on Government 4. Impact On Education 5. Impact on Commerce 6. Impact on the Work Force 7. Impact on the World Economy

1. OVERVIEW

FoUowing an initial period of military-sponsored in­novation around World War II, computerized data processing rapidly penetrated the industrial and Ii-

Figure 6. (Computer; Hi,tory) A studem at Marist High School, At­lanta, Georgia, masters a computer game on a school compurer. UI'I/ Berrmann Newsphotos.

nancial base of the economy. By 1960 an estimated ninc thousand computers were in use worldwide. In thc United States, which accounted for nearly two­thirds of the total, computers had appeared in air­lines, communications, utilities, banks, real estate, EDUCATION, government, and especially manufactur­ing. Computer usc was concentrated heavily in urban economIC centers.

It soon became clear that the interrelationships between computers and telecommunications systems would increase. Large corporate computer users in­creasingly sought to transmit data to and from dis­tant sites; numerous business applications, from centralized inventory control to production schedul­ing and credit card verification, demanded the kinds of data functions that computers could provide. TELEPHONE switching began to be performed by in­struments displaying a marked similarity to pro­grammable computers. Data-transmission techniques and capabilities expanded. Experimentation focused on higher-capacity communications channels such as microwave RADIO, satellites (see SATELLITE), and pro­cesses based on FIBER OPTICS; develupment of so­phisticated equipment for carrying data over conventional analog telephone lines (modems and multiplexers); and variants of digital switching. Reg­ulatory policies devised to support basic voice tele­phone service were abandoned in favor of policies designed to accommodate specialized, and disparate, data-transmission needs~with profound implica-

THE COMDrUTER ERA~ The lEe contains nearly thirty accessible entries on this timely topic, ranging from artificial intelligence to espionage, from telecommunications networks to electronic music. It also presents two detailed overview articles on the subject-one on computer history, another on the social and economic impact of computerization, which explores the influence of the computer revolution on such spheres of activity as the military, government, education, commerce, the work force, and the global economy. The IEe goes beyond the entries on computers found in other encyclopedias to tell readers how computers affect our society and our lives.

TG 10 lLJ 1""' A\ '"T'T[01\:[ 0 " • lC.,J.}! ~>J[\ul ; ,U _l '\:j 0 Educatzon may be understood as an activity, a possession, or an institution;' begins the article on the subject, and the IEe offers unique insight into all three of these areas. It contains more than thirty-five authoritative articles on this central topic, each one fully cross-referenced to guide readers to some surprising new areas of exploration. Not only are there articles on the institutions that disseminate culture and ideas -universities, museums, libraries, the family; there are also articles on various educational vehicles, including books, play, audiovisual technology, television, and film. Other entries cover the people who have made outstanding cpntributions to the field-John Dewey, Emile Durkheim, Helen Keller, Jean Piaget, Noah Webster, and more.

GO'VERNIV[IE1\TT RlEGULL\\JrIlON: In most societies, government regulation of communications and the communications industry is an . important, and often controversial, issue. What are the various processes at work behind government regulation? Which industries are particularly subject to government control, and how are they affected? Over twenty-five articles cover the nature and impact of government regulation of communications-related phenomena. Some of these articles explore the impact of government regulation on diverse industries­advertising, television, radio, telephone, education. Others examine some of the most sensitive issues of our day-censorship, citizen access, privacy, pornography. Still others survey copyright, libel, and monopoly laws, showing how governments can influence communication through legislation. Readers will also find entries on the election process, lobbying, and the effects of government regulation on other political systems.

i\ -;""'0 Fi!:J:-:Y-T-1";-i':;::Tl'<';-·T(f1 0 ••

l-,Lu/': ;GeC". -"- ,cClle 'J "'3, Scholars and adverttsmg professionals alike have contributed nearly twenty-five articles on theoretical and everyday aspects of this fas­cinating field. The twenty-page article on advertising, for example, is divided into four sections-Overview, History, Advertising Agency, and Advertising Eco­nomics-that examine diverse forms of advertising throughout history and throughout the world, its cul­tural effects, the role and structure of the advertising agency, and the interaction between advertising and market economies. Another twenty articles cover spe­cific aspects of the field: theories of advertising, such as consumer and motivation research; radio, television, newspaper, and other advertising media; and advertis­ing methods ranging from classified ads, commercials, and direct response marketing to persuasion, pressure groups, and public relations.

8 / ADVERTISING_OVERVIEW

to country depending not only on the stage of devel­opment but on the restrictions in force. In the United States the major media-daily newspapers, tele­vision, direct mail, magazines, and radio----generally account for well over half of all advertising invest­ments, with newspapers and television generally winning the largest shares. In a number of other countries (the Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Belgium, for example) advertising on television has been restricted by law in an effort to safeguard the financial health of the print media.

Relation to Consumption

The growth of advertising has been linked to that of the market economy and to a productive manufac­turing capacity adequate to satisfy consumer de­mand. But advertising is also highly visible in less advanced countries like those of Latin America and South Asia, where a consuming elite coexists with a predominantly subsistence economy. Advertising has also found a small but growing niche in socialist countries, in spite of the long-standing Marxist con­tempt for it as the epitome of capitalism's wasteful competitive spint.

Fundamental to the critique of advertising, which many non-Marxists share, is the thesis that it results in a misallocation of economic resources by encour­aging the consumption of products and services that arc socially undesirable or unnecessary. Advertising

Figure 1. (Adverljsjng~Overvjew) Side street in Tokyo. Courtesy of Japan Air Lines.

38 / DIRECT RESPONSE MARKETING

DIRECT RESPONSE MARKETING

Direct response marketing has been the fastest-growing form of marketing and ADVERTISING in the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Its fundamental premise is the development of a direct communica­tion and sales dialogue between a prime supplier of goods or services and the consumer.

This two-way dialogue grew as a powerful force in marketing as it became more precisely targeted, more relevant, and more service-oriented than mass distribution and general advertising. Direct market­ing has been the beneficiary of all the new infor­mation processing and storage technologies. The development of the computer, the microprocessor, and personalized communication technologies such as laser printing and telemarketing has made it pos­sible and inexpensive for advertisers to use DATA

BASE marketing techniques to locate and communi­cate with prime new prospects and existing custom­ers see COMPUTER: HISTORY,

can successfully introduce new products and create a market for them. It can also be used ingeniously to increase a particular competitor's market position. There is Iinle solid indication, however, that adver­tising can in itself build the consumption of an es­tablished product that has remained unchanged in its attributes.

Consumer surveys find that objections to advertis­ing generally mask objections to the advertised prod­ucts or services themselves. So long as a society permits these to be sold in a free and competitive market, restrictions on advertising would merely cha~nel sales pressures into alternative forms of pro­motion.

The percentage of gross national product spent on advertising varies greatly from country to country, just as advertising's percentage of sales revenues var­ies within each country for different types of indus­tries. The advertising-to-sales ratio is generally lowest for expensive products and for those sold to limited numbers of industrial users rather than to the general public. The ratio is highest for consumer products characterized by small differences between compet­ing market entries. For such "parity products," advertising must depart farthest from its primary informational function in order to create a symbolic aura of special identity for a particular company, brand, or store. In this process, whatever is adver­tised is endowed with meanings and values extra­neous to its essential function. The consumer may be lured with nonverbal intimations of health, wealth, romance, and esteem (see MOTIVATION RESEARCH).

Advertising styles. Since parity products are widely used and frequently purchased, consumers make pur­cha~e decisions over and over with considerable turn­over in their selection of brand~. Thus each brand requires a continuing reminder of its existence, if only on the premise that familiarity leads to ap­proval. As a result, advertising for packaged goods such as soap, instant coffee, hand lotion, beer, and deodorants has a prominence out of all proportion to their actual places in the consumer economy. This type of advertising attracts the greatest visibility and comment and is notable for its stylistic trendllless.

Styles in advertising come and go, reflecting its fast, competitive pace, the mobility of personnel, and a penc~l~nt for emulating innovators. From its origins, ~dvernslllg has used humor gently, brashly, tongue­m-cheek, to gain attention or approval. It has ex­ploited fears and fantasies. It has used personal testimonials by authorities, by nonauthoritative but well-known personalities, by company spokesper­sons, and by ordinary consumers captured in a pseudodocumentary "slice of life." It has featurcd beaUtiful womcn, cuddly animals, and engaging chilo dren .. It has been dryly informative and irrationally emotional. It has knocked the competition head on. It has screamed and whispered.

tising media to effect a measurable response and/or transaction." This definition is sufficiently broad to encompass the many and varied forms of direct mar­keting that arc increasingly being practiced world­wide.

Direct marketing differs from mass distribution and general advertising in its means as well as its ends. Whereas mass distribution attempts to make goods available to the broadest mass of the public by selling in bulk to wholesale and retail resellers who own the products at the point of purchase, direct marketers sell directly to the end consumer. General advertising attempts to create favorable AlTITUDES

and high awareness of products owned by reseilers, while direct marketing advertising tries to modify the behavior of the ultimate consumer by creating sales transactions for goods owned by the advertiser. Be­cause responses to advertising, whether orders or inquiries, are returned to the advertiser, the results of such advertising become accurately measurable and totally accountable.

Techniques. Direct marketing has assumed many different forms and has helped to sell an increasing number of product categories and services world­wide. Perhaps the oldest form of direct marketing is the salesperson or distributor who sells door to door. Avon Products and others have used this technique worldwide to scll cosmetics and costume jewelry. Vacuum cleaners and other small appliances are sold this way as well. Encyclopedias and sets of books have been marketed door to door for the last two centuries, as have household supplies and services. The salesperson, using the technique of a personal demonstration in the home, is the medium of door­to-door, or direct-selling. Advertising is frequently llsed to support, target, or reinforce the salesperson's efforts,

Catalogs are another direct marketing medium that has also been used for centuries. Sears, Roebuck and Company, Montgomery Ward, and Spiegel in the United States; La Redoute and Les Trois Suisses in France; and Quelle and Neckermann in Germany, Bclgium, and Holland are typical of catalogs that have acted as retail stores for people who prefer to shop at home. Specialty catalogs selling fashions, electronic appliances, horticultural products, out­door equipment for hunting and fishing, specialty foods, and so on, have been growing at a rapid rate around the world. The growing use of catalogs for in-home shopping has been adopted by leading re­tailers such as Bloomingdale's and Neiman Marcus in the United States, Printemps in France, and the Seibu stores in Japan, In Great Britain mail-order sales from catalogs exceed sales made in department stores.

Another form of direct marketing is the negative­option club, which developed in the late 1920s in

SAMPLE CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

The lEG includes 569 original articles, each one fully cross-referenced to usher. readers through the vast, interdisciplinary world of communications_

The following broad categories represent several major areas of interest in this evolving field-as well as in society at large-and the select articles listed within each category reveal the diversified, detailed coverage readers will find in the lEe

Animal Communication Animal Signals Animal Song Cognition, Animal Darwin, Charles Ethology Human-Animal Communication Insects, Social

Journalism & Mass·Media Cable Television Commercials Documentary EducationalTelevision Electronic Publishing Entertainment Government-Media Relations Hearst, William Randolph Lippmann, Walter Magazine Marconi, Guglielmo Mass Media Effects Mergenthaler, Ottmar Monopoly News Agencies' Newsletter Newspaper: History Newspaper: Trends Newsreel Paley, William Photojournalism Poll Print-Audience Measurement Printing Publishing Pulitzer, Joseph Radio Rating Systems: Radio and Television Religious Broadcasting Sarnoff, David Sound Re'cording Sports and the Media Stars Syndication Telecommunications Nerniorks Television History Television News Video

Language, Linguistics, & Speech Alphabet Barthes, Roland Classification Cognition Conversation Forensics Foucault, Michel Grammar Homiletics Language Language Acquisition Language Varieties Linguistics Meaning Iv1etanhor

30 i AFRICA, PRECOLONIAl

ristically In the process of human attempts at self­understanding. The first development is largely Nietzschean; the second is largely the work of post­Heideggerean hermeneutics.

There is now before us--in aesthetics, poetics, and allied disciplines-the threat of interpretive anarchy, of a dnft toward extreme relativism on the one hand or the opportunistic imposition of meanings by fiat on the other. This threat attests to the growing difficulty of collecting reliable, orderly efforts at interpretation and at fixing the ontology of art. Yet similar conceptual difficulties have emerged with re­spect to theory in the physical sciences and concern­ing the very enterprise of philosophy itself. Viewed optimistically, the disruption of aesthetin may be no more than an invitation to a fresh conception of the arts and human culture, one both larger and freer than previously enviSlOned.

See also LITERARY CI!.!TiCI5M.

Bibliography. Monroe C. Beardsley, AesthetICS from Clas­sical Greece to the Pre,ent: A SllOrt HistDry, Kew York, 1966; idem, Tbe POSSIbility of Critlc;sm, Detroit, Mich., 1970; Arthur C. Danro, The Tran,(igllration of the Com­monplace, Cambridge, Mass., 1981; Jacque, Derrida, Of Grammat%gy (De ]a grammatologle), trans. by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Baltimore, Md., 1977; Ham·Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (Wahthcit und Merhodc), rcans. from 2d ed. by Garrett Barden and John Cumming, New York, 1975, reprint 1986; Nelson Goodman, Lan­guage, of Arl, 2d ed., Indianapolis, Ind., 1976; E. D. Hirsch, Jt., Vahdily in InterpretatIOn, New Haven, Conn., 1967; Joseph Margolis, Art and Philosophy, Atlantic HIghlands, N.]., 1980; Idem, ed., Pbilosophy Louks at the Art" 3d cd., Philadelphia, 1986; F. D. E. Schleiermacher, HermeneutIcs: The HandWritten Manuscripts (Hcrmmeu­tiki, ed. by Heinz KImmerle, trans. by James Duke and Jack Forstman, Mi"oula, Mont., 1977.

JO~EPH MARGOl.IS

AFRICA, PRECOLONIAL

a

b Figure 1. (Africa, Precolonial) AiClcan rock nrt: (aJ Pn· roglyph, Tassili. Photograph by jUrgcn Kunz. (b) Palnting of bowmen, Masangr, Central Tanzania. After H. SJS­soon. From A. R. Willcox, The Rock Art of Africa, New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 19S4, opposite p. 64, and p. liS.

ing networks, and they also shared important elements of social and cultural identlty.

Geographical Obstacles

Geography is the most senous barrier to the opera­tion of communications systems within Africa, in terms of the shape of the African continent, its phys­ical relationship to other populated areas, and its ecologICal conditions. As a physical entity the African continent ~eems designed to separate rather than integrate human communities. The formation of the vast Sahara Desert some five thousand years ago cut off the major part of Africa from easy contact with the Mediterranean, one of the most active and influ­ential regions in the entire early world. Navigation on any regular basis was impossible from the Medi­terranean or the Atlantic Ocean until the era of the Portuguese discoveries in the fifteenth century. Afri­can, Arab, Chinese, !ndian, and PerSian navigators did maintain sea traffic between Asia and East Africa from the second century on, and Arab-Berber camel caravans crossed the Sahara by the eighth century. However, all these contacts were limited by the coast­Ime and the Sahd, the semidesert area at the south of the Sahara, both remarkable for their lack of major indentanons. This left most inland inhabitants far from pOints of direct communication with out­siders. Unlike the pre-Columbian Americas (see AMERICAS, PRE-COLUMBIAN) and the South Seas, Af-

AFRICA, f'R~COI.ONIAL I 3·1

rica was always part of the Old World of Asia and Europe-but links with the Old World were limited to specific places.

Another geographical constraint on outside con­tact was the nature of soil and climate conditions in the supposedly lu~h tropics. African soil is generally limited in nutritive value and subject to marked, often irregular seasonal shifts between heavy rain and intense sunlight. Early African POpulatlOns main­tained maximum agricultural productivity by shifting cultivation sites at varied intervals. There was thus little concentration of human settlement, a major requisite for the development of complex cOmmu­mcatlons systems.

The contours of the continent and it~ rainfall pat­terns have also severely limited the transportation role of African rivers, thus cutting off one more traditional means for regular contact with distant peoples. Because the tropical African environment is particularly hospitable to in~ects and microorganisms of various klllds, human demography is further re­strallled by disease, and large beasts of burden-the other malor preindustrial means of transport-can­not survive in many parts of the continent.

Although great expanses of space tended to sepa­rate small African communities, there were nonethe­less motives for overcoming these barriers. The most common was trade, both domestic and foreign. Cer­tain African commodities such as gold and ivory were in particularly high demand in Asia and Europe.

Communicanon across regions of precolonial sub­Saharan Africa was restricted to a greater degree than elsewhere in the world by geographical and historical factors and by the cultural and linguistic differences among African societies. Although WRIT­

ING was introduced into various portions of the African continent during ancient and medieval tunes, the primary medium of communication remained the spoken word. Furthermore, African languages varied to an extent unknown in any other contiguous land mass of similar size and population density. None­theless, precolonial African communities did not live in anything like total isolation from one another. Instead they managed to maintain a number of large­scale political systems and even more extensive trad-

Figure 1. (Africa, PrecolOnial) Abraham Crcsque" map ofWesr Africa, 1375: tbe iir;t European depIction of the area, h,'sed on reports from North African Mushm traders. The detaIl ,bow, the .!vlllslim rllier of M.lli, Mallsa /vlu,j (right), and the- Atlns :Vlountain; represented as J stone wall.l'bot. B,bl. N,lt., Paris.

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L:j;:; II ~\J J:t, j(: The historical and international coverage in the lEC is unrivaled, with more than twenty articles on the ancient world alone. The volumes not only survey the evolution of numbers, alphabets, hieroglyphs, and writing systems, the invention of the calendar, and the use of clay tokens. They also include detailed articles on communications history in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, approaching each region from a host of important perspectives: for example, how exploration, migration, war, and other historical developments affected communication over the centuries; how people expressed themselves through their arts, sign systems, and religious beliefs; how information traveled within villages, over highways, across waterways; how commerce, education, and other social networks served as major avenues for communication. In short, the lEC presents the historical facts along with an abundance of insights into the sociology, language, economy, technology, art, and attitudes of a given region during a particular moment in its history.

IV1CtapnO(

Oral· History Phonology Public Speaking Rhetoric Semantics Semiotics, Slips of the Tongue Speech and Language Disorders SpeechAnxiety Structuralism Webster, Noah Witigensteinj ,Ludwig

Nonverbal Communication Body Decoration Body Movement Clothing Deception' Eyes FaciafExpression Food Freud~ Sigmund Gesture . , Goffm·ari; Erving Interaction, Faq~-tb-Face Interpersonal Distance Keller, Helen Kinesics Mask M·ead,. M<;lrgaret , Nonverb~l Communication ,$i.gn Language Smell Spatial Organ:ization Touch .

The Performi:flg 'Arts Acting. . . Aristode'; Cantometrics Choreometrics Comedy Dance Drama Electl:-oniC Music Fes'tival Mime M'usic,'·Folk and,Traditional Music, Popular ' Music History. .Music Machines MUSIC Theater.' Op.edl , Performance Puppetry Song Sound Effects Spectacle Theater Welles, Orson

SoCial Issues Cens()fship Children: Media Effects Citizen Access Ethics, Media Feminist Theories 6f Communication Gender Literacy Mass Media Effects Minorities inJhe Media Minority Media Political Communica"tion Porriography Privaty Propaganda Sexism Terrorism Violence

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«o1ilm. ~~5.j'rJ I) ::A I- (ABCIIlJi)>> (AS OF 87:06)

Elie Abel, Chandler Prof. of Communication, stanford Univ.

Yehia Aboubakr, President, IntI. Information & Communications Consultnats, Twin Rivers, New Jersey

Binod C. Agrawal, scientist, Development & Educational Communication Unit(DECU), Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, India

Rudolf Arnheim, Prof. Emeritus of the Psychology of Art, Harvard Univ.

Walter S Baer, Director of Advanced Technology, Times Mirror Co.

Ben H. Bagdikian, Dean, Graduate School of Journalism, Univ. of California at Berkeley

Bishara A. Bahbah, Former Editor-in-Chief, AI-Fajr Palestinian Newspaper

Francis Balle, Prof. of political Science, Univ. de Droit, d'Economie et de Sciences sociales de Paris

Albert Bandura, David Starr Jordan Prof. of Scial Science in Psychology, Stanford Univ.

Giovanni Bechelloni, Prof. Ordinario, "Sociology of Cultural Processes," Faculty of Political Sciences, Univ. of Florence

Howard S. Becker, MacArthur Prof. of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern Univ.

Jorg Becker, Privatdozent, Dept. of Political Sciences, Marburg Univ.

Daniel Bell, Henry Ford II Prof. of Social Sciences, Harvard Univ.

Leonard Berkowitz, Vilas Research Prof. in Psychology, Univ. of Wisconsin

Basil Bernstein, Karl Mannheim Prof. in the Sociology of Education, Univ. of London Institute of Education

John Blacking, Prof. of Social Anthropology, The Queen's Univ. of Belfast

Clifford Block, Chief, Division of Educational Technology and Development Communications, U.S. Agency for Int. Development

Jay G. Blumler, Centre for Television Research, Univ. of Leeds

S. T. Kwame Boafo, Lecturer, School of Communications Studies, Univ. of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

Harold de Bock, Audience Research Dept., Netherlands Broadcasting Corporation (NOS) , Hilversum, The Netherlands

Mihai C. Botez, Mathematician and Policy Analyst, Univ. of Bucharest

Anne W. Branscomb, Attorney and Consultant, Armonk, New York

Roger W. Brown, John Lindsley Prof. of Psychology, Harvard Univ.

William F. Buckley, Jr., Editor, National Review, New York

Robert W. Burchfield, Chief Editor, The OED

Peter Burke, Historian, Emmanuel College, Cambridge, England

Nelly de Camargo, Prof. of Communication Theory and Communication Policies for Development, Univ. of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Muriel G. Cantor, prof., Dept. of Sociology, The American Univ.

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James W. Carey, Research Prof. of Communications and Dean, Univ. of Illinois .

Thomas F. Carney, Prof. of Communications, Univ. of Windsor, Canada

Steven H. Chaffee, Prof. and Dir., Insitute for Communication Research, StanfordUniv.

Jack Chen, Historian and Artist, President, The San Francisco American Chinese Opera and Performing Arts Center

Noam Chomsky, Prof. of Linguistics and Philosophy, MIT

Arthur C. Clarke, Chancellor, Univ. of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

Thomas C. Cockran, Benjamin Franklin Prof. Emeritus of History, Univ. of Pennsylvania

Michael Cole, Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, Univ of California at San Diego

Peter Cowie, Film Historian, London, UK, and Helsinki, Finland

David Crystal, Prof. of Linguistic Science, Univ. of Reading

Jonathan Culler, Prof. of English and Comparative Literature, Cornell Univ.

Nabil H. Dajani, Assistant Dean, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American Univ. of Beirut, Lebanon

Chidananda Das Gupta, Film Critic, The Indian Express, New Delhi

Brenda L. Dervin, Prof. of Communication, Univ. of Washington

Juan E. Diaz Bordenave, Intl. Consultant in Communication and Education, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Henri Georges Dieuzeide, Director, Division of Structures, Content, Methods and Techniques of Education at UNESCO

Wimal Dissanayake, Research Associate, Insitute of Culture and Communication, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii

Wilson, Dizard, Senior Fellow, Georgetown Univ. Center for Strategic Studies, Washington, D.C.

Ariel Dorfman, Cilean Essayist and Novelist, Inst. for Policy Studies; Washington, D.C.

Aergei V. Drobaschenko, Prof. and Deputy Dir., Cinema Art Inst., Moscow

Umber to Eco, Prof. of Semiotics, Univ. of Bologna, Italy

Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, Alice Freeman Palmer Prof. of History, Univ. of Michigan

Phoebe C. Ellsworth, Prof. of Psychology, Stanford Univ.

Harold Evand, Editor-in-Chief, The Atlantic Monthly Press

Itamar Even-Zohar, Prof. of Poetics and Comparative Literature, Porter Institute of Mass Communication, Quezon City, Philippines

William F. Fore, Dir., Communication Commission, National Council of Churches in the U.S.A.

Jan Freese, President and Dir. General, Data Inspection Board, Stockholm, Sweden

Oscar H. Gandy, Jr., Graduate Associate Prof., Howard Univ., Washington, D.C.

Herbert J. Gans, Prof. of Sociology, Columbia Univ.

Howard Gardner, Co-Director, Project Zero, Harvard Univ.

Nicholas Robert Garnham, Prof. and He d f . . of Communication, Polytechnic of C~nfrar~J~d~J~dles, Faculty

- 3 -

Henry Geller, Dir., Washington Center for Public Policy Research, Duke Univ.

Helmut Gernsheim, Photo-Historiann Writer, and Curator of Exhibitions, Founder of the Gernsheim Collection, Univ. of Texas at Austin

Enrique Gonzalez Manet, Prof. of Communications, Int. Inst. of Journalism, Havana, Cuba

Nelson Goodman, Emeritus Prof. of Philosophy, Harvard Univ.

Roberto Grandi, Prof. of Mass Communications, Univ. Bologna, Italy

Shelton A. Gunaratne, School of Humanities and Social Science, Capricornia Inst. of Advanced Education, Rockhampton, Australia

Bert Haanstra, Film Producer and Dr., Laren North Holland, the Netherlands

Edward T. Hall, Emeritus Prof. of Anthropology, Northwestern Univ.

Stuart Hall, Prof. of Sociology, The Open Univ., England

Cees J. Hamelink, Prof. of IntI. Communication, Univ. of Amsterdam

Susumu Hani, Film Dir., Hani-Production, Tokyo

Eric A. Havelock, Sterling Prof. of Classics, Emeritus, Yale univ.

Hilde T. Himmelweit, Emeritus Prof. of Social Psychology, London School of Economics, Univ. of London

Richard Hoggart, Formerly Prof. of English and Dir., Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, The Univ. of Birmingham

Benjamin Hrushovski (Harshaw), Prof. of Literary Theory and Comparative Literature, Tel Aviv Univ.

Nathan I. Huggins, Dir., W.E.B. DuBois Inst. for Afro-American Research Harvard Univ.

Dell Hymes, Dean, Graduate School of Education, Prof. of Linguistics and Folklore, Univ. of Pennsylvania

Sumiko Iwao, Professor of Social. Psychology, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan

Sue Curry Jansen, Assistant Professor, Cedar Crest College­Muhlenberg College, Allentown, pennsylvania

Neville Jayaweera, Director of Research and Planning, World Association for Christian Communication, London, England

Herman Cohen Jehoram, Professor of Intellectual Property and Media Law, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Garth S. Jowett, Director, School of Communication, University of Houston, Texas

Alexandre V. Karaganov, Association of Film Makers of the USSR; Film Critic, Moscow, USSR

Hidetoshi Kato, Professor of Sociology, University on the Air, Japan

Elihu Katz, Professor of Sociology and Communicatios, Hebres University of Jerusalem, !srael and Annenberg School of Communications, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California

F. Gerald Kline, Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Julia Kristeva, Professor of Linguistics, University of Paris VII, France

Aleksander Kumor, Professor, Institute of Arts, Polish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Warszawa, Poland

- 4 -

Gladys Engel Lang, Professor of Communications, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

Kurt Lang, Professor and Director, School of Communications, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

otto N. Larsen, Senior Associate for Social and Behavioral Science, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

Olga Linne, Head of Mass Communication Research, Danish Broadcasting, Copenhagen, Denmark

Vincent Lowe, Associate Professor, universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia

Leo Lowenthal, Professor Emeritus, Department of Sociology, University of California at Berkeley, California

Emile G. McAnany, Professor of International Communications, University of Texas at Austin, Texas

Maxwell E; McCombs, Jesse H. Jones Centennial Professor in Communicatio, College of Communication, University of Texas, Austin, Texas

Denis McQuail, Professor of Mass Communication, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Nathan Maccoby, Professor Emeritus of Communication: Co-Director, Stanford Heart Disease Prevention Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California

Makaminan Makagiansar, Assistant Director-General for Culture, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, France

Mihailo Markovic, Professor of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia; Visiting Professor, Philosophy Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Tomo Martelanc, Professor of Communication, University of Ljubljana; Director of the National and University Library, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia

Mustapha Masmoudi, Adviser to the Prime Minister of Tunisia; Chairman of the Arab Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, former member of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Tunis, Tunisia

Gerald Mast, Professor of English, University of Chicago, Illinois

Armand Mattlart, Professor of Information and Communication Sciences, Universite de Haute Bretagne, France

Henry Mayer, Editor, ~~~i~ IQfQfm~tiQQ 6Y§tf~li~, Sydney, Australia

Annie Mear, Professor and Director, Department of Communication, University of Montreal, Canada

Gabriele Melischek, Researcher, Institue for Audience Research, Austraian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

William H. Melody, Director, Programme on Information and Communicatio Technologies, Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), London, England

Abraham A. Moles, Director, Institute of the Social Psychology of Communications, Strasbourg, France

Vincent Mosco, Professor, Department of Sociology, Queen's University Kingston, Ontario, Canada

- 5 -

Serge Motard,Project head, Centre International de la Communications Director Generale de Telecommunications, Paris, France .

Es'kia Mphahlele, Professor and Chairman, Department of African Literature, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Horace M. Newcomb, Professor, Department of Radio/TV/Film, University of Texas at Austin, Texas

Yeshayahu Nir, Director, Communications Institute, Herbrew University Jerusalem, Israel

Elisabeth Noelle-neumann, Professor of Communications Research, University of Mainz; Director, Institut fur Demoskopie Allensbach, Federal Republic of Germany

Kaarle Nordenstreng·, Professor and Chairperson, Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Tampere, Finland

Rita Cruise O'Brien, Fellow, London School of Economics; Senior Consultant, C.S.P. International Ltd., London, England

David R. Olson, Director, McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, University of Toronto, Canada

Alfred E. Opubor, Professor·0f Mass Communication, University of Lagos, Nigeria

Leena Paldan, Research Fellow, Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Tampere, Finaldn

Antonio Pasquali, Acting Assistant Director-General, Communication Secotr, UNESCO, Paris, France

Theodore Peterson, Professor of Journalism; Acting Dean, Institute of Communications Research, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

G. Russell Pipe, Editor, If~g§g~i!Qg~l Q~i~ B§2Qfi, Amsterdam, The Netherlands and Washington, D.C.

Walery Pisarek, Professor and Director, Press Research Centre, Cracow, Poland

Edward W. Ploman, Vice Rector, Global Learning Division, united Nations University, Tokyo, Japan

Zhang Qingnian, Director, English Department, Radio Beijing, China

Randolph Quirk, Vice-Chancellor, University of London, England

Alexander Reid, Chairman, Octagon Investment Management Ltd., London, England

Giuseppe Richeri, Maitre de Conference en Communication, Ecole Nationale d'Administration, Paris, France

Donald Richie, Writer and Critic, Tokyo, Japan

Thomas S. Robertson, Professor of Marketing, The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Everett M. Rogers, Walter H. Annenberg Professor, Annenberg School of Communications, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California

Karl Erik rosengren, Professor of Mass Communication, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Ralph L. Rosnow, Thaddeus L. Bolton Professor of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

- 6 -

Haluk Sahin, Editor-in-Chief, Nokta, Levent, Istanbul, Turkey; Associate Professor, Dniver~I~~-of Maryland, College Park, Maryland

Edward W. Said, Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Columbia University, New York, New York

Tomokazu Kakamoto, Adviser, Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), Tokyo, Japan

Yoshikazu Sakamoto, Professor of International Politics, Faculty of Law, University of Tokyo, Japan

Herbert I. Schiller, Professor of Communication, University of California at San diego, La Jolla, California

Benno Signitzer, Professor of Communications, Salzburg University, Austria

Dorothy G. Singer, Co-Director, Yale University, Family Television Research and Consultation Center, New Haven, Connecticut

Jerome L. Singer, Professor of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

Nathan Sivin, Professor of Chinese Culture and of the History of Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Professor of Psycholinguistics and Applied Linguistics, University of Bucharest; Editor-in-Chief, !Di~ID§iiQD21 ~Q~ID§l Q~ ~§ygbQliD9~i§iig§, Bucharest, Romania

Anthony Smith, Director, British Film Institute, London, England

Barbara Herrnstein Smith, University Professor of English and Communications, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Juan Somavia, Executive Director, Instituto Latinoamericano de Estudios Transnacionales (ILET), Santiago, Chile

James G. Stappers, Professor of Mass Communication, Catholic University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Henri Storck, Film Director; Chairman, Center of Films on Art, Brussels, Belgium

John sturrock, Editor, ~i~~§ 1ii~I§IY §~ppl~~~Di, London, England

Harsono Suwardi, Direcotr, Mass Communication Research Center, Budapest, Hungary

Tamas Szecsko, Director, Mass Communication Research Center, Budapest, Hungary

Yasumasa Tanaka, Director, Gakushuin Universtiy Computer Center; Professor of Social Psychology and Communications, Department of Political Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan

Majid Tehranian, Professor, Department of Communication, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii

Romesb Thapar, Editor and Publisher, §~~iD2I, ~b~ 0QDib1y §Y~PQ§i~~, New Delhi, India

Oya Tokgoz, Associate Professor of Journalism, School of Broadcasting and Journalism, Ankara University, Turkey

Tran Van Dinh, Professor of International Politics and Communications, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

- 7 -

Gaye Tuchman, Professor of Sociology, Queens College and The Graduate Center, City University of New York, Flushing, New York

Jeremy Tunstall, Professor of Sociology, City University, London, England

Frank Okwuadigbo Ugboajah, Senior Lecturer and Research Fellow, Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos, Nigeria

Teun A. van Dijk, Professor of Discourse Studies, Department of General literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

John A. van Zyl, Senior Lecturer, Film and Television Studies, School of Dramatic Art, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Jose Vidal-Beneyto{ Professor of Sociology, Facultad de Ciencias Politicas y Sociologia, universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain

Cecilia von Feilitzen, Mass Communication Researcher, Swedish Broadcastirg Corporation and University of Stockholm, Sweden

Ian Watt, Professor of English, Stanford University, Stanford, California

Anita Werner, Institute for· Mass Communication Research, University of Oslo, Norway

Robert A. White, Research Director, Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture, London, England

Charles R. Wright, Professor of Communications and Sociology, University of Pennsylvanaia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Xu Xiongxiong, Head of Education Department, China Central Television (CCTV), Beijing, China

- 8 -

«.ry:j 13 5frJ U A r (ABC/ll~j)>>

Architecture/ Archives/ Archives, Film/ Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)/ Armstrong, Edwin H. (1890-1954)/ Art/ Art, Funerary/ Artifact/ Artificial Intelligence/ Artist and Society/ Asia, Twentieth Century/ Asoka (d. 232 B.C.E.)/ Attention. See Children; Cognitive Consistency Theories/ Attitudes

Audience. For information on this subject viewed from varying perspectives, see the following articles.

The concept of audience is approached from a theoretical perspective in Communications, Study of; Crowd Behavior; Diffusion; Interactive Media; Mass Communications Research; Mass media Effects; Models of Communication; Persuasion; Social Cognitive Theory; Taste Cultures.

Measurement issues are discussed in Consumer Research; Evaluation Research; Opinion Measurement; Poll; Print-Audience Measurement; Rating Systems: Radio and Television.

The contributions of specific theorists are mentioned in the entries Adorno, Theodor; Hovland, Carl; Lazarsfeld, Paul F.; Lewin, Kurt; Lippmann, walter; McLuhan, Marshall; Tarde, Jean-Gabriel de.

For media influences on society, and on the media's audiences in particular, see Agenda-Setting; Bandwagon Effects; Cultural Indicators; Entertainment; Leisure; Opinion Leader; Political Communication; Politicization; Public Opinion; Sleeper Effect; Violence.

The Entries Children 2nd Minorities in the Media d~al with two specific audiences that have been the subject of considerable research attention.

Audiovisual Educatio/ Australasia, Twentieth Century/ Authorship/ Autobiography/ Avant-Garde/ Avant-Garde Film

Babbage, Chailes (1792-1871)/ Badedker, Karl (1801-1859)/ Bakhtin, Mikhail (1895-1975)/ Bandwagon Effects/ Bargaining/ Barnum, Phineas T. (1810-1891)/ Barthes, Roland (1915-1980)/ Bateson, Gregory (1904-1980)/ Beaverbrook, 1st Baron (1879-1964)/ Bell, Alexander Grahm (1847-1922)/ Benjamin, Walter (1892-1940)/ Bennett, James Gordon (1795-1872)/ Benshi/ Bergman, Ingmar (1918-)/ Biography/ Boas, Franz (1858-1942)/ Body Decoration/ Body Language. See Kinesics/ Body Movement/ Body Movement Notation/ Book/ Broadcasting. See Radio/ Bunuel, Luis (1900-1983)/ Burke, kenneth (1897-)/ Byblos

Cable Television/ Calendar/ Cantometrics/ Cantril, Hadley (1906-1969)/ Caricature/ Cartography/ Cartoon. See Animation; Caricature; Comics/ Caxton, William (ca. 1422-1491)/ CB Radio. See Citizens Band Radio/

Censorship 1. Survey of Entries 2. Government Censorship 3. Nongovernm2nt Censorship

CETI/ Channel. See Models of Communication/ Chaplin, Charles (1889-1977)/ Cherry, Colin (1914-1979)/ Child Art

Children 1. Development of Communication 2. Development of Symbolization 3. Use of Media 4. Media Effects

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Choreometrics/ Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)/ Cinema Verite/ Cinematography/ Citizen Access/ Citizens Band Radio (CB Radio)/ Classicism/ Classifi­cation/ Classified Advertising/ Classroom/ Clay Tokens/ Clock/ Clothing/ Code/ Cognition/ Cognition, Animal/ Cognitive Consistency Theories/ Coins/ Colonization/ Comedy/ Comics/ Commercials/ Communication, Philosophies of Communication Models. See Models of Communication/ Communications, Study off Communicatios Research: Origins and Development/ Computer: History

Computer: Impact 1. Overview 2. Impact on Military Affairs 3. Impact on Government 4. Impact on Education 5. Impact on Commerce 6. Impact on the Work Force 7. Impact on the World Economy

Confucius (ca. 551-479 B.C.E.)/ Consumer Research/ Content Analysis/ Conversation/ Cooley, Charles Horton (1864-1929)

Copyright 1. The Evolution of Authorship Rights 2. International Arena 3. Challenge of the Communications Revolution

Critical Theory. See Communication, Philosophies of, Feminist Theories of Communication; Marxist Theories of Communication; Poetics.

Crowd Behavior/ Crusades, The/ Cryptology/ Cultivation Analysis/ Cultural Indicators/ Culture/ Cuneiform/ Cybernetics

Daguerre, Louis (1789-1851)/ Dance/ Darwin, Charles (1809-1882)/ Data Base/ Day, Benjamin H. (1810-1889)/ De Forest, Lee (1873-1961)/ Debate. See Forensics; Political Communication--Broadcast Debates/ Deception/ Deconstruction. See Authorship/ Demonstration/ Design/ Detective Fiction. See Mystery and Detective Fiction

Development Communication 1. History and Theories 2. Alternative Systems 3. Projects

Dewey, John (1859-1952)/ Diary/ Diaspora/ Dictionary. See Language Reference Book/ Diderot, Denis (1713-1784)/ Diffusion/ Diplomacy! Direct Response Marketing/ Disinformation/ Disney, Walt (1901-1966)/ Documentary

Drama 1. History 2. Performance

Durkheim, Emile (1858-1917)

East Asia, Ancient/ Eastman, George (1854-1932)/ Edison, Thomas Alva (1847-1931)/ EducRtio/ Educational Television/ Egyptian Hieroglyphs/ Eisenstein, Sergei (k898-1948)/ Election/ Electronic Music/ Electronic Publishing/ Encyclopedia/ Entertainment/ Espionage/ Ethics, Media/ Ethnographic Film/ Ethnomusicology/ Ethnopoetics/ Ethology/ Evaluation Research/ Exploration/ Expressionism/ Eyes

- 10 -

Face/ Facial Expression/ Fact and Fiction/ Family/ Far East, Ancient/ Faraday, Michael (1791-1867)/ Farnsworth, Philo (1906-1971)/ Feedback. See Models of Communication/ Fessenden, Reginald (1866-1932)/ Festival/ Fiber Optics/ Fiction/ Fiction, portrayal of Character in/ Film. See Motion Pictures/ Film Editing/ Film Musical. See Musical, Film/ Film Theory/ Flaherty, Robert (1884-1951)/ Folklore/Folktale/ Food/ Forensics/ Forgery, Art/ Fotonovela/ Foucault, Michel (1926-1984)/ Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939)/ Functional Analysis

Gallaudet, Thomas (1787-1851)/ Gallup, George (1901-1984)/ Gandhi, Mohandas (1869-1948)/ Gatekeeper. See I,ewin, Kurt/ Gender/ Genre/ Gesture/ Goebbels, Joseph (1897-J945)/ Goffman, Erving (1922-1982)/ Gossip/ Government-Media Relations/ Government Regulation/ Grammar/ Gramophone. See Sound Recording/ Gramsci, Antonio (1891-1937)/ Graphic Reproduction/ Graphics/ Greeley, Horace (1811-1872)/ Grierson, John (1898-1972)/ Griffith, D.W. (1875-1948)/ Group Communication/ Gutenberg, Johannes (1390/1400-1468)

Hearst, William Randolph (1863-1951)/ Hellenic World/ Heraldry/ Hermeneutics. See Interpretation/ Historiography/ Hitchcock, Alfred (1899-1980)/ Hollywood/ Homiletics/ Horror Film/ Hovland, Carl (1912-1961)/ Human-Animal Communication/ Humor/ Human, Herbert H. (1918-1985)

Iconography/ Ideology/ Indus Script/ Information Theory/ Innis, Harold (1894-1952)/ Insects, Social/ Insult/ Interaction, Face-to-Face/

Interactive Media/ Intercultural Communication

International Communication. For a discussion of the formal contacts between nations, see Diplomacy; International Organizations. The entry Intercultural Communication discusses a somewhat related topics.

A historical background is offered in the entries on Colonization; Exploration; Migration; Silk Road. An increasingly significant form of international communication is discussed in Tourism.

Several entries deal with communication developments in different regions: Africa, Twentieth Century; Asia, Twentieth Century: Latin America, Twentieth Century. Disparities between developed and developing societies in their influence over the flow of communication are discussed in Computer: Impact--Impact on the World Economy; News Agencies; Satellite; Television History-­World Market Struggles. Efforts to combat such disparities are reviev!ed in Development Communication and New International Information Order and are further analyzed in Marxist Theories of Communication--Third World Approaches. Various problems arising from the use of communications for international political purposes are addressed in Disinformation; propaganda; Radio, International

Internati.onal Organizations/ Interpersonal Communication/ Interper­sonal Distance/ Interpretation (Hermeneutics)/ Intertextuality/ Islam, Classical and Medieval Eras/ Islamic World, Twentieth Century/ Ivens, Joris (1898-)

Jakobson, Roman (1896-1982)/ James, William (1842-1910)/ Jahnson, Samuel (1709-1784)/ Journal. See Autobiography; Diary/ Journalism. See Newspaper: History; Newspaper: Trends; Photojournalism/ Judaism/ Jung, Carl (1875-l961)

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Keller, Helen (1880-1968)/ Kenyatta, Jomo (18937-1978)/ Kinesics/ Kurosawa, Akira (1910-)

Land, Edwin (1909-)/ language/ Language Acquisition/ Language Acquisition/ Language Disorders. See Speech and Language Disorders/ Language Ideology/ Language Reference Book/ Language Varieties/ Laser. See Fiber optics; Sound Recording/ Lasker, Albert (1880-1952)/ Lasswell, Harold D. (1902-1978)/ Latin America, Twentieth Century/ Law and Communication/ Lazarsfeld, Paul F. (1901-1976)/ Leisure/ Letter/ Levi-Strauss, Claude (1908-)/ Lewin, Kurt (1890-1947)/ Libel/

Library 1. History 2. Trends

Licensing. See Copyright; Data Base; Government-Media Relations; Government Regulation; New International Information Order; Satellite; Telecommunications Policy. See also Milton, John.

Linguistics/ Lippmann, Walter (1889-1974)/ Literacy/ Literary Canon/ Literary Criticism

Literature. See Fact and Fiction; Fiction; Poetics; Prose; Style, Literary. See also specific genres.

Literature, popular/ Lobbying/ Locke, John (1632-1704)/ Logic. See Symbolic Logic/ Lowenthal, Leo (1900-)/ Luce, Henry (1898-1967)/ Lumiere, Louis (1864-1948) and Auguste (1862-1954)/ Luria, Aleksandr (1902-1977)/ Luther, Martin (1483-1546)

McLuhan, Marshall (1911-1980)/ Magazine/ Map. See Cartography; Graphics; Map Projection/ Map Projection/ Marconi, Guglielmo (1874-1937)/ Martial Arts Film/ Marx, Karl (1818-1883)

Marxist Theories of Communication 1. Origins and Development 2. Third World Approaches

Mask/ Mass Communications Research

Mass Media. See Cable Television; Magazine; Minorities in the Media; Minority Media; Newspaper: History; Newspaper: Trends; Radio; Television History

Mass Media Effects/ Mass Observation/ Mathematics/ Maxwell, James (1831-1879)/ Mead, George Herbert (1863-1931)/ Mead, Margaret (1901-1978)/ Meaning/ Mergenthaler, Ottmar (1854-1899)/ Merton, Robert K. (1910-)/ Message. See Models of Communication/ Metaphor/ Microelectronics/ Middle Ages/ Migration/ Milton, John (1608-1674)/ Mime/ Minorities in the Media/ Minority Media/ Mode/ Modeling. See social Cognitive Theory/ Models of Communication/ Monopoly/ Morris, Charles (1901-)/ Morse, Samuel F.B. (1791-1872)/ Motion Photography

Motion Pictures 1. Preheistory 2. Silent Era 3. Sound Film

Motivation Research/ Mural/ Museum/ Music, Electronic. See Electronic Music/ Music, Folk and Traditional/ Music, Popular/ Music Composition and Improvisation/ Music Hisotry/ Music Machines/ Music perception. See Perception--Music/ Music Performance

Music Theater 1. Western Traditions 2. Asian ~raditions

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Music Theories 1. Overview 2. Notations and Literacy 3. Tuning Systems

Musical, Film 1. Hollywood Genre 2. Bombay Genre

Musical Instruments/ Muz'ak/ Mystery and Detective Fiction/ Myth. See Folktale; oral History/ Mythological Film, Asian

Nakahama Manjiro (1828-1898)/ Narrative/ Negotiation. See Bargaining; International Organizations/ Neorealism/ Network Analysis/ New International Information Order/ New Wave Film/ News, Television. See Television News/ News Agencies/ Newsletter/ Newsmagazine/ News­paper: History

Newspaper: Trends 1. Trends in Africa 2. Trends in Asia 3. Trends in Europe 4. Trends in'Latin America 5. Trends in the Middle East 6. Trends in North America 7. Trends in the Soviet Republics

Newsreel/ Niepce, Joseph-Nicephore (1765-1833)/ Nineveh/ Nkrumah, Kwame (1909-1972)/ "Noise." See Models of Communication/ Nonverbal Communication/ Northcliffe, Alfred (1865-1922)/ Novel, The. See Fiction; Fiction, Portrayal of Character in./ Number

Ochs, Adolph S. (1858-1935)/ Opera/ Opinion Leader/ Opinion Measure­ment/ Oral Culture/ Oral History/ Oral Poetry/ Oratory/ Organizational Communication/ Osgood, Charles (1916-)/ Ozu, Yasujiro (1903-1963)/

Paley, William (1901-)/ Palimpsest/ Pamphlet/ Paper. See Book; printing; Writing Materials. Park, Robert (1864-1944)/ Pahte, Charles

l1863-19571/ Peirce, Charles S. (1839-1914)

Perception 1. Mus.ic 2. Speech 3. Still and Moving Pictures

performance/ Personal Space. See Interpersonal Distance/ Persuasion/ Phalke, Dhundiraj Govind (1870-1944)/ Phonograph. See Sound Recording/ Phonology/ Photography/ Photography, Amateur/ Photojournalism/ Piaget, Jean (1896-1980)/ Plato (ca. 428-348/347 B.C.e.)/ Play/ Plebiscite/ Poetics/ Poetry

political Communication 1. History 2. Impact of New Media 3. Broadcast Debates

Political Socialization/ political Symbols/ Politicization/ Poll/ Polo, Marco (1254-1324)

Popular Culture. See Culture; Literature, Popular; Music, Popular; Taste Cultures

Pornography/ Portraiture/ Postal Service/ poster/ Pragmatics. See Meaning; Semantics/ Prayer. See Religion/ Preaching. See Homiletics; Public Speaking/ Pressure Group/ Print-Audience Measurement

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Printing 1. History of printing 2. Cultural Impact of Printing

Privacy/ Profession/ Propaganda/ Prose/ proverb/ Proxemics/ Psycho­analysis/ Public Opinion/ Public Relations/ Public Speaking

Publishing 1. History of Publishing 2. Publishing Industry

Publishing, Electronic. See Electronic Publishing/ Pulitzer, Joseph (1847-1911)/ Puppertry

Quiz Show

Radio/ Radio, International/ Rating Systems: Radio and Television/ Reading/ Reading Theory/ Realism/ Recording. See Sound Recording/ Reference Works. See Encyclopedia; Linguage Reference Book/ Reith, John (1889-1971)/ Religion/ Religious Broadcasting/ Renaissance/ Renaissance/ Renoir, Jean (1894-1978)/ Representation, Pictorial and Photographic/ Revolution/ Rhetoric/ Richards, I.A. (1893-1979)/ Riddle/ Ritual/ Roman Empire/ Romance, The/ Romanticism/ Roper, Elmo (1900-1971)/ Rumor

Sapir, Edward (1884-1939)/ Sarnoff, David (1891-1971)/ Satellite/ Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857-1913)/ School/ Schutz, Alfred (1899-1959)/ Science Fiction/ Scripps, E.W. (1854-1926)/ Scripture/ Sculpture/ Secrecy/ Selective Reception/ Semantic Differential/ Semantics/ Semantics, General/ Semiotics/ serial

Sexism 1. Overview 2. Sexism in Interpersonal Communication

Shannon, Claude (1916-)/ Shihuang Di (ca. 259-210 B.C.E.)/ Sign

Sign Language 1. Overview 2. Alternate Sign Languages 3. Manual Language Codes 4. Primary Sign Languages

Sign System/ Signage/ Silk Road/ Simmel, Georg (1858-1918)/ Slave Trade, African/ Sleeper Effect/ Slips of the Tongue/ Smell/ Soap Opera/ Social Cognitive Theory (Social Learning Theory)/ Social Insects. See Insects, Social/ Social Skills/ Song/ Sound/ Sound Effects

Sound Recording 1. History 2. Industry

South Asia, Ancient/ Space, Personal. See Interpersonal Distance/ Spatial Organization/ Speaking, Ethnography off Special Effects/ Spectacle/ Spectrum/ Speech/ Speech and Language Disorders/ Speech Anxiety/ Speech Perception. See Perception--Speech/ Speech Play/ Sponsor

Sprots 1. Sports and Society 2. Sports and the Media 3. Psychology of Sports

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Spy Fiction 1. History 2. Themes

Stamps/ Standards

Stars 1. The Star Phenomenon 2. Star System

Structuralism/ Style, Literary/ Sullivan, Harry Stack (1892-1949)

Survey Research. See Evaluation Research; Opinion Measurement; Poll; Print-Audience Measurement; Rating systems; Radio and Television. See also Gallup, George; Roper, Elmo

Symbolic Logic/ Symbolism/ Syndication/ Syntax. See Grammar

Tarde, Jean-Gabriel de (1843-1904)/ Taste Cultures/ Taxonomy. See Classification/ Teaching/ Telecommunications Networks/ Telecommunications Policy/ Telegraphy/ Telephone/ Television. See Cable Television; Educational Television; Television History; Television News.

Television History 1. Ear ly Per iod 2. Global Development 3. World Market Struggles

Television News/ Terrorism/ Testimony/ Textbook/ Theater/ Tokugawa Era: Seclusion Policy/ Touch/ Tourism/ Tragedy

Transborder Data Flows (TDF). See Computer: Impact--Impact on World Economy; Data Base; New International Information Order; Spectrum; Telecommunications Networks; Telecommunications Policy.

Translation, Literary/ Typography

united Nations (UN). See International Organizations.

united Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO). See International Organizations

University

Uses and Gratifications. See Mass Communications Research; Mass Media Effects.

utopias

vertov, Dziga (1896-1954)/ video/ Videotex/ Violence/ Visual Image/ Visual Perception. See perception--Still and Moving Pictures/ Von Neumann, John (1903-1957)/ Vygotsky, Lev (1896-1934)

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