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Foundation Capabilities and LimitationsOffshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar
3rd
- 4th
February 2014 Dexter House, London
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Dr. Chris Golightly GO-ELS Ltd.Geotechnical & Engineering Geology Consultant
Source: Univ. Mass. 1974
Source: WINDFLOAT Website
Sources from top leftclockwise: Arup, BIFAB,COWI, RAVE Alpha Ventus
Source: BELWIND Website
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Summary - Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations
Introduction Global Offshore Wind Energy
Differences; Oil & Gas Platforms Wind Turbines
Types of Foundation for Offshore Wind Turbines [OWT]
Codes and Standards; DNV, GL IEC, US
Environmental, Geophysical & Geotechnical Site Investigations
Monopiles Design & Installation
4 Leg Piled Jackets OWEC, BIFAB, Truss Towers, Twisted Jacket
Tripods Weserwind Alpha Ventus & OGN-Aquind
BARD Tripile
Gravity Base Structures [GBS] Gravitas, Vici Ventus, Gifford-Vinci, SeatowerSuction Caisson UF Monopod, Tripods, Quadrapods
Others: Guyed Tower - A-Framed Monopile - TITAN Jack Up
Foundation Costs - Comparisons
Foundation Issues & Problems (1); Early Refusals & Piling Noise
Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (2); Vibro Installation & Scour
Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (3); Grouted Connections
Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (4); Monopile Resonance, Cyclic Friction Degradation & Long Term Tilt in Sands
Offshore Floating Solutions Huge Potential Offshore Wind ResourceFabrication Costs (Early 2010)
Maps: UK Round 3 & German North Sea Sites
Offshore Wind Cost Trends Need for Reduction
Seabed A nchored Foundation Templates [SAFT]
Conclusions, References, Contact Details
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3rd
- 4th February 2014
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Introduction Global OffshoreWind Energy
Clean & abundant energy on global scale should accelerateas fossil fuel costs rise & renewables gain economies ofscale and innovation occurs The Crossover
First offshore windfarm Denmark 1991. Proportion of RE inseveral European countries is increasing.
But: as OW industry goes large scale, developers & lendersare conservative and risk averse. Stated liking for Creativeinnovation but also proven technnology .
European focus is on Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Belgium& UK. France, USA, China, Japan developing rapidly Meditteranean, India, Brazil, S. Africa & others in future.
Bigger, higher larger conventional 3 blade Siemens/VestasHAWT turbines dominant. Several 8 MW versions could betwin blade and VAWT in future (Sandia Labs. Studies).
Move offshore from monopiles [15 - 30 m WD] jackets(UK)& tripods (Germany) [30-45 m WD] eventually to spar andTLP floaters [40-60 m +WD]
In UK, offshore wind developers registered interest indeploying 46 GW of capacity & 10 GW has been progressedto consent determination, construction and operation.
UK governments Renewables Roadmap aims to cut cost ofwind power to 100 per megawatt hour (MWh), with 18GW capacity off UK coast by 2020.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: Moustafaeipour, 2009
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LCOE Ranges and Averages [IRENA, 2013]
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Differences; Oil & Gas Platforms Wind Turbines
Oil & Gas Platforms
Relatively stiff structures, usuallyfounded on long driven piles andmudmats
Axial loads dominate due to highstructure weights
Structural dynamics are not critical withweight >>> bending moments
Wave loads tend to dominate design inhigh energy areas such as North Sea
Straightforward Force Responserelationship
Each design is one- off Prototype at asingle location
Offshore Wind Turbines
Relatively flexible towers on variety offoundation types, monopiles 4 to 9 mdiameter, tripods/4 leg jackets, GBS.
Structural dynamics always critical. 3PEigenvalue resonance
Bending moment and lateral responsemore important than axial load
Wind and wave loads both veryimportant
Complex uncorrelated/uncoupledloading
Large Nos. of OWT in arrays (80 [German AVTripods] to 2000 [FOREWIND Statoil UK])
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Types of Foundation for Offshore Wind Turbines [OWT]
Choice of foundation solution influenced by: Water depth and seabed conditions,
especially depth to rockhead Environmental loading (wind, wave, tidal) Onshore fabrication, storage and
transportation requirements. Offshore vessel & equipment spread costs
& availability Installation & Construction methodology
available. Developer CAPEX investment appetite and
OPEX (Repair & Maintenance) predictions Smarter solutions available (suctioncaissons, GBS, lighter jackets/trusses,hybrids, seabed anchored templates)Foundations 30 to 40% of overall CAPEX &rising. Cost reductions essential
Smarter lighter hybrid foundations needed& move away from riskier costly conventionaldriven tubular steel piling.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: UPWIND Project Final Report 2011
Source: NREL
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Codes and Standards; DNV, GL IEC, US
Codes and Standards Hierarchy Offshore German Windfarms
A. Bundesamt fur Seeschifffahrt undHydrographie [BSH, Federal Regulator]
B1. Germanischer Lloyd [GL]
B2. Det Norsk Veritas [DNV]
B3. IEC
B4. DIN (German National Standards)
C1. API-RP2A (Oil & Gas OffshoreStructures)
C2. DIBt
C3. Norsok (Norwegian Offshore)
C4. DASt Richtlinie
D. Other Specific Standardswhere above do not covertechnical design in sufficientdetail
Most Relevant Codes and Standards Det Norske Veritas DNV Offshore Standard DNV-OS-J101,Design for Offshore Wind Turbine Structures, Norway, 2004.Germanischer Lloyd Rules and Guidelines, IV IndustrialServices, Part 2 Guideline for the certification of offshorewind turbines, Germanischer Lloyd Windenergie GmbHHamburg, 2005.BSH Standard: 2007-06, Design of Offshore Wind Turbines
API RP 2A Recommended Practice for Planning, Designingand Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design, First Edition, July1993.- WSD Working stress design, 21 st edition, December2000. EN 1997-1:2009-09: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Deisgn;Parts 1, 2 and 3.RECOFF Recommendations for Design of Offshore windturbines (RECOFF), European Energy, Environment andSustainable Development ProgrammeNorsok Standard N-003 Marine Actions, 2007.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Foundation Concepts 2012 2020 [Roland Berger Study 2013]
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Environmental, Geophysical & Geotechnical Site Investigations Environmental Surveys
Biogenic reefs & Benthic communitiesMarine archaeology, wrecks and seabed obstructionsGrab and gravity core sampling of Seabed surface sediments, for scour, plumes and cable burialSeabed mobility, sand waves and shoals
Geophysical and Geotechnical Surveys
Swath bathymetry, side scan sonar imagerySeismic reflection profiling for geological shallow stratigraphy and shallow gas presenceMagnetometer for pipelines, cables, metal objects and seabed junk & unexploded ordnance [UXO] Boreholes, vibrocores and cone penetration testing for geotechnical engineering parameters and soillayering
Guidance Notes
Society for Underwater Technology (SUT)/ Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics (OSIG) Committee(2005). Guidance Notes on Site Investigation for Offshore Renewable Projects, Rev. 02, March 2005.
Bundesamt fur Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie [BSH], (2008). Ground Investigations for OffshoreWindfarms. BSH Standard No. 7004, p. 40.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Monopiles Design &Installation
Not a Pile but Driven Tubular SteelThin Walled Shell.
Typically 4.5 - 9 m diameter,sometimes tapered
Wall thicknesses 30 - 80 mm. D/t ratiovery high ~ 80 120.
WD cut-off 20 to 35 m > pile lateral &seabed soil stiffnesses & layering.
Weights up to 900 tonnes, limited byfloat out & crane capacities
Driven or drive-drill-drive (UK) or evendrilled and grouted (France)
Transition piece glued onto monopile
with brittle high strength cement ~very strong granite > problems Simple, quick, suited to shallow water:
problems - driving refusals & weight. Structure frequency limitations &
fabrication, handling and installationconstraints.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Tripods Alpha Ventus & OGN-Aquind
Weserwind - ALPHA VENTUS German federal funding 2001 2007 6 OWEC jackets/6 OWT tripods EPCI Contract value EUR 32m Client consortium: Vattenfall, Eon & EWE
(DOTI) 1st offshore us of seabed template pre-
piling (IHC) Adopted by Borkum West 2, Globaltech 1
OGN-Aquind Newcastle based Oil & Gas fabricator TRITON 3 leg truss jacket for use in WD
over 30 m & up to 80 m Major UK Govt. funding in 2012 for
development and design of prototype jacket
Steel savings, planning to be able tofabricate 150 jackets per year atHadrians Yard in Wallsend
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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BARD Tripile
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3rd
- 4th February 2014
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Gravity Base Structures [GBS] Gravitas, Vici Ventus, Gifford-Vinci, Seatower
Simplicity: Certainty of delivery, increasedprogramme opportunities with fewer constraintsMinimal Seabed Preparation: Installed directlyonto seabed whenever possible avoiding needto remove or disturb surface sedimentsSelf-Floating: No heavy lift or specialist towingor installation vessels required. Reduced supplychain & weather constraints. Improved costcertainty, increased supplier base & lower costs
Flexibility: Can be relocated, repowered andremoved at end of operational life. RC non-piled ballasted GBS with skirt option
best solution in WD up to 60 m Large OWT up to 8 MW & standardised
design Collar designs can accommodate ~ 2 deg
vertical alignment tolerance Loading situation different to piled
foundations & substantial vertical loadingrequired to ensure stability
But: Generally impractical for OWT inrelatively shallow (< 15 m) water
Bad publicity: German Strabag BSH rejection& over-designed Thornton Bank GBS.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Suction Caisson UF Monopod, Tripods, Quadrapods
Suitable for all sand densities andintermediate strength clay Installation relatively simple &
extensive oil & gas experiencefrom GoM, North Sea, W.Africa
Installation/capacity predictionanalyses well developed. Scour
protection design essential Highest quality geotechnical data
and analyses necessary forstability assessment. Cyclicloading assessment critical
Monopods installed successfullyfor Horns Rev Met Masts in 2009& adopted in 2012 for UKForewind/Firth of Forth Met Masts(Universal Foundation Monopod).
SPT in NL developing tripod SCsolution funded by Carbon Trust.Dudgeon full field SC jacketsplanned for 2016.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: Oxford University Civil Engineering
Source: SLP Engineering
Source: DONG
Source: DONG
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Guyed Tower and A-Framed Monopile
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: WA Design Ltd.Source: Bunce and Carey EWEA 2001
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TITAN 200 FWSS Jack Up Concept
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: http://offshorewindpowersystemsoftexas.com/titan_200_deep_offshore_platform
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Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (1); Early Refusals & Piling Noise
Piling Refusals
Heavy long large diameter monopilesand jacket piles increasingly being over-driven and drilled out in glacial depositsand bedrocks: Expensive and risky.
Pile Tip Buckling
(cf. Valhall Norwegian Aker/BP problems
in 2004, Oil & Gas platform expensiverepair and claim). Over driving in verydense and /or cemented glacialmaterials in S. North Sea may lead tobuckling failures if the industry continuesto adopt conservatively long piles
Piling Noise
2011 rules in Germany 160 Dba @ 750
m. restricted working periods &expensive mitigation measures. In UK soft start up piling and observationsrequired. Helical piles considered inScotland. Germany Air BubbleCurtains [ABC] & Hydro Sound Dampers[HSD] London Array, Baltic Sea tests.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
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Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (2); Vibro Installation & Scour
Vibro-InstallationTripods levelled using seabed vibro-installation to ~8 15 m using vibrohammers to reduce conventional hammernoise, allowing sequential levelling. Newishtechnique used on several large projects.
Accepted commercially viable offshoreGermany for partial pile installations
through pile sleeves or pre-installed groupsor monopiles.
Scour Prediction & Mitigation
Scour prediction according to DNV; S=1.3-1.6 * D. depends upon WD, soil type andgrading and seabed current.
May be allowed to develop (longer piles) orgravel and rock dump protection required (~500 -700 k Euros per monopile)
Alternatives include frond mats (plasticseaweed), rock mats, pile eddy breakingfins or diversion berms and fences
Accurate and cheap acoustic direct scourmonitoring now possible (e.g. Alpha Ventus).
Available commercially.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: Thyssen-Krupp.Source: SLP Engineering
Source: CEFAS Travelling Sand Waves @ Monopiles
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Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (3); Grouted Connections
For OWT monopiles, the transition piece [TP] transmits highbending moments. Brittle rock-like grouted connections wereadopted for most European projects for speed & cost savings.Most excluded reinforcing shear keys due to design codeomission. These have settled, cracked and failed on 70% UKmonopiles. Systemic design fault. Variety of extensive andcostly repairs have been required on many European projects.Oil & gas platform jackets used API designed grouted
connections for decades, but grout connection in jackets holda large mass so are always in compression. OWTs are light &subjected to long term cyclic bending, so complex vertical +bending force coupling & tensile stresses.
Ability to transfer large moment is not fully understood &design theories have limitations & shortfalls. The use ofconical TP sections as a solution [controlled failure] isuncertain in the long term.Industry best practice and code guidelines review on reliabilityof grouted connections. DNV guidelines were revised in 2011(new Code 2014), but still anomalies in predicting behaviour.Research ongoing to understand size and fatigue effects.Many developers reverting to bolted flange connections(Scroby Sands, North Hoyle and Blyth 12 years ago), withsome considering pile swaging or even slip joints as a morereliable long term solution. Requires verticality, careful driving.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: Harding et al 2012
Source: Lotsberg 2012
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Pile Foundation Issues & Problems (4); Monopile Resonance, CyclicFriction Degradation & Long Term Tilt in Sands
Monopile Resonance
Selection of dynamic properties essential for costeffective/reliable design. Affects rotor and supportstructure interaction & soil-foundation dynamic response.
Design solutions depend upon ratio between fundamentalstructure eigenfrequency f o, rotor frequency f R and bladepassing frequency f b = N b* f R choice between soft -soft [f o < f R ], soft -stiff [f R < f o < f b] and stiff -stiff [f B < f o].Cyclic Friction Degradation
Substantial reductions in axial pile friction and lateral P-Yresponse may occur due to the cyclic long term loadingexperienced by monopiles supporting large heavy 3-bladed5 MW + HAWT turbines
Long Term OWT Tower Tilt in Sands
Settling of towers/monopiles embedded in sands but notkeyed into bedrock may be large, leading to excessive tiltand shutdown & resetting for gearbox turbines.
Tilt of 0.5 deg is usual for OWT. Permanent tilt due toConstruction tolerance permanent tilt is subtracted, withtypical values 0.20 to 0.25 deg. Allowable operationalrotational stiffness is typically 25 to 30 GNm/radians.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
CyclicDisplacement
Accumulation in
Sands. Source: Achmus, Abdel-Rahman & Kuo(2007)
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Foundation Costs Comparisons
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: UPWIND Project Final report
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Offshore Floating Solutions Huge Potential Offshore Wind Resource
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: The Offshore Valuation, 2010.
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Future Offshore Wind Tethered Floating Structures 2 Examples
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3rd
- 4th February 2014
Source: Maine Int. Consulting, 2013.
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Fabrication Costs (early 2010)
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: Ballast Nedam, 2010.
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Maps: UK Round 3 & German North Sea Sites
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Offshore Wind Cost Trends Need for Reductions
Cost increases since 2005 due tocommodity price rises (mainlysteel) and installation
Monopile costs per kW flat-lining1991 2008
Deeper waters:- heavier and longer over-designed monopiles- more extensive and expensiveequipment and vessel spreads- higher downtime and weatherstandby costs
Insistence on known technologyleading to lack of innovation,conservatism, risk aversion on thepart of developers and lenders.
Lack of experience in developerorganisations; general skillsshortage.
Dr. C. R. Golightly GO-ELS Ltd. - Offshore Wind Turbine Optimisation Seminar 3 rd - 4th February 2014
Source: van der Zwaan et al, 2011
Source: The Offshore Valuation, 2010
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Main Conclusions (1)
1. Initially this new offshore industry has understandably used conservative
monopile and piled tripod (Germany) & 4-leg jacket (UK) solutions. CAPEXand investment still limited compared to other energy industries.
2. European Offshore Wind Industry has developed several foundationsolutions, steel /concrete, monopiles, AV piled tripods, BARD tripiles, triple& 4-leg jackets, truss towers, twisted jacket, guyed & A-frame monopiles,monopod suction caisson, triple/quad suction caissons.
3. Main Foundation Risks: Grouted connections, piling noise mitigation, over-conservative long, stiff, heavy pile design, pile tip buckling, unplanneddrilling/re-driving, tilt and settlement.
4. As more difficult rocky, irregular sites are encountered in deeper water,innovative and creative thinking necessary at an earlier stage (c.f. Atlanticand Argyll Array cancellations due to challenging seabed conditions)
5. Grouted connections fiasco -70% UK MPs failed. To be avoided if possible.Use bolted flanges or other direct connections. If unavoidable use shearkeys & robust grout seals. Are non shear keyed conical [1 o-3o] sectionsand/or elastomeric spring bearings valid for fatigue design life?
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Main Conclusions (2)
6. Industry as a whole needs more realistic offshore turbine tilt criteria, based
upon sound engineering analysis. Big impact on structure costs, influencingbusiness cases. Development of tilt-tolerant DD turbines can reduce costs.
7. New foundation solutions [e.g. Carbon Trust] slowly & patchily embraced(Met. Masts) in UK/Germany. Concrete GBS, twisted jackets & suctioncaissons more suited to some sites. Solutions extensive in offshore oil & gas.
8. For foundation costs to reduce [halved acc. US DoE], innovative solutionsneeded, selected/tailored to specific site conditions. Conservative risk averseattitudes in a relatively new industry should change as experience is gained.
9. The current plans to move to ~10 m dia., 1200 Tonne, 60 m + lengthmonopiles in ~40 m WD may be questionable & should be challenged.
10. Globally, early development of floating alternatives increasing, HYWIND
[Statoil], Principle Power [WINDFLOAT], Wave Hub [Glosten], Blue H,Offshore Japan [Various], France [IDEOL, WINFLO, VERTIWIND].
11. Gyro-stabilised floaters, fully submerged concrete/composites, tensiontethered damped synthetic mooring line, FPSO template, vertical axisturbines [VAWT] in WD > 50 m hold out most promise. Hybrid wind/tidal?
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References & Links
References Douglas- Westwood (2013), World Offshore Wind Market Forecast 2013 -2022, 5 th Edition.Golightly, C.R. (2014), Tilting of Monopiles ; Long, Heavy and Stiff; Pushed Beyond Their Limits, GroundEngineering; 2014, vol 47, No. 1, pp 20-23.van der Zwaan, R., Rivera-Tinoco, R., Lensink, S. & van den Oosterkamp , P., (2010) Evolving Economics of OffshoreWind Power: Cost Reductions from Scaling and Learning , Amsterdam 2010, p. 9. The Offshore Evaluation Group (2010), The Offshore Valuation Report; A Valuation of the UKs Offshore RenewableEnergy Resource, Public Interest Research Centre, p. 108. Maine International Consulting (2013), Floating Offshore Wind Foundations; Industry Consortia and Projects in theUnited States, Europe and Japan; An Overview, May 2013, p. 45Roland Berger (2013), Offshore Wind Toward 2020; On The Pathway to Cost Competitiveness, April 2013, p. 25.
LinksEWEA Offshore Statistics 2013 ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/statistics/EWEA_OffshoreStats_July2013.pdfEC Marine Knowledge 2020 Databaseec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/marine_knowledge_2020Global Wind Energy Council Country & Global Reportswww.gwec.net/publications/country-reportsIRENA Costs Database; irena.org/costsUK Govt. Offshore Wind Industrial Strategyhttps://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploadsUSA Offshore Wind Database: offshorewind.net4C Offshore Wind Database: 4coffshore.comUPWIND EWEA Project Final Report: upwind.eu
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Contact Details
Dr. C.R. Golightly, BSc, MSc, PhD, MICE, FGS . Geotechnical and Engineering Geology ConsultantRue Marc Brison 10G, 1300 Limal, BelgiumTel. +32 10 41 95 25Mobile: +44 755 4612888Email: [email protected]: chrisgolightly;
Linked In: www.linkedin.com/pub/5/4b5/469
You Pay for a Site Investigation -Whether You do One or Not Coleet al, 1991.
Ignore The Geology at Your Peril Prof. John Burland, Imperial College.
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http://www.linkedin.com/pub/5/4b5/469http://www.linkedin.com/pub/5/4b5/469