Overview of ophiolites and related units in the Late Palaeozoic–Early Cenozoic magmatic and...

Lithos 108 (2009) 1–36

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Overview of ophiolites and related units in the Late Palaeozoic–Early Cenozoicmagmatic and tectonic development of Tethys in the northern part of theBalkan region

Alastair Robertson a,⁎, Stevan Karamata b, Kristina Šarić c

a Earth & Planetary Sciences Group, School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JW, UKb Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Kneza Mihaila 35, 11000 Belgrade, Serbiac Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Đušina 7, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Robe

0024-4937/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.lithos.2008.09.007

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
The northern Balkan Penin Received 22 December 2007Accepted 16 September 2008Available online 27 September 2008
Keywords:Northern Balkan PeninsulaEvolutionMesozoicOphiolite genesis and emplacementMelange

sula, including Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Croatia and the Former YugoslavianRepublic of Macedonia, represents an excellent region for the study of tectonic processes related to MesozoicTethyan ophiolite genesis and emplacement. We first summarise the main tectonic units of the northernBalkan Peninsula and then use this information to discuss tectonic processes, including rifting, sea-floorspreading, ophiolite genesis and emplacement, melange accretion, ocean-basin closure and collision. Wethen discuss alternative models of ophiolite genesis and emplacement for the region and suggest that multi-ocean-basin interpretations fit the data better than single-ocean-basin interpretations.Rifting of Adria (Gondwana) during the Triassic created a rift in the south (Budva zone) and opened a Triassicoceanic basin further north (Dinaride ocean). Occurrences of inferred sub-continental mantle lithosphere inthe Dinaride ophiolite belt (e.g. Zlatibor) may record extensional exhumation within an ocean–continenttransition zone bordering the Adria/Dinaride continent. This was followed by emplacement together withophiolites and melange during Upper Jurassic–Early Cretaceous time. Upper Triassic radiolarites and mid-ocean ridge-type basalts formed at a spreading ridge after continental break-up. The oceanic lithosphere ofthe Dinaride ophiolite belt was partly generated above a subduction zone. The metamorphic soles of theDinaride ophiolites formed during Mid–Late Jurassic mainly based on K/Ar dating. Widespread melange thatis associated with the ophiolites represents a subduction complex, controlled by tectonic accretion andsedimentary reworking in trench and fore-arc basin settings. A possible cause of Jurassic Dinaride ophioliteemplacement was collision of a subduction trench with a continental margin. Further north, Mesozoicoceanic lithosphere subducted northeastwards (present coordinates) opening a Late Jurassic marginal basinin the Main Vardar zone. The Dinaride ocean in the south closed during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous time(Tithonian–Berriasian). Deformed oceanic crust, melange and magmatic arc rocks further north (Main Vardarzone) were transgressed by mainly clastic sediments during the Early Cretaceous. However, part of theVardar ocean (Vardar zone western belt, or Sava zone) remained partially open until latest Cretaceous time.Generally northward subduction within this remnant ocean triggered further supra–subduction zoneophiolite genesis during the Late Cretaceous. The ocean closed by the Maastrichtian, followed by EarlyCenozoic regional-scale southward thrusting that locally intercalated older and younger Mesozoic ophiolitesand melanges. Future progress particularly depends on determining the crystallisation ages of the ophiolites,obtaining better structural data on the direction of initial ophiolite emplacement and unravelling thePalaeozoic tectonic development of the Eurasian continental margin.

© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The geology and tectonics of Serbia and Bosnia are critical to anunderstanding of the tectonic evolution of the Mesozoic Tethys,especially when combined with evidence from Montenegro, the

rtson).

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Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (F.Y.R.O.M.), Albaniaand Greece to the southeast, and also from Italy, Croatia, Slovenia,parts of Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria to the west, north andnortheast (Fig. 1). Any tectonic model is critically dependent on thecorrect interpretation of key geological relationships, as demon-strated by a relatively small number of well-exposed, well-studiedlocalities within large areas of generally limited exposure (e.g.Kossmat, 1924; Petković, 1961; Dimitrijević, 1997; Hrvatović, 1999,2000b; Pamić et al., 2002b; Gerzina et al., 2006). The main

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Fig. 1.Outline tectonic map of the northern Balkan Peninsula and adjacent areas. See text for data sources (e.g. Dercourt et al., 2000; Dimitrijević, 2001; Pamić et al., 2002a; Karamata,2006). The location of Fig. 2 is marked as a box. The boundaries of the countries are shown, other than for former Yugoslavia in the north of the area which is shown in Fig. 2.

2 A. Robertson et al. / Lithos 108 (2009) 1–36

observations and local interpretations, relevant to regional tectonicinterpretation are summarised below, supported by a thoroughbibliography. Using this information we then discuss tectonic

processes in this region, notably rifting, seafloor spreading,subduction and collision, and also discuss several controversialaspects.

3A. Robertson et al. / Lithos 108 (2009) 1–36

Tethyan ophiolites can only be understood in the context of theirregional tectonic setting, including the adjacent continental marginunits. The region has been divided into a series of tectonic zones, orterranes, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 (see Karamata and Krstić, 1996;Karamata et al., 1996–97; Karamata and Vujnović, 2000; Karamataet al., 2000c; Hrvatović and Pamić, 2005; Karamata, 2006). However, adifficulty is that this terminology assumes particular tectonicprocesses (i.e. terrane assembly) and for this reason a simplified,non-genetic nomenclature will be adopted here to aid description anddiscussion.

Below, we summarise the regional tectono–stratigraphy, withemphasis on the Mesozoic. However, the Palaeozoic tectonostrati-graphy is also relevant as it exemplifies the framework for rifting ofthe Mesozoic Tethyan ocean, and aids correlation of several regionalunits. A simplified cross-section of the region is shown in Fig. 3, whilethe locations of geographic places mentioned in the text are given inFig. 4.

1.1. Continental units

1.1.1. Adria: microcontinent to the southThe Adriatic platform (Fig. 1) exposes the uppermost part of the

Adria continent (also known as Apulia) that lies largely beneath the

Fig. 2. Outline tectonic map of the Northern Balkan Peninsula, showing the tectonic zonatioophiolites. The approximate line of the simplified cross-section in Fig. 3 is shown. The polit

Adriatic Sea. Adria is generally interpreted as a large microcontinentthat was loosely attached to Gondwana (e.g. Dercourt et al., 1986,1993, 2000). Drilling in the Adriatic Sea has revealed a plutonicbasement, similar to that exposed in Italy (e.g. Calabria), overlain by aPalaeozoic–Holocene sedimentary cover (Meli and Sassi, 2003). Basedmainly on evidence from southern Italy (e.g. Sicily) and southernGreece (e.g. Crete), it is inferred that Adria was bordered to the southby one, or several, rifted deep-water basins that date from LatePalaeozoic–Triassic time (e.g. Sacanian basin in Sicily; Phyllite–Quartzite basin in Crete and S Peloponnese). Some authors believethat oceanic lithosphere was created around the southern peripheryof Adria only from the Late Triassic onwards (Robertson et al., 1991,1996; Robertson, 2006b; Smith, 2006a). An alternative is that asoutherly oceanic basin (“Neotethys”) opened to the south of Adriaduring Middle–Late Permian time, or even earlier, resulting in Adriabeing displaced towards Eurasia (Stampfli et al., 2001a,b). There is,however, little supporting field evidence of such early oceanspreading (e.g. Permian rifted margin units or ophiolites are notdocumented). In either scenario, oceanic crust existed duringMesozoic–Early Cenozoic time in the Mediterranean region to thesouth of Crete, extending beneath the Ionian Sea and possibly con-necting with the western Tethys to the northwest of Sicily (Catalanoet al., 1991).

n according to Karamata (e.g. Karamata, 2006) and the generalised occurrence of largeical boundaries shown are those of former Yugoslavia.

Fig. 3. Simplified cross-section of central Serbia and Montenegro, modified from Dimitrijević (2001). The section shows the relative positions of the main tectono–stratigraphic unitsin one line of section. No attempt is made to show the deep structure, which has resulted from several phases of deformation andwhich remains largely unconstrained in the absenceof deep seismic reflection data and wells. Alternative explanations of the timing of deformation and the distribution of the units are discussed in the text.


1.1.2. Budva Zone: continental riftThe southern part of Adria, mainly beneath the Adriatic Sea, is

separated from its northerly extension, here termed the Dinaridecarbonate platform (Figs. 1 and 2), by a narrow, NW–SE trending riftbasin. This is known as the Budva zone (Fig. 1) and is exposed in near-coastal areas of Montenegro and Croatia (Obradović and Goričan,1988; Goričan, 1994; Herak, 1997; Marjanac, 2000).

The succession in the Budva zone begins with Lower Triassic non-marine red clastic sediments and passes into a marine succession ofLadinian volcanics, volcaniclastics and siliceous deposits, and is thenfollowed by deep-water pelagic limestones and radiolarites thataccumulated during Late Triassic and Cretaceous time. The deep-water succession was succeeded by Palaeocene–Early Eocene silici-clastic turbidites in a foreland basin setting, related to thrusting ofnappes from the north, notably the overlying Dinaride carbonateplatform (Aubouin et al., 1970a; Herak, 1997). The Budva zone can begenerally correlated with the Krasta–Cukali zone of Albania and alsowith the Pindos–Olonos zone of Greece (Dercourt et al., 1986, 2000;Robertson and Shallo, 2000). The Budva zone is commonly interpretedas an intra-platform rift basin (Obradović and Goričan, 1988; Dercourtet al., 1986; Goričan, 1994; Dercourt et al., 2000). South of the Peć–Srbica transverse lineament (Fig. 1; also known as the Scutari–Pećlineament), the equivalent Krasta–Cukali and Pindos–Olonos unitsrestore as the passive margin of an oceanic basin, generally known asthe Pindos–Mirdita ocean (Robertson and Shallo, 2000). Accordingly,the Scutari–Peć lineament is likely to have acted as a transform faultseparating a rift basin to the northwest from a small oceanic basin tothe southeast (Robertson and Shallo, 2000). The Peć–Srbica lineamenthas indeed been interpreted to mark an important regional palaeo-geographic break during Mesozoic–Early Cenozoic time (Robertsonand Dixon, 1984; Dercourt et al., 1986, 2000; Dilek et al., 2005),although its nature and history of movement remain poorly known.

1.1.3. Dinaride carbonate platform and structurally overlying units:continental borderland

The Dinaride carbonate platform (Figs. 1 and 2) is equivalent to thetraditional Dalmatian–Herzegovinian zone (Dimitrijević, 1974), or the

High Karst nappe (Aubouin et al., 1970a). It exposes Carboniferous–Permian successions, overlain by mainly shallow-water carbonatesduring Mesozoic–Palaeogene time. Although relatively undeformed,the carbonate platform shows evidence of Cenozoic deformation,notably transpression that is most intensive in the northwest(Hrvatović, 2006). The Dinaride carbonate platform can be generallycorrelated with the Gavrovo–Tripolitza zone of Greece and Albania(Aubouin et al., 1970b), although the palaeogeography changedsomewhat across the Peć–Srbica transverse lineament. The Dinarideplatformwas thrust southwestwards over the Budva zone creating theHigh Karst nappe during Early Cenozoic time.

The Dinaride carbonate platform is structurally overlain along itsnortheastern margin by several allochthonous, continentally derivedunits that exhibit contrasting Palaeozoic–Triassic stratigraphicalsuccessions (Fig. 5). The most important of these are first, in thenorthwest, the Central Bosnian Mountains unit (also known as theMid-Bosnian Schist Mountain unit) and, secondly, in the southeast,the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit (Ramovš et al., 1984; Karamata andVujnović, 2000; Fig. 2). Another related unit, the Sana–Una unit, islocated further northeast (Fig. 2). Palaeozoic successions in all of theseunits exhibit Gondwanan affinities based on facies and palaeontolo-gical evidence. For example, Upper Carboniferous plant fossils aredistinct from Eurasian flora, as preserved in the more northeasterlyparts of the Balkan Peninsula (Pantić and Dulić, 1991). All of thePalaeozoic allochthonous units bordering the Dinaride carbonateplatform are inferred to have formed different parts of the southerncontinental margin of the Mesozoic Tethys during Mesozoic–EarlyCenozoic time (Karamata, 2006).

1.1.4. Central Bosnian Mountains unit: northerly part of rifted marginIn the southwest, the Central Bosnian Mountains unit is thrust

southwestwards over the Dinaride carbonate platform and is itselfoverthrust in the northeast by more distal continental margin unitsrepresented by the Bosnia nappes. The Central Bosnian Mountainsunit has within it several important fault lineaments, including theVrbas fault in the southwest, the Busovača fault further north and theSarajevo transverse fault in the east (Hrvatović, 1999). These faults

Fig. 4. Geographical map showing the places mentioned in the text, arranged according to tectonic units.MVZ (Main Vardar Zone): DK— Demir Kapija; Du— Dupci; Fa— Fanos; Ge—

Guevgeli; Kš — Kruševac — Stanovi and Prevešt; Le — Lepenac; Lo — Lojane; Pm — Promaja; Ve — Veles; Žu — Žunjska reka/river. KBR (Kopaonik block and ridge): Av —Avala; Kop —

Kopaonik Mt; Pk — Paicon; Rk — Rakovica. VZWB (Vardar Zone western belt): Bs — Banjska; Ce — Cer; De — Devovići; FG — Fruška Gora; Jc — Jelica Mt.; Ka — Kaona; Kz — Kozara Mt;Ma — Maljen; Mt — Motajica; Pg — Podgradci; PG —Požeška Gora; Ps — Prosara; Rž — Ržanovo; Te — Tejići; Tg — Troglav; Zv — Zvornik. DOB (Dinaride ophiolite belt): BF: M—J —Maslovare—Jotanovići; Bi — Bistrica; Bo — Borja; Bv — Borovnica; Br — Brezovica; Bq — Bulqiza; Ča — Čavka; Če — Čevljanovići; Db — Duboštica; Kg — Krš pod Gradcem; KO —

Konjuh; KR— Krivaja; Ku — Kukesi; Ml —Maglaj; Md—Mirdita; MG—Mokra Gora; Od — Ozren (Doboj); Or— Orahovac; Oš — Očauš; Os— Ozren (Sjenica); Pr— Priboj; PT — Pešterplateau; Pz — Prizren; Ra — Rakovica r.; Rb — Ribnica r.; Rz — Rzav river; Sb — Srbica; Sj — Sjenica; Ta — Tara; Ts — Teslić; Tz — Tuzinje; Ug — Ugar Group; Vd — Varda; Vg —

Vranduk Group; Vi— Vijaka; Vr— Vareš; Zb— Zlatibor. EBDU (East Bosnian–Durmitor unit): D— Durmitor; Mk—Moračka Kapa. CBMU (Central Bosnian Mountain unit): Bu— Bugojno;DCP: Ba — Banija; Ja — Jablanica; Kn — Knin; Prz — Prozor; RM — Radovan Mt.; SF — Sarajevo fault; VF — Vrbas fault.


were tectonically active during the Mesozoic. Also, the Busovačafault, in particular, was reactivated during the Cenozoic, associatedwith the development of a large lacustrine depocentre (Sarajevo–Zenica basin).

The succession in the Central Bosnian Mountains unit (Fig. 5)begins with quartzose psammitic and micaceous pelitic rocks thatwere metamorphosed to greenschist facies, or slightly higher grade,

before the end of the Silurian (Hrvatović, 1999). Thick dolomiticcarbonates of Devonian–Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) age areonly known in this unit. These rocks are covered by sandstones andshales, together with rhyolites interbedded with local tholeiitic meta–basalts. The poorly dated ‘Variscan’ igneous rocks could be of eitherSilurian or Permo–Carboniferous age. After a hiatus from Tournasianto Late Permian, conglomerates and sandstones accumulated,

Fig. 5. Generalised stratigraphy of the main allochthonous continental margin-type units within the Northern Balkan Peninsula. Data mainly from Karamata (2000, 2006).


followed by Triassic limestones, shales and sandstones (Karamata andKrstić, 1996; Karamata and Vujnović, 2000; Maslarević and Krstić,2001; Karamata, 2006).

1.1.5. East Bosnian–Durmitor unit: southerly part of rifted marginThis NW–SE trending unit (Figs. 1 and 2) is bordered by the

Dinaride ophiolite belt to the east and is thrust over the Dinaridecarbonate platform to the southwest. It is generally equivalent to theZone Serbe of Rampnoux (1970) and Aubouin et al. (1970a).Successions within this unit were thrust southwestwards duringlatest Cretaceous–Palaeogene continental collision.

Themain part of the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit comprises at leasttwo main tectonic subunits (Dimitrijević, 1997; Hrvatović, 2000a,c;Karamata and Vujnović, 2000). These encompass the older, Palaeo-zoic–Triassic Durmitor subunit that extends from east of Sarajevothrough southeast Bosnia, Montenegro and southwest Serbia to theMetohija Depression and the Albanian Alps, and also includes thePalaeozoic, but mainly Triassic to locally Lower Jurassic Čehotinasubunit, which structurally overlies the above lithologies. In thesouthwest the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit is thrust over UpperCretaceous siliciclastic turbidites (Durmitor flysch). The East Bosnian–Durmitor unit is similar to the Korabi unit in Albania further south,from which it is separated by the Metohija depression.

The succession in the Durmitor subunit (Fig. 5) beginswith sericiticschists, meta–sandstones and meta-carbonates, up to 250 m thick(e.g. as exposed on Mt. Kruščice). These sediments have experiencedgreenschist to lower epidote–amphibolite facies metamorphism, andare assumed to be of pre-Devonian age. Above come low-grademetamorphosed sandstones, shales, limestones and conglomerates,together with rare sodic rhyolites. The meta-carbonates includestomatoporoids and corals of Devonian age. The Early to Mid-Carboniferous interval, well exposed in SE Bosnia, comprises turbi-

dites and debris flows (“flysch and olistostromes”), with detachedblocks (“olistoliths”) of Silurian deep-water sediments and Devonianreef limestone. Plant-rich shales, up to 1000 m thick in SE Bosnia,include fusulinids, goniatites, conodonts, corals, bryozoans, brachio-pods and algae (Dimitrijević and Dimitrijević, 1970). The successionpasses into Upper Permian evaporites, red shales and sandstones, andthere are also limestones (“Bellerophon limestones”) rich in gastro-pods and calcareous algae. Above this come evaporites, sandstonesand shales of Permo–Triassic age. The succession ends with LowerTriassic sandstones, shales and late Anisian–Ladinian limestones withlocal intercalations of calc–alkaline volcanics, mainly andesites. Agranitic body of Late Jurassic age has been reported locally (Junik area;Dimitrijević, 2001) but its age and origin are not well known.

By contrast, the structurally higher Čehotina subunit is dominatedby shallow-water carbonates, together with shales and ferruginousdeposits (e.g. sideritic ironstone) of Early to Mid-Triassic age. Insoutheast Bosnia the Early Triassic succession is mainly made up ofsandstones, shales and rare conglomerates (‘Sarajevo sandstones’).Middle Triassic sediments, including ammonite-bearing limestones,are also widely exposed in southeast Bosnia, characterised by crinoid-and brachiopod-bearing limestones with ammonite-rich limestonestowards the top. Above this, the Ladinian succession is mainly thin-bedded limestone, commonly nodular, with stromatoporoids, calcar-eous algae, chert, also andesitic and dacitic flows and tuffs. Calcareoussediments contain Daonella sp., Halobia sp., Foraminifera and calcar-eous algae. The Carnian time interval is characterised by oolitic anddolomitic limestones, bituminous dolomite and shales. Thick-beddedneritic limestones and dolomites accumulated during the Norian–Rhaetian time interval. Intrusive and extrusive magmatic rocks ofAnisian–Ladinian age are widely developed in southeast Bosnia andnortheast Montenegro, notably as large bodies of andesite–dacite,volcaniclastic sediments and sparse basalts (see Discussion of Triassic


rifting later in the paper). There are also calc-alkaline intrusive rocks,including alkali feldspar (albite)–syenite, granite and quartzdiorite(Knežević, 1976; Knežević and Cvetković, 2000; Janković, 1974, 1987;Hrvatović, 2000c). Cu–Pb–Zn–Ag and Hg mineralization is generallyassociated with the Triassic magmatism.

In addition, the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit is bordered to thewestby a small but important lenticular body ∼5 km long by 1 km wide(between Moračka Kapa peak and the upper reaches of River Morača).This exposes deep-sea sediments, volcanics and ultramafic rocks,identical to those in the adjacent Dinaride ophiolite belt (S. Karamataand others, unpublished data).

The Silurian–Devonian successions record mainly shallow-watershelf deposition. The occurrencewithin the East Bosnian–Durmitor unitof detached blocks (“olistoliths”) of Silurian andDevonian rockswithin aCarboniferous flysch-type matrix is suggestive of a tectonically activeslope setting. Comparable “mélange” is exposed beneath Mesozoiccarbonate platform units in Turkey (i.e. the Chios–Karaburun melangeand the Konya melange; see Robertson and Pickett, 2000; Zanchi et al.,2003). The Carboniferous “olistostromes” could record an active marginsetting related to subduction of “Hercynian ocean”, whichwould in turnimply southward subduction beneath Gondwana. Alternatively, theycould record a collision-related foredeep setting, assuming a “Hercynianocean” closed during Early Carboniferous time.

Opinion is divided as to whether a “Hercynian ocean” closed in theBalkan region prior to the Late Carboniferous (e.g. Dercourt et al., 1986,1993, 2000; Ziegler and Stampfli, 2001; Cocks and Torsvig, 2006;Winchester et al., 2006), or remained open from Palaeozoic intoMesozoic time (Stampfli et al., 2001a,b; Karamata, 2006). Thedeposition of Permian red clastics in the Central Bosnian Mountainsunit following a hiatus is consistent with collision, followed by riftingand opening of Mesozoic Tethys in Robertson's opinion, whereasKaramata believes that the ocean remained open between Gondwana(Adria) and Eurasia (Ukrainian part, or Moesia) from Palaeozoic intoEarly Mesozoic time. The poorly dated Permo–Triassic slates, phyllitesand meta-sandstones probably accumulated in a subsiding rift basin,whereas the Triassic successions record a subsiding carbonate plat-form adjacent to the Mesozoic Tethyan ocean.

Karamata (2006) has interpreted the Central Bosnian Mountainsunit as an exotic terrane thatwere amalgamated to the Adria continentbefore Late Permian time. The East Bosnian-Durmitor unit is anotherexotic terrane that was amalgamated to Adria before the Jurassic. Themain reason is because of the similarity with the Korabi unit furthersouth, fragments separated by the Metohija Depression that reachedtheir present position during Lower/Middle Jurassic time. An alter-native (Robertson) is that the Central BosnianMountains unit records arelatively proximal (inboard) part of the Gondwanan continentalmargin, whereas the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit represents a moredistal and along-strike part of the same margin, without need forsignificant terrane displacement.

It is generally agreed that the East Bosnian–Durmitor unitsuccessions accumulated on the Adrian margin and that they werefinally emplaced southwards during Early Cenozoic time. However,their earlier history is uncertain, for example whether successionsaccumulated on the northern margin of the Dinaride carbonateplatform involving tens of kilometres of tectonic transport, or if theycould have been detached from a supposed more northerly extensionof Adria beneath the Dinaride ophiolite belt. This would imply a two-stage emplacement: first, Upper Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (Tithonian–Berriasian) tectonic transport associated with ophiolite emplacement,then a second phase of Early Cenozoic tectonic transport over Adria,both combined totalling several hundred kilometres.

1.1.6. Sana–Una and Kordun–Banija unitsThe low-grade metamorphosed Sana–Una and Kordun–Banija

units are located to the northwest of the East Bosnian–Durmitorunit and the Central Bosnian Mountains unit (Fig. 2). The Devonian to

Late Carboniferous (Early Bashkirian–MiddleMoscovian) time intervalin these units was dominated by siliciclastic sediments. After a break,sedimentation resumed in the Middle Permian with further siliciclas-tic sedimentation, passing into limestones (locally bituminous) andthen into Lower Triassic siliciclastic and carbonate deposits. Thesuccessions are very similar to those of the Jadar unit (Likodra nappe;see below) (Karamata and Vujnović, 2000) and also of the BükkMountains of northern Hungary (Filipović et al., 2003).

1.1.7. Bosnian nappes: continental margin slopeThe Basnian nappes are a series of thrust slices that are exposed

between the eastern margin of the Central Bosnian Mountains unitand the Dinaride ophiolite belt to the northeast (Blanchet, 1977;Olujić, 2008; Fig. 2). These thrust sheets are equivalent to the EastBosnian–Durmitor nappe of Dimitrijević (1997). Some of the units arealso equivalent to the Pre-Karstic Flysch Bosniaque of Aubouin et al.(1970a), termed the “Bosnian flysches” by Pamić (1993). Two mainunits are exposed as folded thrust sheets in the southeast of the mainoutcrop (north of Sarajevo). The first of these is made up of mainlyJurassic–Lower Cretaceous radiolarites of “continental margin type”.The second is Upper Jurassic turbidites (“Bosnian flysch”) and UpperCretaceous–Early Cenozoic turbidites (“Durmitor flysch”).

Relatively intact exposures in the northwest (Vranduk to Zenicaand Banja Luka) allow several partial successions to be restored andtentatively correlated. They begin with Middle Jurassic–Lower Cretac-eous, unusually thick-bedded radiolarian cherts with shaly partings(Vishnevskaya and Đerić, 2006). These sediments pass upwards, aftera disconformity, into Calpionellid-bearing pelagic carbonates, inter-bedded with sandstone turbidites and shales (∼1000 m thick) ofTithonian–Berriasian age (Vranduk Group of Olujić, 2008; Hrvatović,2000a,b; Hrvatović, 2006). The clastic sediments contain mixedterrigenous and ophiolite-derived material. This lower part of thesuccessionwas folded, cleaved and is then disconformably overlain bya contrasting sequence of pelagic limestones, marls and calcareousdebris flows of Turonian–Senonian age, according to Hrvatović(2000a). The older turbidites are equivalent to the “Durmitor Flysch”of Rampnoux (1970),more recently redefined as part of theUgarGroup(Hrvatović, 2000a, 2006; Olujić, 2008). The younger, Upper Cretaceoussediments (Ugar Flysch) are uncleaved and exhibit open folds with aSW vergence. The youngest exposed succession ends with marls andsandstone turbidites of Palaeocene age. All of these units were foldedand thrust-imbricated related to Palaeogene continental collision.

There is still considerable disagreement concerning the structuralhistory of the various “flysch” units. For example, Schmid et al. (2008)suggest that the Tithonian–Berriasian flysch with ophiolitic debrisformed far to the north, ahead of advancing Dinaride ophiolitic nappesand that the younger, Upper Cretaceous “flysch” developed in adifferent tectonic setting related to a Cretaceous (pre-Turonian) event(equivalent to the Alpine Gosau tectonic phase). Units of differentpalaeogeographical origin were later juxtaposed by out-of-sequencethrusting in this interpretation. On the other hand, Hrvatović (2000a,2006) envisages one overall succession. Different parts of thissuccession were affected in different ways by Late Cretaceous–EarlyCenozoic collision-related tectonics. More fieldwork is needed toresolve the different interpretations.

The pre-Upper Cretaceous sediments of the Bosnian nappes wereinitially interpreted as deep-water slope facies of the Adriancontinental margin (Rampnoux, 1970). This could be applicable tothe Upper Jurassic radiolarian facies. However, the Tithonian–Berriasian turbidites with ophiolite-derived debris can also beinterpreted as deep-water foredeep facies related to ophioliteemplacement (see Discussion of tectonic processes).

1.1.8. Drina–Ivanjica unit: continental fragmentThe Drina–Ivanjica unit is a thin, elongate, N–S- to NW–SE-

trending unit (Figs. 1–3) that separates the Dinaride ophiolite belt to


the southwest from the Vardar zone western belt to the northeast. Itdisappears beneath melange and ophiolites to the northwest and anysubsurface continuation is uncertain. The exposed succession of theDrina–Ivanjica unit (Milovanović, 1984; Đoković, 1985; Filipović andSikošek, 1999) begins with terrigenous sedimentary and maficvolcanic rocks, metamorphosed to greenschist facies (Fig. 5). Thestratigraphic positions of meta-quartzose conglomerates, meta-sandstone and meta-siltstones are uncertain owing to deformationand sparse exposure. The oldest units contain phytoplankton ofCambrian–Lower Ordovician age (Ercegovac, 1975). Lower Palaeozoiclithologies are metamorphosed and intensively folded. By contrast,overlying Carboniferous (Tournaisian–Bashkirian) sedimentary rocksare deformed but only metamorphosed to low-grade, or very low-grade. Lithologies include pelites, black cherts (lydites), redepositedcarbonates, sandstone turbidites and debris flows (“olistostromes”),with blocks of Devonian limestone.

The Carboniferous facies are unconformably overlain by red clasticsedimentary rocks of inferred Triassic age, then by varied shallow-water carbonate facies of Middle–Late Triassic age. In addition, Lowerto Middle Triassic neritic carbonates and silicic volcanic rocks arepresent as detached thrust slices (“olistoplaka”) and blocks. The slicesand blocks are exposed especially near the southern margin of theDrina–Ivanjica unit, where they are intercalated with ophiolitic rocksand melange (e.g. on the Pešter plateau between Duga Poljana andSjenica).

The nature and timing of metamorphism of the Drina–Ivanjica unitare controversial. Some authors infer pre-Devonian (Lower Palaeo-zoic) metamorphism (Filipović and Sikošek, 1999), whereas othersenvisage “Hercynian” (Upper Palaeozoic) deformation; e.g. folding onSW–NE axes (Ćirić and von Gaertner, 1962; Dimitrijević andDimitrijević, 1970). Milovanović (1984) described low-amphibolitefacies conditions from the lowest part of the Drina–Ivanjica unit andreported a muscovite age of 139–129 Ma (Early Cretaceous) based onK/Ar radiometric dating. This author attributed the metamorphism tonortheastward subduction of a spreading ocean ridge beneath aDrina–Ivanjica continental unit.

The Drina–Ivanjica unit has similarities with the East BosnianDurmitor Unit, especially the Carboniferous turbidites and detachedblocks (“olistostromes”). The black cherts can be interpreted as deep-sea pelagic sediments that were emplaced together with debris flowsand sandstone turbidites in an active margin or collisional setting, asfor the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit (see above). The Permo–Triassicsuccession records a rift setting, as documented in the Central BosnianMountains unit and the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit. The allochtho-nous Triassic volcanic–sedimentary bodies (“olistoplaka”) along thesouthern margin Drina–Ivanjica unit could represent a marginalextension of this rift-related unit prior to Mid-Jurassic deformationand ophiolite/melange emplacement.

The Drina–Ivanjica unit was initially viewed as a regional-scaleanticlinorium (Ćirić and von Gaertner, 1962) and was later interpretedas a folded or upthrust window of a regional Adria–Dinaride platform(Golija unit of Aubouin et al., 1970a; Rampnoux, 1970). More recently,the Drina–Ivanjica unit is interpreted as a microcontinent that riftedfrom Adria (Gondwana) (Dimitrijević, 1982; Robertson and Karamata,1994; Dimitrijević and Sikošek, 1997; Dimitrijević, 1997, 2001).However, the Drina–Ivanjica unit has also been correlated withEurasia, since it also shows some facies similarities with thePalaeozoic of western Europe with (Pamić et al., 1998; Hrvatović andPamić, 2005).

Recently, Schmid et al. (2008) infer that the Drina–Ivanjica unit ispart of Adria, which extends right under the Dinaride ophiolite belt(e.g. Aubouin et al., 1970a; Bernoulli and Laubscher, 1972). They citefacies similarities with successions exposed to the southwest alongthe margin of the Dinaride carbonate platform (e.g. Bosnian nappes),and propose a mid-Cretaceous regional tectonic event to upthrust theDrina–Ivanjica unit above the Dinaride ophiolites and melange. More

detailed sedimentological and structural work is needed to test thishypotheses; however, some problematic aspects are mentioned in theDiscussion of tectonic processes).

1.1.9. Jadar unitThis roughly square-shaped outcrop is known to extend north-

eastwards beneath Neogene sediments generally to the north of theSava River (Figs.1 and 2). The southwestern boundary of the Jadar unitis a NW–SE trending deformed zone (Dimitrijević, 2001), whereas thewesterly boundary is a tectonic contact with a narrow outcrop of theVardar zone western belt.

The succession in the Jadar unit (Fig. 5) is dominantly made up ofDevonian to Upper Carboniferous (Bashkirian) siliciclastic sediments,with shallow-marine carbonates also accumulating in some areasduring Devonian–Early Carboniferous. In addition, Upper Carbonifer-ous calcareous and terrigenous sediments occur in a northerlyextension of the Jadar unit (Likodra nappe). Fusulinid limestonesand siltstones accumulated from mid-Moskovian to earliest Permiantime. Sedimentation resumed in the Mid-Permian, with deposition ofclastic sediments, passing into gypsum, dolomite and bituminouslimestone, and this was followed by Lower Triassic shallow-watercarbonate deposition (Protić et al., 2000). Metamorphism is of verylow grade throughout the Jadar unit (Filipović et al., 2003; Krstić et al.,2005).

The stratigraphy of the Jadar unit is generally similar to that of thePalaeozoic Sana–Una unit and the Kordun–Banija unit further west,and also to the Palaeozoic of the BükkMountains in Northern Hungary(Csontos, 1999; Dimitrijević et al., 2003; Filipović et al., 2003) and thesoutheastern Alps (Haas et al., 1995). These units typically includeLower Carboniferous turbidites, followed by discontinuous neriticsedimentation, and also Upper Permian “Bellerophon limestones” thatare typical of the Gondwana margin. The presence of evaporitessuggests a relatively proximal (inboard) setting. However, each of theunits differ somewhat when the sedimentary facies and palaeogeo-graphy considered in detail.

Karamata (2000) correlated the Jadar unit with the Sana–Una unitand the related Kordun–Banija units to the northwest, and with theBükk Mountains in Northern Hungary. In this interpretation theseunits are seen as parts of the northwestern margin of Adria that weredetached and transported southwards in response to right-lateralstrike–slip, which has been documented in the field (Gerzina andCsontos, 2003). The timing of this displacement was either mid-Cretaceous (Karamata, 2006), or Early Cenozoic (Dimitrijević, 2001).On the other hand, Schmid et al. (2008) see the Jadar unit as anotherpart of Adria extending regionally beneath the Dinaride suture zone.In this case the missing Mid-Triassic to Mid-Jurassic cover could havebeen delaminated and thrust ahead of the ophiolitic rocks, forexample, as the Bosnian nappes (see Discussion of tectonicprocesses).

1.1.10. Kopaonik unitThe Kopaonik unit (Kopaonik block and ridge unit of Karamata,

1995, 2006) is a thin, elongate NNW–SSE trending outcrop thatextends northwards to around Belgrade and then continues insubcrop as far as Tisia (Pamić et al., 2002b). The Kopaonik unitextends southwards in outcrop and has been correlated with thePaikon unit in Macedonia (Karamata, 2006). In the east, the Kopaonikunit is unconformably overlain by Lower Cretaceous clastic sediments(“Paraflysch” of Dimitrijević and Dimitrijević, 1987). In the west, theKopaonik unit and “Paraflysch” unit are covered by Upper Cretaceous,mainly turbiditic sediments (“Senonian flysch”).

The better-exposed eastern flank of the Kopaonik unit (in thesouth) includes organic-rich limestones (“Guterstein Limestone”), ofinferred Middle Triassic age, overlain by Upper Triassic grey siliceouslimestones. Its northern and western flanks expose a succession ofpartly Carnian-aged low-grade-metamorphosed clastic sedimentary


rocks and subordinate basalts, passing upwards into limestones.Upper Triassic siliceous meta-limestones were metamorphosed toN300 ° C based on conodont colour indices (CAI 5–7) (Sudar andKovacs, 2006). However, the timing of this burial metamorphism isunconstrained (Late Jurassic and/or Early Cenozoic). Triassic litholo-gies are overlain by Jurassic melange on both flanks of the Kopaonikunit. Mainly clastic sediments accumulated both to the west and theeast of the exposed Kopaonik unit during the Cretaceous (Dimitrijevićand Dimitrijević, 1987).

To the southwest of theKopaonikunit, a small additional thrust sheetknown as the Studenica slice (not shown in Figs. 2 and 3), exposesLower–Middle Triassic psammitic/pelitic clastic sediments and neriticcarbonate deposits, together with Mid-Triassic basalts (Memović et al.,2004) and Upper Triassic siliceous limestones (Dimitrijević, 1997). TheStudenica slice is unconformably overlain by Upper Cretaceous clasticsediments (Kosovska Mitrovica flysch), including conglomerates, reefcarbonates and, above this, thick sandstone turbidites (Dimitrijević andDimitrijević, 1987). FromMiddle Triassic time onwards, the stratigraphyof the Kopaonik unit, the Studenica slice and the Drina–Ivanjica unit allshow marked similarities.

The tectonic affinities of the Kopaonik unit are questionable (seeDiscussion of tectonic processes). Karamata (2000, 2006) suggestedthat the Kopaonik unit represents a continental fragment (terrane)that rifted from the Drina–Ivanjica unit during the Upper Triassic. The

Fig. 6. Summary of the units present within the Dinaride ophiolite belt. See tex

Studenica slice is correlated with the Drina–Ivanjica unit in thisinterpretation.

Another option is that the Kopaonik unit rifted from the Serbo–Macedonian composite unit to open a Triassic basin. This is suggestedby a possible correlation of the Kopaonik unit with Paikon unit innorthern Greece. In this area (i.e. the eastern Voras Mountains) thePaikon unit has a basement of high-grade metamorphic rocks (schistsand gneiss). Unconformably overlying rocks include Jurassic arc-typemagmatic rocks (Mercier, 1968; Brown and Robertson, 2004). Thesouthwest margin of the Serbo–Macedonian unit shows evidence ofrifting during the Triassic to open a Vardar ocean basin (Stais andFerrière, 1991; Stampfli et al., 2001a,b). The Paikon unit has beeninterpreted as the rifted conjugate margin of this oceanic basin(Brown and Robertson, 2003, 2004). The Kopaonik unit was correlatedwith the Paikon unit exposed in F.Y.R.O.M. and Greek Macedonian(Arsovski, 1997; Karamata, 2006), mainly on grounds of similarstructural position along strike. Lithological comparison is difficultbecause in Serbia the Kopaonik units lacks a Jurassic succession and noPermo–Triassic cover units are preserved above the metamorphicbasement of the Serbo–Macedonian unit, presumably owing toerosion. However, one option is that the Kopaonik unit rifted fromthe Serbo–Macedonian composite unit during the Triassic.

In addition, the Kopaonik unit has been interpreted as an upthrustfragment of a regional Adria–Dinaride platform extending beneath the

t for data sources and discussion (e.g. Dimitrijević, 1982; Karamata, 2006).


Dinaride suture zone (Rampnoux, 1970). This view is supported bySchmid et al. (2008) who suggest that the elongate outcrop resultedfrom late-stage regional-scale folding, prior to the intrusion of anOligocene granodiorite. They interpret the eastern margin of theKopaonik unit as the most easterly preserved part of the Adriaticplatform, which was overthrust by ophiolitic rocks during LateJurassic–Early Cretaceous time. It is, however, difficult to evaluatethis hypothesis owing to the presence of unconformably overlyingUpper Cretaceous clastic sediments (e.g. Dimitrijević and Dimitrijević,1987). Also, there in an apparent age difference between themetamorphic sole amphibolites of the Main Vardar zone (K/Ar age187–182 Ma) and the Vardar zone western belt (K/Ar age 154 to146 Ma; Karamata 2006).

1.1.11. Serbo–Macedonian composite unitTo the east, the Kopaonik unit is tectonically overlain by the Main

Vardar zone (see below) and then by the Serbo–Macedoniancomposite unit. The Serbo–Macedonian composite unit is made upof a variety of relatively high-grade metamorphic rocks, some ofwhich are of Panafrican age with a Variscan overprint (Dallmeyeret al., 1996; Krstić et al., 1996; Haydoutov and Janev, 1996; Karamata,2006). The Serbo–Macedonian composite unit is generally believed tohave formed the northerly, Eurasian margin of the Tethyan oceanduring Mesozoic–Early Cenozoic time. However, its setting during theLate Palaeozoic is controversial, in particular whether is experiencedcontinental collision related to closure of a “Hercynian ocean” (e.g.Dercourt et al., 2000), or remained an active margin into Mesozoictime with ongoing northward subduction (e.g. Stampfli and Borel,2000; Stampfli et al., 2001a,b; Karamata, 2006). Possible correlationswith the Carpathian region are discussed by Schmid et al. (2008); seealso Hoeck et al. (2009-this volume).

2. Oceanic-related units

Oceanic-related units, including volcanic and pelagic sedimentaryrocks, ophiolitic rocks, sandstone turbidites andmelanges are exposedwithin the Dinaride ophiolite belt, the Vardar zone western belt andthe Main Vardar zone (Figs. 1 and 2).

2.1. Dinaride ophiolite belt

2.1.1. Ophiolites and melangeThe NW–SE-trending Dinaride ophiolite belt, equivalent to the

traditional Diabas–hornstein formation (e.g. Dimitrijević, 1982), lies tothe northeast of the Dinaride carbonate platform and related units,and is bounded by the Drina–Ivanjica unit to the northeast (Figs. 2and 3). Northwards, the Dinaride ophiolite belt wedges out, butreappear as small lenticular outcrops in the west. In addition,comparable ophiolitic lithologies are exposed in the Darno andSzarvaczko areas of northern Hungary (Dimitrijević et al., 1999,2003; Karamata, 2006). Also, the Dinaride ophiolite belt extendssoutheastwards into an important area known as the Metohijadepression that is located to the south of the Peć–Srbica transformfault. Equivalent ophiolitic units continue through Albania, within theMirdita zone, and into northern Greece, as theMesohellenic ophiolites(e.g. Pindos and Vourinos ophiolites).

The Dinaride ophiolite belt consists of two fundamental compo-nents, both allochthonous. The first is a melange, traditionally knownas the Dinaride olistostrome, and the second is variably dismembered,mainly ultramafic bodies, known as the Dinaride ophiolites (Figs. 6–8).

The melange consists of detached blocks and dismembered thrustsheets of various lithologies and ages set in a sheared clasticsedimentary matrix. There are two main lithological assemblages:the first is sedimentary, and the second volcanic–sedimentary. Thematrix is dominated by sandstone/siltstone turbidites. Interbeddedshales locally contain fine-grained plant material. Radiolarian cherts,

indicative of deep-water or oceanic conditions, are locally intercalatedwith basalts, with either primary depositional or tectonic contacts,and are also present as individual chert-blocks in the melange.Radiolarian cherts of locally Carnian age are interbedded with basaltthat is interpreted as oceanic crust. In addition, isolated chert blocks inthe melange span a wider age range encompassing Carnian–Norian,late Early Jurassic, Middle–Late Jurassic, to Early Tithonian (Goričanet al., 1999; Vishnevskaya and Đerić, 2006; Vishnevskaya et al., 2009-this volume). Also, small outcrops of Carnian–Norian radiolarites arepresent in NW Croatia (Mts. Kalnik and Medvednica). These wereemplaced from the Dinaride ophiolite belt, or an equivalent unit(Halamić and Goričan, 1995).

The sedimentary blocks occur as “olistoliths” and dismemberedlimestone thrust sheets (“olistoplaka”). These commonly includeUpper Triassic shallow-water limestone (Dachtstein-type facies) andUpper Triassic pelagic limestones (Hallstatt-type facies). The pelagiclimestones are locally overlain by Jurassic radiolarites that locally passstratigraphically upwards into debris flows composed of mixedterrigenous and ophiolitic material. There are also numerous smallerblocks including limestones, radiolarian cherts and sandstones.Petrographic work shows that the matrix sandstones are commonlysubgraywacke. Dismembered thrust sheets (“olistoplaka”) commonlyoccur in the higher levels of the melange, especially in the northwestclose to the Drina–Ivanjica unit, where they include Triassic neriticlimestones intercalated with melange and ophiolitic rocks.

An important feature of the melange is the presence of bodies ofred granitic rocks that range in size from scattered pebbles, tolenticular blocks or sheets (“plates”) up to hundreds of meters in size.These granites are dated at ∼315 Ma (Late Carboniferous) using U–Pbisotopes (Karamata et al., 1996) (see Discussion of tectonic processes).

Within the Dinaride ophiolite belt MOR-type basalt occurs aspillow lava, massive lava and lava breccia, mainly as blocks anddismembered thrust sheets (Robertson and Karamata, 1994). Exam-ples are known from Banija in Croatia, through Bosnia, from Borja toKrivaja, Konjuh and Varda (Trubelja et al., 1995) and also in Serbia,including Zlatibor, Priboj–Bistrica, Nova Varoš and Prijepolje (Zakar-iadze et al., 2006; Vishnevskaya et al., 2009-this volume). The basalticrocks typically contain plagioclase and clinopyroxene, correspondingto low-potassium tholeiites. All of these rocks experienced medium-to low-temperature ocean-floor hydrothermal metamorphism. Traceelements identify a N-MORB signature, in places transitional to E-MORB. In addition, rare alkaline basalts have been discovered in avolcaniclastic unit (lava breccia) in the melange between Bistrica andPriboj (Popević et al., 2004).

Diabase and dolerite also occur within the melange, ranging in sizefrom metre-sized blocks to kilometre-sized dismembered thrustsheets. Sheeted dykes are recognizable in some of the larger bodies.Gabbro and ultramafic ophiolitic bodies are locally cut by eitherisolated or multiple basic dykes. Bodies of sheeted dykes and massivediabase are exposed near themargins of several of the large ultramaficmassifs, suggesting that they formed part of a dismembered ophiolitepseudostratigraphy.

Ophiolitic gabbros that are generally strongly altered, occur asscreens between diabase dykes, as bodies of isotropic gabbro, and aslayers or bodies within cumulate ultramafic rocks. In addition, gabbroswithin the melange range from small bodies to kilometer-scale,dismembered thrust sheets.

Relatively intact cumulate sequences are locally preserved,particularly at the margins of ultramafic bodies (Karamata, 1979).Examples include the lower part of the Rzav river valley at the SWmargin of the Zlatibor ultramafic massif and along the southernmargin of the Krivaja–Konjuh ultramafic massif. The basal parts ofthese sequences consist of layered cumulates including dunite,hazburgite, lherzolite and wehrlite. These lithologies are eitherintergradational with each other (e.g. Rzav area), or consist ofplagioclase-dunite and plagioclase wherlite (e.g. Krivaja–Konjuh

Fig. 7. Occurrence of the main ophiolitic massifs of the Dinaride ophiolite belt in former Yugoslavia, the Mirdita zone in Albania and the Pindos zone in northern Greece. Ophioliticunits of the Vadar zone western belt and the Main Vardar zone are excluded. See text for discussion and data sources.


cumulates). The upper parts of the cumulate sequences are composedof various gabbroic rocks interlayered with occasional ultramaficcumulates. The gabbroic rocks are chiefly olivine gabbros andtroctolites, with subordinate clinopyroxene gabbros; clinopyroxenegabbros occur in the higher levels of the sequence (Pamić andDesmons, 1989).

Small chromite layers and lenses occur in dunite layers, or lenseswithin the lowermost parts of the cumuate zone, or within the

uppermost parts of tectonite peridotites, commonly associated withpyroxenites. The best known and largest occurences is at Duboštica,on the southwest margin of the Krivaja massif. Other smallerexamples are from the southern part of the Borja ultramafic massifin the southern part of the Zlatibor massif, and in the northeast of theSjenički Ozren massif.

Ultramafic units particularly occur at high structural levels of thetectono–stratigraphy, commonly above outcrops of melange. Smaller

Fig. 8. Summary of the main relationships of sedimentary units that constrain the timing of ophiolite and melange emplacement. Data mainly from Hrvatović (1999) and Karamata(2000, 2006).


ultramafic bodies also occur throughout the melange (e.g. Dimitri-jević, 2001). The largest ultramafic massif, Zlatibor forms a laterallypersistent, relatively undeformed plate-shaped body that is exposedfor N500 km2 and is N1000 m thick, based on geophysical evidence(Milovanović and Mladenović, 1966/67; Popević and Karamata, 1996).In Bosnia, the Krivaja–Konjuh ultramafic massif is exposed over400 km2 (Hrvatović, 2006, Lugović et al., 2006). Ultramafic rocks alsooccur as large massifs in Mount Ozren (of Doboj), in the BorjaMountains, in the Rzav River and in Mount Ozren (of Sjenica).Ultramafic masses ∼100–200 km2 in size occur elsewhere in westernSerbia and Central Bosnia (Figs. 2 and 7).

Several of the large ultramafic bodies include cumulate ultramaficsand gabbros at the top of the section, and some also havemetamorphicsoles (e.g. Brezovica). Large masses of diabase are well exposed in thenorthern part of the Krivaja–Konjuh and Rzav ophiolites (Pamić andDesmons, 1989). Ophiolitic volcanics are seen near Bistrica and Priboj,in theManjača area (between Žepče and Teslić), and in exposures alongthe Rzav and Ribnica rivers (Hrvatović, 2006). Some of the largerultramafic bodies (e.g. Zlatibor, Krivaja–Konjuh, Borja) overlie themelange in the form of large superficial sheets showing varyingdegrees of fragmentation and mixing with underlying melange. Inaddition, several bodies of inferred lithospheric mantle (see below)exhibit high-temperature contact metamorphic rocks (i.e. Bistrica,Sjenički Ozren, Borja) that were dated using Sm–Nd techniques as Late

Jurassic/Early Cretaceous and Early Cretaceous (Lugović et al., 1991;Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume).

Mantle tectonite ultramafics make up the largest of the ultramaficbodies, of which the best studied is Zlatibor. Within the Dinarideophiolite belt geophysical studies (gravity and magnetic) suggest thatthese ophiolitic bodies are relatively thin sheets (b2–3 km thick;Roksandić, 1971/1972). Their basal contacts are tectonic, with adiscontinuous metamorphic sole in some places. The ultramaficbodies are primarily lherzolitic, composed of olivine (forsterite),orthopyroxene (enstatite), clinopyroxene (Fe- and Al-poor), minor lateprasinitic amphibole and chrome–picotite. Typically, the ultramaficrocks are partially (∼30%) serpentinised, while ∼100% serpentinisa-tion can occur close to bounding contacts. The fabrics are typicallymetamorphic: pyroxenes show planar and linear fabrics resultingfromHP–LTmantle flow, followed by brittle cataclasis, frequentlywithlater recrystallisation. Mantle layering is defined by pyroxene-rich,and pyroxene-poor bands of variable thickness. Chrome–picotitegrains commonly share the fabric of their host rocks.

In addition, the large ultramafic massif of Ozren (Sjenički), SE ofBistrica, is dominated by plagioclase lherzolites. Plagioclase-free lherzolites occur in the peripheral parts of the massif, whilemetamorphosed oceanic crust is found around the margins of thismassif (Popević, 1985a,b; Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume). Oneexplanation of the plagioclase lherzolites is that they formed by solid


recrystallisation during uplift of spinel lherzolites, allowing spinel tobe replaced by plagioclase-chromite (Popević, 1985a,b). Alternatively,the plagioclase lherzolites relate to the percolation of basaltic meltsthrough a highly depleted ultramafic rock (i.e. refertilisation; Bazylevet al., 2006, 2009-this volume). It has also been suggested that the hotultramafic massifs were emplaced diapirically into overlying oceaniccrust resulting in contact metamorphism (Popević, 1985a,b). This wassuggested because the metamorphosed crust mainly occurs aroundthe periphery rather than beneath the ultramafic massifs. However, itis also possible that the metamorphosed oceanic basic rocksoriginated as a metamorphic sole, and that this was followed bythrusting and folding during initial Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, orlater, Early Cenozoic tectonic emplacement during which structuralrelationships were changed.

Recentmineral chemistry studies (Bazylev et al., 2003, 2006, 2009-this volume) show that the ultramafic bodies as a whole fall into twomain classes. This first is mainly fertile lherzolites (e.g. Bistrica,Sjenički Orzen, Borja and part of the Kozara massifs) that areinterpreted as tectonically emplaced sub-continental mantle. Thesecond general class is composed of depleted spinel harzburgite (i.e.Brezovica and Tuzinje massifs) and may also include ultramafic rocksinternally ranging from lherzolite to harzburgite (Zlatibor, BosanskiOzren massifs and possibly also Konjuh). This assemblage is attributedto formation in a supra-subduction zone-type oceanic setting (Bazylevet al., 2003, 2009-this volume).

Partially preserved, to intact, metamorphic soles occur beneathseveral of the ultramafic ophiolitic massifs, especially along theirsouthern contacts. These include Banija, in Croatia and severallocations in central Bosnia, including the Snjegotina and Skatavicaareas east of Banja Luka; the southernmargin of the Borja massif (nearBlatnica), and along the margin of the Krivaja–Konjuh massif. nearVijaka (N of Sarajevo). In addition, in western Serbia, a dismemberedmetamorphic sole is associated with several outcrops of the relativelythin parts of the Zlatibor massif. Amphibolites with very rare meta-psammitic and meta-pelitic interlayers occur near the contact of theultramafic ophiolitic rocks. Close to the contact the amphibolites arecommonly garnet bearing or even garnet-rich, and originated underhigh-grade amphibolite facies conditions. The amphibolites of highermetamorphic grade mainly formed from cumulate gabbros, whereasthe protoliths of the lower grade sole rocks are mainly diabase–dolerite (Pamić et al., 2002b). The grade of metamorphism decreasesto epidote-bearing amphibolites within a few tens of metres of theultramafic contact and then to greenschist facies. Meta-sedimentaryrocks interlayered with the metamorphic sole close to the ultramaficcontact include biotite-bearing schists, whereas those further fromthe ultramafic contact aremainlymuscovite-bearingmeta-sandstonesand schists. Overall, the metamorphic soles document a progressivedecrease in metamorphic grade structurally downwards, from high-grade amphibolite facies to greenschist facies, and then to unmeta-morphosed melange. An excellent example of this is the Brezovicamassif (Serbia), east of the Metohija depression (Karamata, 1985;Karamata et al., 1999a, Bazylev et al., 2003).

Where dated by the K/Ar method, the ophiolitic metamorphicsoles appear to range in age from 181 to 157 Ma; i.e. latest Lias–LateCallovian (Karamata, 2006). As examples, the calculated time ofcooling to 500 °C was 157 Ma for the Vijaka sole and 170 Ma for theBistrica sole (Lanphere et al., 1975).

Unusual amphibolitic rocks occur north of Sarajevo in the southernpart of the Konjuh part of the Krivaja–Konjuh massif, near Vijaka(Pamić and Kapeler, 1970). They are also found in southern Serbia,in the southern part of the Zlatibor massif (Bistrica area). Theseoccurrences have been interpreted as part of a regional-scaleunit (Vijaka–Bistrica amphibolite complex), up to 3–7 km wide andextending NW–SE ∼120 km (although with a 70 km break in outcropin the middle). The main lithologies are garnet–clinopyroxeneamphibolite (Milovanović, 1988), garnet amphibolite (with up to

40% garnet) and locally corundum-bearing pargasitic amphibolite(Popević and Pamić, 1973). The garnets in the garnet–clinopyroxeneamphibolites comprise almandine- (42–45%), pyrope- (42–45.6%) andgrossular (15–23%). The amphibolites originated from a basaltic–gabbroic protolith under pressures of ∼10 kb at up to 1000 °C. Ongrounds of chemical composition, the corundum-bearing pargasiteamphibolies could have originated from subduction of basaltichyaloclastite that was first altered to bentonite. The associatedultramafic rocks in the northeast locally contain dykes of garnetpyroxenite that crystallised at pressures of ∼16 kb at ∼1400 °C, andwere later exhumed together with the adjacent ultramafic rocks(Popević et al., 1993; see also Bazylev et al., 2006).

2.1.2. Ophiolites of southermost SerbiaOphiolites outcrop within erosional windows in a critical neotec-

tonic basin, known as the Metohija depression (Fig. 7), between theophiolites of the Dinaride ophiolite belt to the north and those of theMirdita zone in Albania and northern Greece to the south. Theophiolites within the Metohija depression are exposed to the east andto the south of the Peć–Srbica transverse fault. These faults lineamentswere probably precursors of important pre-Upper Cretaceous faultsmarking the northern and western margins of the Metohija depres-sion. Gravity data (Roksandić, 1971/1972) and magnetic data (Geo-magnetic map, 1970) suggest that dense ultramafic ophiolitic rocks,estimated as 6–9 km thick, underlie the basin but disappear north-wards towards the transverse fault. Small outcrops of ophiolite occur inthe eastern part of theMetohija depression (north of Orahovac). In thisarea the rocks are mainly serpentinized harzburgite and dunite,together with poikilitic wherlite representing the lower levels of theultramafic cumulate sequence (Antonijević et al., 1968a,b; Lončarević,1978; Lončarević et al.,1978;Menković et al.,1979, Karović et al.,1979).These ophiolitic rockswere exposed, altered and lateritised during LateJurassic–Early Cretaceous time, following tectonic emplacement.

The ophiolite exposures with the Metohija depression can becompared with adjacent areas. Outcrops in the southern part of thedepression are dominated by harzburgite, which extends southwardsinto Albania as the very large (60 N–S x 30 km E–W) Mirdita–Tropojamassif (Geological Map of Albania, 1983; Frasheri et al., 1996). Inaddition, ultramafic ophiolitic rocks are exposed in the Brezovicamassif ∼25 km to the east of theMetohija depression (Karamata,1968,1985; Bazylev et al., 2003). The Brezovica massif is domimated byspinel harzburgite with intercalations of chromite-bearing dunite. Thehighest levels of the ophiolite pseudostratigraphy, exposed in the east,are dunite, feldspar-bearing dunite, pyroxenite and poikilitic lherzo-lite, cut by gabbroic rocks. The Brezovica ophiolite is underlain by anintact metamorphic sole that ranges from ∼550 m in structuralthickness in thewest to ∼150m in the east. The amphibolite sole rockscontain sillimanite–gneiss intercalations in the west but biotite–schistintercalations in the east, consistent with a decrease of metamorphicgrade structurally downwards (Karamata, 1968). The Brezovicaultramafic rocks are interpreted as a supra-subduction zone-typeophiolite (Bazylev et al., 2003, 2009-this volume). This ophiolite issimilar in composition to several of the ultramafic ophiolitic massifs ofthe Vardar zone western belt.

The combined geophysical and field evidence suggest that thatoutcrops within the Metohija depression, Brezovica to the east andMirdita–Tropoja to the southwest were all emplaced as parts of a vastharzburgitic thrust sheet. By contrast, to the north of the Peć–Srbicatransverse fault a separate sheet of ophiolitic rocks is estimated as lessthan 3 km thick, based on geophysical evidence. The nearest largeophiolite outcrop, ∼100 km further north at Ozren (Sjenica) is oflherzolitic type, typical of the Dinaride ophiolite belt generally.

Karamata infers that the Peć–Srbica transverse fault represents animportant structural break between ophiolites to the south that aremainly harzburgitic and those to the north that are more lherzolitic.This change in character appears to be abrupt (several kilometres),


near the present northern margin of the Metohija depression.Karamata suggests that this change could be explained by theexistence of an oceanic transform fault which separated an oceanicarea to the south (Pindos–Mirdita) in which both mid-ocean ridge-type and supra-subduction zone-type oceanic crust formed, fromanother oceanic area to the north (Dinaride) in which only MORB-likeoceanic lithosphere was generated. An alternative favoured byRobertson is that the Jurassic ophiolites of the Pindos–Mirdita zonein Greece and Albania and the Dinaride ophiolite belt both mainlyformed in a subduction-related setting, mainly based on chemical andmineralogical evidence.

2.1.3. Extension into Albania and northern GreeceSouth of theMetohija depression the ophiolites of theMirdita zone

in Albania are divided into those of northern Albania, and those ofsouthern Albania that extend without a break into the ophiolites ofnorthern Greece within the Pindos zone (Fig. 7). Ophiolites furthersouth in Greece are not discussed here.

Early geochemical studies of the ophiolites in northern Albaniasuggested that they could be divided into a MOR-type belt in the westand a supra-subduction (SSZ)-type belt in the east (Shallo et al., 1987,1990; Shallo, 1992, 1994; Robertson and Shallo, 2000). In this scenario,the eastern belt extends from the Scutari–Peć (Peć–Srbica) transversefault, through the ultramafic massifs of Mirdita/Tropoja, Kukesi,Bulqiza and Shebenik, all in Albania, to Vourinos in northern Greece.The western belt was believed to pass from the Krrab ultramaficmassif in northwestern Albania, through the Skenderbeg, Shpatand Voskopoja massifs in Albania to the Pindos ultramafic massif(Dramala) of northern Greece.

Beccaluva et al. (1994) envisaged the existence of tectonic contactsbetween contrasting western and eastern ophiolite belts in northernAlbania. However, Shallo (1992, 1994) reported the existence ofprimary magmatic contacts between MOR-type and SSZ-type ophio-lites. Recent radiometric dating of intrusive rocks within the ophiolitesof northern Albania do not indicate an age difference between theMOR- and SSZ-type ophiolites (Dilek et al., 2005, 2008).

Subsequent work suggests that MOR-type ophiolites are restrictedto northern Albania because only SSZ-type ophiolites have beenidentified in southern Albania (Hoeck et al., 2002; Koller et al., 2006).Also, ophiolites in northern Greece (e.g. Vourinos; Dramala) areinterpreted as a single emplaced thrust sheet (Jones et al., 1991),termed theMesohellenic ophiolite (Rassios andMoores, 2006; Rassiosand Dilek, 2009-this volume). Lithologies of the ulramafic rocks insouthern Albania, including spinel lherzolites and spinel harzburgites,are consistent with supra-subduction zone genesis (Koller et al.,2007). Also, in Greece, the Othris peridotites include several differenttectonic units that include spinel lherzolites or spinel harzburgites(Dijkstra et al., 2001; Barth et al., 2003, 2008) which are againexplicable by supra-subduction zone genesis.

Currently, the tectonic model favoured by many workers, mainlybased on lava geochemistry andultramaficmineralogy/chemistry, is thatthe Jurassic ophiolites formed above a SW-dipping subduction zone(present co-ordinates) inGreece (Jones et al.,1991; Robertson et al.,1991;Clift and Dixon, 1998; Rassios and Smith, 2000; Saccani and Photiades,2004, 2005; Barth et al., 2008; Rassios andDilek, 2009-this volume) andalso in Albania (Bébien et al., 2000; Robertson and Shallo, 2000; Dileket al., 2005, 2008; Koller et al., 2006; Philips-Lander and Dilek, 2009-thisvolume). MOR-type oceanic lithosphere (where documented) formedfirst; then SSZ-type oceanic lithosphere was created as the subductingoceanic slab rolled back and the flux of water increased to the mantlewedge. In contrast, MORB or transitional MORB in northern Greece (e.g.Othris; Pindos) is believed to bemainly, or entirely, of Triassic age and iswithin the melange rather than the over-riding ophiolites (Jones andRobertson, 1991; Saccani and Photiades, 2004, 2005).

An alternative, favoured by Karamata, is the Dinaride and westernbelt Albanian ophiolites are of MORB type and formed at a mid-ocean

ridge, whereas the eastern belt Albanian ophiolites formed above asubduction zone that dipped generally eastwards beneath the Korabi–Pelagonian unit, a continental fragment.

2.1.4. Sedimentary cover of the ophiolitesThe Late Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary cover of the ophiolites

and melange provides clues concerning the timing of emplacement,palaeogeography and the regional distribution of units (Fig. 8). TheDinaride ophiolite belt is locally transgressed by shallow-waterlimestones and clastic sediments of Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceousage (Pogari Series).

Where exposed on land, the upper levels of the ultramafic bodieswere strongly weathered leading to the formation of Ni- and Cr-richlimonitic crusts (e.g. Zlatibor in the Dobroselica window; near Olovoand Žepče–Zavidovići in central Bosnia, north of Sarajevo). Also, wherewell exposed locally (e.g. road from Kokin Brod to Vodice) lherzolitecut by magnesite veins is altered to smectite-rich material, followedby a limonitic crust. Comparableweathering crusts are recorded aboveultramafic bodies elsewhere in the Balkan region (e.g. Palinkaš et al.,2006), and are well developed on ophiolites of the Pelagonian zone inGreece (e.g. in Beotia region and Evia; see Robertson, 2002).

In some places (e.g. Žepče–Zavidovići), weathered serpentinite isoverlain by Fe–Ni oolites passing successively into reddish conglom-erates, sandstones and breccia of fluvial origin and then into sandymarl and limestone breccia, interpreted as a brackish-water deposit(N300 m thick). These coarse clastic sediments grade into shales, 50–60 m thick, that then pass into shallow-marine limestones (“Stam-berger-type Limestone”) of Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous age. How-ever, in some places (e.g. near Banovići) ophiolitic melange is directlyoverlain by shallow-water limestones of Tithonian–Lower Cretaceousage. The carbonate rocks are, in turn depositionally overlain by coarse-grained clastic deposits (N300 m-thick) of the Pogari Series, or PogariFormation (Jovanović, 1961; Neubauer et al., 2003). The coarsesediments contain a redeposited fauna of Tithonian, Neocomian andBerriasian ages, suggesting that the Pogari Series is likely to be ofBarremian–early Aptian age (Hrvatović, 1999, 2006, pers com.).The clastic sediments finally grade into Upper Cretaceous neriticlimestones.

Where well exposed (e.g. in roadside near Donja Blizna, south ofMaglaj), the red conglomerates are more or less massive anddisorganised, commonly with rounded clasts up to 2–3 m in size.The clasts are matrix-supported, and include all of the lithologies ofthe ophiolite and melange, with the addition of neritic limestone andlarge well-rounded clasts of red granite. Elsewhere, slices of similarred granite, up to 600m thick, occur within the melange (e.g. betweenLjubiš and Kokin Brod to the south of Zlatibor; Karamata et al., 1996).Some authors favour a southerly source for the Pogari clastics(S. Karamata, unpublished data; Hrvatović, 2006; personal comm.),although a northerly (Eurasian) source has also been suggested(Pamić, 2000). The Lower–Middle Cretaceous cover sediments locallycontain palynomorphs (i.e. at Mokra Gora, northwest of MountZlatibor) that are reported to show floral affinities with Gondwana(Dulić, 1999).

2.2. Vardar zone western belt

The Vardar zone western belt is distinguished by Karamata (2006)as a large region of ophiolites and melange (Figs. 2 and 3), and islargely equivalent to the Sava zone of Pamić (2002) further northwest.In central and southern Serbia, the Vardar zone western belt has arelatively narrow outcrop between the Drina–Ivanjica unit in thesoutheast and the Kopaonik unit to the northwest (including itsnorthward subsurface extension). Northwestwards, the belt widensgreatly, surrounds the Jadar unit, and extends to around Zagreb.However, exposure in the north is mainly restricted to isolated inlierswithin the Cenozoic sediments of the Sava river basin. To the south of


Serbia, the Vardar zone western belt extends southwards as adistinctive unit between the Pelagonian zone to the northeast andthe Paikon unit of the Vardar (Axios) zone to the southwest (Fig. 1).Northwest of Belgrade, lithologies attributed to the Vardar zonewestern belt are exposed at the margin of the Dinaride ophiolite belt,near the southern margin of Tisia (basement of the Pannonian basin).They also crop out in isolated mountainous areas surrounded by lateMesozoic or younger cover sediments. The most notable of theseinliers are Fruška Gora and, further west, Požeška Gora and theProsara.

2.2.1. MelangeOphiolite-related melange is exposed throughout the Vardar zone

western belt and commonly includes Triassic limestone, greenschistsand metabasalt. Blueschists occur as fragments and blocks withinmelange in the northeastern part of Fruška Gora (south of Novi Sad).Crossite from the bluschists has yielded a K/Ar age of 123 Ma(Milovanović et al., 1995). Blueschists also occur as pebbles in the basalconglomerates of Maastrichtian sandstone sequence near the crest ofthe Fruška Gora ridge. Dismembered ophiolitic rocks are also present,including ultramafics, gabbro, diabase and basaltic pillow lava. EarlyOligocene latites intrude the highest tectono-stratigraphic levels ofthe Fruška Gora inlier (Karamata et al., 2000a,b, 2005). The ophioliticmelange commonly has a matrix of subgraywacke, quartzosesandstones, and quartz- and mica-rich shales from which an EarlyCretaceous age has been reported (e.g. at Zvornik; Ercegovac, 1975).

The ophiolite-related lithologies of this northwesterly part of theVardar zone western belt are unconformably overlain by “UpperCretaceous flysch” (Dimitrijević, 2001). This was recently dated moreprecisely as Upper Senonian–Palaeogene (Ustaszewski et al., 2006,2009-this volume). Further west, in Croatia, the melange includesoutcrops of Jurassicmelangemixedwithyoungermelange, and includesblocks of Late Cretaceous–Palaeocene age according to Pamić (2002).

2.2.2. OphiolitesThe Vardar zone western belt contains a wide variety of

dismembered ophiolitic rocks, potentially of several different ages.The most intact ophiolitic associations within the Vardar zone

western belt are exposed in mountainous areas, for example nearMaljen (NW Serbia) and north of Kozara (NW Bosnia). At Maljen, amountainous ridge of ultramafic tectonites is overlain by cumulateplagioclase peridotite and lherzolite, together with gabbro andsheeted dykes (as seen along a ridge westwards towards Kaona).Peridotites within the main mapped area of the Vardar zone westernbelt, between the Drina–Ivanjica unit and the Kopaonik unit (e.g.Maljen, Troglav, Trnava and Banjska-), range from depleted spinelharzburgites to depleted harzburgites and are interpreted as being ofsupra-subduction zone type based on mineral chemistry (Bazylevet al., 2009-this volume). These authors note that the degree ofaverage partial melting increases from the south (i.e. Banjska massif)to the north (Maljen massif), the opposite of an apparent trend thatwas inferred by averaging chemical data that included severalophiolites from the Dinaride ophiolite belt (Pamić et al., 2002a).Ultramafic rocks in the northwest between the Drina–Ivanjica unitand the Jadar unit comprise fertile spinel lherzolites and spinelharzburgites of Tejići (Srećković-Batoćanin et al., 2006) and in thisregard appear to be similar to some of the ultramafic massifs of theDinaride ophiolite belt (e.g. Brezovica).

In addition, lenses of ultramafic tectonite are also exposed in theisolated outlier within the Kozara Mountains. However, it is unclear ifthese ultramafic rocks should be correlated with the Dinarideophiolite belt or with the Vardar zone western belt. According toBazylev et al. (2009-this volume) the peridotites of the southern partof the Kozara massif belong to the Dinaride ophiolite belt, whereasophiolitic rocks in the northern part of the Kozara Mountains, whichlack ultramafic rocks, are within the Vardar zone western belt. Two

different ophiolitic assemblages of different ages are therefore likelyto exist in this area.

The Vardar zone western belt includes large bodies of sheeteddykes, as exposed on the southern slopes of Kozara Mountain (Pamićand Kapeler, 1969). Further north (near Podgraci) gabbro, sheeteddykes and basaltic pillow lava form a continuous ophiolitic crustalsequence, exposed from north to south (Karamata et al., 2005). Inseveral westerly parts of the Vardar zonewestern belt basaltic rocks ofinferred ophiolitic association are interlayered with, or cut byrhyolites, as seen at Požeška Gora, Voćin (Pamić and Belak, 2000),and near Podgradci (north of Kozara) in the Vrbaška and Crna Rekariver valleys and in the Trnava quarries (close to Podgradci). In places,extrusive rocks are intruded by fine-grained, to porphyritic alkalifeldspar granites (Karamata et al., 2000c, 2005).

An ophiolitic sheeted dyke complex is well exposed in a largeworking quarry at Trnava (west of Gornji Podgradci). Steeply dippingdykes there include screens of gabbro and small crosscutting bodies offine-grained sodic granite (rhyolite). Diabase from Trnava quarry hasbeen dated at ∼80 Ma by the K/Ar method (Lovrić, 1986).

Basaltic rocks of assumed ophiolitic association have been dated asUpper Cretaceous at Požeška Gora and Voćin (Pamić and Belak, 2000).In addition, Upper Campanian or Lower Maastrichtian ages have beendetermined for exposures in the Vrbaška and Crna Reka river valleys,north of Kozara, using planktic foraminifera in pelagic carbonatesinterbedded with pillow basalts (Karamata et al., 2000c, 2005; Grubićet al., 2006).

Where well exposed in stream sections (e.g. SW of GornjiPodgradci) pillow lava and minor volumes of basalt-derived clasticsediment young upstream towards a sedimentary cover. Two mainintercalations of steeply dipping, pink pelagic limestones are inter-bedded with pillow basalts (∼100m apart stratigraphically). An upperCretaceous (Late Campanian–Early Maastrichtian) age (Karamataet al., 2005) has recently been confirmed by radiolarian studies(Vishnevskaya and Đerić, 2006). In addition, basic volcanics andvolcanogenic sediments are associated with deep-water pelagiccarbonates of Late Campanian–Early Maastrichtian age in deep wellsdrilled in the Vojvodina region of northern Serbia (Dunćić, 2008).

Additional components of the Vardar zone western belt are largebodies of granitic rocks of several different ages and settings. The firstis dated at ∼55–45 Ma (e.g. at Motajica and Prosara, south of the Savariver) and is inferred to be collision related. The second is dated at∼35–28 Ma and is assumed to be post-collisional in origin (e.g.Boranja granodiorite; Cer quartz monzonite, near Bogatić, westernSerbia; Srebrenica andesite–dacite). The third type of granite (e.g. atMotajica and Cer) and some associated volcanic rocks is dated at ∼18–15 Ma (Knežević et al., 1994; Pamić, 2002).

The Vardar zone western belt appears to differ from the Dinarideophiolite belt in several important respects (Karamata et al., 2000c;Karamata, 2006). First, apparent differences exist in the age of thematrix between the two ophiolite-related units: in the Vardar zonewestern belt, palynomorphs from the shaly matrix and radiolariansfrom siliceous clasts have yielded Late Triassic, Jurassic and EarlyCretaceous ages (Vishnevskaya and Đerić, 2006). By contrast, themelange matrix in the Dinaride ophiolite belt has provided Middle–Upper Triassic and Jurassic (but not Cretaceous) ages. Second, thereare lithological differences with the melange matrix in the VardarZone western belt being generally finer grained, less micaceous andmore organic-rich; also, exotic blocks tend to be smaller and morerounded in the Vardar Zone western belt than the Dinaride ophiolitebelt. Third, there are apparent differences in the ages of themetamorphic soles, although only K/Ar dates are presently available.Radiometric ages of the ophiolitic soles in the Vardar zone westernbelt range from 157–146 Ma (i.e. from southeast to northwest:Banjska, Troglav, Tejići) (Karamata et al., 2005), whereas thosewithin the Dinaride ophiolite belt range from 181–157 Ma (i.e.from northwest to southeast: Central Bosnia, Zlatibor, Brezovica)


(Karamata, 2006). Fourth, geochemical evidence suggests that theremay be differences in the tectonic setting of formation of theultramafic ophiolitic rocks and the blocks of extrusive igneous rocksbetween the Vardar zone western belt and the Dinaride ophiolite belt.The ultramafic rocks of the Vardar Zone western belt show asubduction-like chemistry, whereas those of the Dinaride ophiolitebelt are inferred to include sub-continental mantle and also weakly, tostrongly, subduction influenced ultramafic rocks (Bazylev et al., 2009-this volume). Fifth, as noted above, Upper Cretaceous ophiolitic rocksare inferred to exist within the Vardar Zone western belt (e.g. northKozara Mountains; Karamata et al., 2005). By contrast, the Dinarideophiolite belt was transgressed during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceoustime. Finally, the Dinaride ophiolite belt was emplaced earlier than theVardar Zone western belt (i.e. Tithonian–Berriasian versus UpperCretaceous).

On the other hand, the Vardar zone western belt and the Dinarideophiolite belt do have some features in common. Both contain a rangeof variably sized ultramafic massifs and comparable melanges. Largeultramafic massifs straddle both sides of the inferred contact betweenthe Vardar zone western belt and the Dinaride ophiolite belt.Specifically, the Ozren massif in the Maglaj area of Bosnia covers theinferred boundary between the two tectonic units. Comparableultramafic ophiolites (e.g. Maljen and Zlatibor) occur on both sidesof the Drina–Ivanjica unit. Also, the ultramafic rocks of the southernKozara Mountains may belong to the Dinaride ophiolite belt ratherthan the Vardar zone western belt (Bazylev et al., 2009-this volume).In addition, both the Dinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar zonewestern belt include depleted harzburgites of inferred supra–subduction zone origin (Bazylev et al., 2009-this volume).

The above two alternative are considered futher in the Discussionof tectonic processes section of the paper.

2.3. Main Vardar Zone and Veles unit

The Main Vardar zone forms a well-defined, NNW–SSE-trending,linear unit between the Serbo–Macedonian composite massif to theeast and the Kopaonik unit to thewest (Figs. 2 and 3). This outcropwastreated by Dimitrijević et al. (1999) as part of the Central Vardarsubzone, and by Pamić (2002) as the Sava–Vardar zone (including theSava–Vardar zone western belt and the Kopaonik unit).

The contacts between the Main Vardar zone and the Kopaonik unitin the west, and with the Serbo–Macedonian composite massif in theeast generally resulted from Cenozoic high-angle normal faulting,which obscured earlier emplacement relationships. The vergence ofthrusting within the Main Vardar zone is variable. To the south ofBelgrade the vergence is westwards, whereas elsewhere (e.g. south ofStalać) the thrusting verges eastwards.

South of Belgrade the Main Vardar zone is well exposed (i.e. as farnorth as Avala, SE of Belgrade), whereas only small exposures exist tothe north of this. The Main Vardar zone extends northwards towardsthe Danube and then northeastwards below a Cenozoic cover until itemerges in the South Apuseni Mountains and the Transylvaniandepression (Sandulescu, 1984; Sandulescu and Visarion, 1979).

Lithologies exposed in the southern Apuseni Mountains include avariety of ophiolitic and arc-type rocks that are described andinterpreted by Bortolotti et al. (2002), Saccani et al. (2001), Nicolaeand Saccani (2003) and by Ionescu and Hoeck (2006) and Ionescu et al.(2009-this volume).

South of Belgrade, the best exposures are near the eastern andwestern margins of the Main Vardar Zone, where they are char-acterised by discontinuous bodies of ultramafic rocks with rareamphibolitic soles. The easterly (inner) parts of the zone aredominated by elongate outcrops of basaltic rocks and melange,together with small exposures of gabbro and sheeted dykes. Themelange includes various sedimentary and igneous rocks in the formof exotic blocks and dismembered thrust sheets, set in a matrix of

sandstone turbidites and shales. The blocks include unmetamor-phosed sandstone, minor chert, silicic limestone (undated), basalt,diabase and gabbro, all within a very low-grade-, to low-grade-metamorphosed matrix (Dimitrijević et al., 1995). The basalts rangefromMORB to IAT affinities evenwithin single bodies, and it has so farproved impossible to define a unique tectonic setting of eruption(Robertson and Karamata, 1994; Resimić-Šarić et al., 2000, 2005; Šarićet al., 2009-this volume). The ultramafic bodies are mainly serpenti-nised harzburgites.

Recentwork shows that largemafic units can be restored as gabbroicbodies that are cut by isolated, to locally sheeted dykes; they are alsoassociated with subduction-influenced volcanic rocks (Resimić-Šarićet al., 2000, 2006). In the both the Ždraljica and Kuršumlija ophioliticcomplexes in Serbia these igneous bodies are cut by Upper Jurassic calk–alkaline granitic intrusions (Šarić et al., 2009-this volume). The graniticbodies range considerably in composition and are interpreted to reflectsubduction-related, collisional, or post-collisional settings. The presenceofmigmatite zenoliths is suggestive of partialmeltingof country rocks atdepth (Šarić et al., 2009-this volume). A similar assemblage, known asthe Guevgueli complex, occurs within the Vardar zone much furthersouth, within the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Ivanovski,1970; Rakikevik and Pendžerkovski, 1970; Hristov et al., 1973), and innorthern Greece (Bébien et al., 1987; Danelian et al., 1996). In severalareas (e.g. Lojane, Demir Kapija) the highest levels of inferred ophioliticextrusive rocks include radiolarian cherts, up to tens ofmetres thick, thatare transgressed by Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) neritic limestones.Elsewhere, similar shallow-water carbonates cover ophiolitic units ormelange (Hristov et al., 1973). In northern Greece, ophiolitic bodies areintruded by granitic rocks (e.g. Fanos granite) (Spray et al., 1984; DeWetet al., 1989; Christofides et al., 1990; Zachariadou and Dimitriadis,1995);these are dated at ∼158 Ma using the SHRIMP method (Anders et al.,2005).

The Main Vardar zone includes a body of low- to medium-grademeta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks, known as the Veles unit.This is a lenticular body N100 km long and up to 30 km wide,extending fromNovo Brdo, east of Priština to Veles (central F.Y.R.O. M.;Fig. 4). The following suite of rocks is exposed there. First, relativelyhigh-grade amphibolites, garnet-staurolite–biotite gneiss and two-mica gneiss (with greywacke protoliths); second, lower-grade phylliticschists, quartzites and meta-quartz-conglomerates; third, marbles.The origin of the Veles Block is debateable. It has been interpreted as afragment of metamorphosed continental basement (e.g. Dimitrijević,2001). However, Lower Carboniferous palynomorphs have beenreported from within low-grade meta-sediments (Veles series) nearVeles (Grubić and Ercegovac, 1975, 2002). The meta-igneous rocksinclude calc–alkaline intrusive and extrusive rocks that, together haverecently been interpreted as remnants of a Carboniferous oceanicmagmatic arc (Karamata, 2006).

In places, the Main Vardar zone and the Kopaonik unit to the westare both covered by Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian) marine sedimentsthat contain terrigenous and ophiolitic material (“Paraflysch” ofDimitrijević and Dimitrijević, 1987). This relationship establishesthat the ophiolitic rocks and melange were tectonically assembledwith the Kopaonik unit prior to the Berriasian. Overlying mudrocks ofAlbian–Cenomanian age include palynomorphs of Eurasian affinities(Dulić, 1999). Unconformably above come Turonian–Maastrichtianturbiditic sandstones (“flysch”) including breccia, conglomerate,sandstone, siltstone, marl and shale (Obradović, 1987). South ofBelgrade (near Rakovica), debris flows near the base of the Turoniansequence contain clasts of sodic andesite (Karamata et al., 1999b).

TheMain Vardar Zone, therefore, includesmelange of pre-Berriasianage, broadly similar to thatof theDinarideophiolite belt. However, it alsoincludes subduction-influenced volcanic rocks of at least partially pre-Tithonian age and Upper Jurassic subduction, or collision-relatedgranitic rocks, and also a fragment of a possible Late Palaeozoic volcanicarc (Veles unit) which are unknown elsewhere.


3. Discussion of tectonic processes

Tectonic processes affecting the North Balkan region are nowdiscussed in the light of the evidence assembled above. These includerifting, seafloor spreading, ophiolite genesis and emplacement,subduction and collision. Many of the tectonic processes are similarto those documented elsewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean, inother orogenic belts, and in non-tectonically emplaced settings (e.g.as documented by the Ocean Drilling Program), providing usefulcomparisons.

3.1. Triassic continental break-up

It is generally agreed that the Mesozoic–Early Cenozoic Adria–Dinaride platform in the south and some parts of the Dinarideophiolite belt include remnants of a rifted continent related toopening of an earlyMesozoic oceanic basin. Rifting to initiate sea-floorspreading is commonly assumed to involve an abrupt transition fromcontinental crust to oceanic crust. This is, indeed, true for continentalmargins affected by high heat flow, specifically “plume-influenced”volcanic-type margins (e.g. East Greenland) (Larsen, 2002). However,N50% of the margins worldwide are of “non-volcanic” type, wherethere is a wide transition (∼150–180 km) between continental andoceanic crust, known as the continent–ocean transition zone. Thetransition is well documented by geophysical studies and deep seadrilling in the North Atlantic (e.g. Tucholke et al., 2007) and studies ofother Tethyan areas (e.g. Manatschal et al., 2007; Robertson, 2007b).Passing oceanwards, the continent is initially faulted, but remainsintact. Faulting may recur episodically for million of years as repeatedpulses prior to final continental break-up. Fault movements normallycease when spreading begins: passive subsidence of the continentalmargin then ensues.

In the northern Balkan Peninsula evidence of the rifting of theMesozoic Tethyan ocean extends over hundreds of kilometreslaterally, and is preserved particularly within Adria, the Budva zone,the Dinaride carbonate platform and the Drina–Ivanjica unit (Kne-žević, 1976; Karamata, 1986). Triassic and younger lithologies aremainly absent from the East Bosnian Durmitor unit, the BosnianMountain unit and the Sana–Una and related units (Fig. 5). Riftfeatures are also preserved in the Bosnian nappes and in the Dinarideophiolite belt. The relatively autochthonous Budva zone in thesouthwest can be considered as a “failed rift” (aulacogen), whereasthe more northerly rift zone developed into the Dinaride oceanicbasin.

In general, volcanics within the Budva rift include basaltic pillowlavas, pyroclastic debris (e.g. tephra) and epiclastic sediments (e.g.volcaniclastic sandstones), interbedded with deep-water sedimentaryrocks of mainly Mid-Triassic age. Ophiolitic rocks are absent. Basalticvolcanism was focused along a main rift fault zone and subparallelfaults for up to 100 km on either side, extending northwestwards fromBosnia through SW Croatia.

In Bosnia, within Adria and the margins of the Central BosnianMountains unit, voluminous basaltic pillow lavas are associated withsubordinate low-grade meta-andesitic rocks (keratophyres) (e.g.along the Jablanica–Prozor–Bugono–Donji Vakuf belt). Intrusivegabbro (near Jablanica) and gabbro–diorite (Mt. Radovan, nearBugojno) are locally known. The rift zones are exposed on the Adriaticisland of Jabuka, extending northwestwards into Montenegro (e.g.Nikšićka Župa) and western Croatia (e.g. Knin and Senj) (Knežević andCvetković, 2000; Đujić et al., 1995).

Further east, in the eastern and northeastern areas of the CentralBosnian Mountains unit (also known as the Mid-Bosnian SchistMountains unit or Vareš zone), the volcanic rocks are mainly basaltic,with only rare siliceous extrusives (keratophyres) (i.e. from Mt. Igmanto Čevljanovići, Vareš and Borovica). In this area volcanic rocks formlenses, up to 5 km long by 500 m thick, of pillow lava, rare massive

lava, volcaniclastic sediments, peperites and feeder dykes (Kneževićand Cvetković, 2000; Karamata, 2000).

Further south, the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit includes volumi-nous calc–alkaline volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, up to N1000 mthick, together with rare granites and syenites of pre-Norian age. Theextrusive rocks are mostly andesite, dacite and rhyolite, together withprimary and reworked pyroclastic rocks. Associated Pb, Zn, Cu and Hgmineralisation occurs in southeastern Bosnia and northern Montene-gro (Janković, 1974, 1987; Karamata, 2000).

The igneous rocks and related sedimentary rocks indicate thatrifting began in the Late Permian and was followed by rift-relatedsubsidence during the Early–Mid Triassic, with rift volcanism peakingin the Ladinan.

Triassic and Jurassic higher stratigraphical levels are preservedwithin the structurally overlying Bosnian nappes. These include slicesof Early–Middle Triassic shallow-water carbonates and radiolariansediments of Early Jurassic–Early Cretaceous age (Đerić and Vishnevs-kaya, 2006). Where well exposed (e.g. between Jotanovići andMaslovare), the cherts are unusually well bedded and laterallycontinuous and alternate between more and less folded intervals.These cherts contain sponges, suggestive of relatively shallow shelf orupper slope conditions.

Taken together, all the rift related units can be restored asPalaeozoic pre-rift “basement”, overlain by rift-related Upper Permianclastics and then by a Triassic subsiding carbonate platform.Radiolarites accumulated on the slopes of a subsiding passive marginor submerged platform, areas that experienced nutrient upwellingand high radiolarian productivity.

Additional rift-related units are preserved within the Dinarideophiolite belt. These relate to the transition from continental tooceanic crust and are equivalent to the continent–ocean transitionzone of themodern oceans (e.g. central North Atlantic; Red Sea/Gulf ofAden). Such settings include marginal rift fault blocks, exhumedcontinental crust and exhumed mantle lithosphere.

First, blocks and dismembered thrust sheets of Upper Triassicneritic limestone (“Hallstatt Limestone”) within the melange Dinarideophiolite belt (e.g. Krš pod Gradcem ∼8 kmwest of Sjenica; also alongthe left bank of Bistrica River) are interpreted as remnants of marginalfault blocks. These units document a carbonate platform, which latersubsided and was covered, after a depositional hiatus, by ammonite-rich pelagic carbonates of earliest Jurassic age, and later by deep-waterradiolarites of Late Bathonian–Early Tithonian age (Goričan et al.,1999). The unconformity and hiatus are interpreted to record thebreak-up and subsidence of a platform into deepwater during, or soonafter, the initiation of seafloor spreading. The blocks and dismemberedthrust sheets within the melange are interpreted as parts of thefaulted rifted margin of the Dinaride ocean that were detached andincorporated into the melange.

Similar blocks within melange, including Ammonitico Rossoand radiolarites are known in other areas, for example, the AvdellaMelange of the Pindos zone in Northern Greece (Jones andRobertson, 1991). Similar blocks of Ammonitico Rosso are alsoknown in southern Greece, between the Gavrovo–Tripolitza carbo-nate platform and the overlying Pindos–Olonos Nappes (i.e. GlafkosandMegdhovas units; e.g., Robertson et al., 1991). In addition, similarsuccessions including Ammonitico Rosso and overlying radiolaritesare preserved in blocks and dismembered thrust sheets all along thesouthern margin of the Korabi (Pelagonian) zone, to the northeast ofthe Mirdita ophiolites and also within the “Peripheral Unit”, to thesouthwest of the Mirdita ophiolites in Albania (e.g. Shallo, 1992;Robertson and Shallo, 2000). These sequences are interpreted toreflect rifting and continental break up leading to a hiatus indeposition, followed by subsidence and covering by deep-waterradiolarian sediments.

Second, in the modern North Atlantic continental crust is stronglythinned and exhumed across a ∼150–180 km-wide continent–ocean


transition zone (e.g. Tucholke et al., 2007). Sub-continental mantlelithosphere is exhumed to a position at, or near, the seafloor in theform of serpentinised ultramafic rocks. In the North Atlantic theexhumed mantle ranges from lherzolitic on the Iberia margin, toharzburgitic on the Newfoundland margin (Tucholke et al., 2007).Exhumed mantle has been reworked on the seafloor, for exampleproducing serpentinite debris flows, locally interbedded with MOR-type lavas, as recovered by drilling on the Newfoundland margin(Robertson, 2007a). Such exhumation is known in other non-emplaced rift basins, including the Tyrrhenian Sea in the WesternMediterranean and Zagarbad Island in the Red Sea. After tectonicemplacement in an orogenic belt, originally exhumed lithosphere canbe emplaced as “extensional allochthons”, as documented in the Alps(Manatschal et al., 2003, 2007).

The Dinaride ophiolite belt includes exhumed continental crustrepresented by the Upper Palaeozoic clasts and large blocks of granitein the melange. An abundance of granitic clasts of “Variscan” agewithin the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous sedimentary cover(Pogari Series) shows that large granitic bodies existed in the area,although they are not exposed in neighbouring continental units. Thegranitic clasts could have been sourced from exhumed continentalbasement within the ocean–continent transition zone, rather thanfrom within the Dinaride continent (Adria) to the south, or fromEurasia, far away to the north. Extensional exhumation can explainhow plutonic rocks were exposed at high levels within a rift zonewithout having to deeply erode an adjacent continental margin. Theexhumed granitic material was later incorporated into the Dinaridemelange prior to Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous time.

In addition, several of the “ophiolitic” massifs interpreted as sub-continental lithospheric mantle (e.g. Bistrica, Borja) are candidates forexhumed subcontinental mantle lithosphere, basedmainly onmineralchemistry data (Lugović et al., 1991; Pamić and Hrvatović, 2000; Pamićet al., 2002a; Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume). It is assumedthat the crustal carapace of the ultramafic mantle rocks was removedby extension related to rifting and continental break-up. The detachedcontinental crust could have included the Variscan granitic rocks andone or more of the high crustal level units (e.g. Drina–Ivanjica andJadar units).

The MOR-type lavas of the Dinaride ophiolite belt are not co-magmatic with the exposed ultramafic rocks (Bazylev et al., 2006,2009-this volume). MOR-type lavas locally overlie exhumed harzbur-gitic mantle in the North Atlantic (Tucholke et al., 2007; Robertson,2007a,b) and a similar situation could have existed within theDinaride continent–ocean transition zone. The occasional presenceof garnet clinopyroxenite dykes cutting ultramafic rocks (e.g. Bistricamassif) could record deep-level, small degree-melting related to intra-plate extension (Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume). Severalultramafic ophiolitic massifs within the Dinaride ophiolite belt showevidence of “refertilisation”, perhaps resulting from the infiltration ofalkaline melts from a deep mantle source related to rifting andcontinental break-up (e.g. Sjenički Ozren, Bistrica, and possibly alsoBorja, Čavka and Konjuh; Bazylev et al., 2003, 2006). A similar processof “refertilisation” is proposed to have affected serpentinisedharzburgites that were exhumed related to rifting of the westernNorth Atlantic (Müntener and Manatschal, 2006).

3.2. Sea-floor spreading

All three of the currently recognised oceanic domains in the region,the Dinaride ophiolite belt, the Vardar zonewestern belt and the MainVardar zone include a range of ultramafic and mafic igneous rocksand deep-sea sedimentary rocks. The ophiolitic ultramafic rocks rangefrom relatively fertile lherzolites to depleted harzburgites. In the pastit was assumed that the Dinaride ophiolitic rocks are MORB-like,whereas the Vardar zone ones are more SSZ-like (e.g. Pamić et al.,1998). However, recent work shows that this simple distinction is no

longer tenable and that the oceanic magmatic rocks of each tectoniczone (i.e. Dinaride, Vardar zone western belt, Main Vardar zone) needto be considered individually.

The extrusive rocks within the melange provide importantinformation on seafloor spreading. The Vardar Zone western beltincludes ophiolitic pillow lavas and pillow breccia of Upper Triassicage (Carnian–Norian in the Ovčar–Kablar gorge, western Serbia), andalso of lavas Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous age (e.g. near Raška, on theroad from Raška to Novi Pazar, Zvornik and north of Kozara) that weremainly dated using radiolarians and palynomorphs in associatedsediments. Also, the adjacent melange includes volcanogenic debrisflows, individually up to 10 m thick. In addition, a bimodal suite ofbasic-acidic volcanic rocks that is locally exposed within the Vardarzone western belt (e.g. northern Kozara Mountains) is interpreted aspart of an Upper Cretaceous ophiolite (see below).

In general, MOR-type lavas are restricted to Upper Triassic-agedblocks within the melange. Extrusive rocks rarely form part of anintact ophiolite pseudostratigraphy and, where reported, these lackrepresentative chemical evidence. The Upper Triassic MOR-typebasalts are not co-magmatc with most lithologies of the ultramaficmassifs, including those interpreted as sub-continental mantle litho-sphere (e.g. Bistrica) and also those interpreted as supra-subductionzone-type oceanic mantle lithosphere (e.g. Zlatibor) (Bazylev et al.,2006, 2009-this volume). The MORB is likely to have erupted withinthe continent–ocean transition zone during the final stages ofcontinental break-up or during the early stages of seafloor spreading,as inferred for the North Atlantic (Tucholke et al., 2007; Robertson,2007) and the Alps (Manatschal et al., 2003, 2007). In addition, rarealkaline basaltic rocks within the Dinaride ophiolite belt, could recordremnants of either rift-related volcanism, or within plate-typeseamounts erupted after continental break-up, again as documentedin the North Atlantic (e.g. Tucholke et al., 2007).

When the peridotites of the Dinaride ophiolite belt as a whole arecompared, most are lherzolitic, with subordinate amounts of harzbur-gite and evendunite in somemassifs (Lugović et al.,1991; Bazylev et al.,2003, 2006, 2009-this volume). The lherzolites of several ultramaficmassifs show a complete trend from fertile lherzolites to depletedharzburgites (e.g. Zlatibor; Ozren (of Doboj). These trends, coupledwith the rare presence of intergranular pargasitic hornblende, aresuggestive of a supra-subduction zone setting (e.g. Bazylev et al., 2006,2009-this volume). Unusually, the Sjenički Ozrenmassif exhibits fertilespinel lherzolites andplagioclase spinel–lherzolites (Popević,1985a,b),an assemblage that is suggestive of a subduction-related setting(Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume). Elsewhere, the large Krivaja–Konjuh ophiolite in Bosnia is subdivisible into two parts. The Konjuhultramafic part in the east is relatively coherent and shows a MORB-type chemistry, whereas the southeastern part has a subduction-related chemistry. The Krivaja ultramafic part further west is moredismembered (Lugović et al., 2006). Further south, the Brezovicamassif (east of Prizren, at the easternmargin ofMetohija) is dominatedby highly depleted harzburgites and dunites (Bazylev et al., 2003).These rocks are similar to the subduction-related ultramafic rocks ofthe Metohija Depressional (Karamata and Memović; unpublisheddata) and the peridotites of the Mirdita zone in Albania (Shallo, 1992,1994; Robertson and Shallo, 2000; Dilek et al., 2005; Koller et al., 2006;Dilek et al., 2008) and the Vourinos ophiolite of northern Greece (seeRassios and Dilek, 2009-this volume).

Compositional variations in ophiolite chemistry were onceexplained by differences in spreading rate, with lherzolitic ultramaficscharacterising slow-spreading ridges (LOT) and harzburgitic ultra-mafics fast-spreading ridges (HOT) (Nicolas, 1989). However, recentstudies of modern oceanic lithosphere provide little support for thisconcept (e.g. Pearce, 2002). Alternatively, it was proposed that theophiolites with mainly lherzolitic ultramafics and MOR-type extru-sives originated at normal spreading ridges, whereas those withdominantly harzburgitic ultramafics and volcanic arc-like extrusives


were generated above subduction zones (Pearce et al., 1984). Asubduction-related origin of many, indeed most of the ophiolites inthe Eastern Mediterranean region and elsewhere (e.g. Iapetus suturezone) has recently been confirmed by detailed petrological andgeochemical studies of many individual ophiolites. For example,supra-subduction zone (SSZ) characteristics have recently beeninferred for some of the Albanian and Hellenide ophiolites (e.g.using petrologic modelling of basalt/peridotite pairs; Saccani et al.,2004, 2008b; Barth et al., 2008). Lherzolitic ophiolites were previouslyassumed to relate to normal mid-ocean ridge spreading, whereasharzburgitic ophiolites formed in a different tectonic setting (e.g. innorthern Albania; Beccaluva et al., 1994). More recent tectonic modelsplace all the ophiolitic rocks on the upper plate of a subduction zoneand envisage that magmatism evolved from MOR-like to SSZ-like assubduction and roll-back took place (Bébien et al., 2000; Robertsonand Shallo, 2000; Barth et al., 2003; Saccani et al., 2004; Dilek et al.,2005; Koller et al., 2006; Barth et al., 2008; Dilek et al., 2008; Saccaniet al., 2008b; Rassios and Dilek, 2009-this volume). Therefore, thevariable mineralogical and chemical signatures of the dismemberedDinaride ophiolites are compatible with an origin as one regional-scale ophiolite that formed in a subduction-related setting.

In addition, the peridotitic massifs of the Vardar zonewestern belt,are dominated by harzburgite or depleted lherzolite, and are generallymore depleted than the ultramafic rocks within the Dinaride ophiolitebelt. Their mineral chemistry is clearly indicative of a subduction-related setting. Notably, the spinel chemistry of several ultramaficmassifs (e.g. Maljen) is outside the known range of mid-ocean ridgecompositions (Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume).

Several ultramafic bodies overlap in composition between themainly relatively enriched and notably more depleted Vardar zonewestern belt ophiolites. The southernmost ultramafic body of theDinaride ophiolite belt near the Metohija Depression (e.g. theperidotites of the Tuzinje massif, between Novi Pazar and Sjenica;also the southeastern part of the Sjenički Ozren Massif) arecompositionally similar to the more depleted peridotites of theadjacent Vardar zonewestern belt (e.g. at Trnava) (Bazylev et al., 2006,2009-this volume), and are also similar to the ultramafic ophioliticrocks of the Mirdita ophiolite in northern Albania (Shallo, 1992, 1994).In addition, samples of relatively depleted ultramafic rocks from the(Dinaride) Zlatibor peridotite are similar to many rocks from theVardar zone western belt (Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume).

3.3. Genesis of metamorphic soles

Tethyan metamorphic soles are generally thought to form by theunderplating of cold oceanic crust to hot over-riding ophiolitic mantle(e.g. Woodcock and Robertson,1977; Spray et al., 1984; Karamata, 1985;Smith, 2006a;Garfunkel, 2006). The ages of genesis of the ophiolites andtheirmetamorphic soles are closely spaced in a fewwell dated examples(e.g. Semail ophiolite, Oman; Hacker et al., 1996; see Smith, 2006b).

A number of the ultramafic massifs within both the Dinarideophiolite belt and the Vardar zone western belt include metamorphicsoles. Blocks of metamorphic sole-type rocks are also occasionallyfoundwithin themelange. Themetamorphic soles from the Dinarides,Albanides and Hellenides have been collectively dated at 174–162 Maby the Ar–Ar method and at 174 to 147 by the K/Ar method (Lanphereet al., 1975; Okrush et al., 1978; Spray and Roddick, 1980; Spray et al.,1984; Karamata, 1985; Dimo-Lahitte et al., 2001). Unfortunately, high-precision Ar–Ar dates are still unavailable for the ophiolitic soles offormer Yugoslavia. Using the K/Ar method, ages of 170 Ma and 168–174 Ma were obtained from for various lithologies within the Bistricamassif, western Serbia (Lanphere et al., 1975). Amphibolites beneaththe Zlatibor massif in western Serbia yielded a K/Ar age of 160 Ma(Karamata and Popević, unpublished data). In addition, amphibolitesfrom themetamorphic sole in the Brezovica area further south yieldedK/Ar ages of 159–168 Ma (Karamata and Lovrić, 1978). A significantly

younger K/Ar age of around 157 Ma was obtained from pargasiticamphibolites at the base of the Konjuh ultramafic massif in Bosnia(Lanphere et al., 1975). In addition, Lugović et al. (1991) obtained Sm–

Nd ages of 136±15 Ma from lherzolites in several ultramafic massif ofthe Dinaride ophiolite belt (Borja; Konjuh), while Bazylev et al. (2006)reported a Sm–Nd age of 146.8±4.9 Ma for garnet pyroxenite from theBistrica massif. Several of these massifs (Bistrica; Borja) are inter-preted as sub-continental mantle lithosphere, whereas others areinterpreted as supra-subduction zone oceanic mantle, lithosphere(e.g. Zlatibor; Konjuh) (Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume).

The high-pressure conditions (e.g. ∼10 kb at up to 1000 °C forgarnet–clinopyroxene amphibolites from Bistrica) are likely to reflectsubduction of oceanic crust, followed by exhumation and cooling in asubduction channel. The exhumation may have taken place duringsupra-subduction zone spreading and rollback of the subductingoceanic slab and culminated in tectonic emplacement over a con-tinental margin prior to Tithonian–Berriasian time.

In addition, amphibolites beneath the ultramafic massifs of theVardar Zone western belt have yielded K/Ar ages of 157–147 Ma forBanjska (Southern Serbia), Devovići and Troglav (Central Serbia), andTejići (Western Serbia) (Karamata et al., 2005). Amphibolites beneaththe Borja massif, central Bosnia has given a K/Ar age of 150 Ma(S. Karamata, unpublished data). The K/Ar ages of the metamorphicsoles of the supra-subduction zone-type ophiolites of the Vardar zonewestern belt may be younger (157–147 Ma) than those from theinferred subduction zone-type ophiolites of the Dinaride ophiolitebelt (174–159 Ma). One explanation of this is that the ophiolitic solesformed later in the Vardar Zone western belt than the Dinarideophiolite belt (Karamata, 2006) because two supra–subduction zonetype ophiolite assemblages formed in different 'marginal' basins ofdifferent age (Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume). Alternatively,the K/Ar ages (especially the younger ones) are not reliable owing toAr loss, possibly related to Lower Cenozoic collisional deformation.Notably, garnet pyroxenite from the Bistrica massif in the Dinarideophiolite belt also yielded relatively young Upper Jurassic/EarlyCretaceous radiometric ages (Lugović et al., 1991; Bazylev et al.,2009-this volume). Further high-precision dating is needed before anyconclusion can be reached.

Bazylev et al. (2006, 2009-this volume) interpret the high-temperature contact metamorphic zones around several of the sub-continental mantle bodies, notably Bistrica, to indicate an extensionand exhumation event after closure of the Dinaride ocean basin (LateJurassic–Early Cretaceous). Alternatively, the latest Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous radiometric ages of these contact metamorphic rocks(e.g. Bistrica) could record tectonically driven uplift of sub-continentalmantle lithosphere (i.e. cooling ages) related to closure of the Dinarideocean during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous time.

3.4. Subduction accretion and melange genesis

The Dinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar zone represent one of thelargestmelange belts in the EasternMediterranean region, or elsewhere.Melanges weremapped during the 1960s–1980s for the 1:100,000 basicgeological sheets of former Yugoslavia and the Geological map of SFRYugoslavia (1:500,000) (Federal Geological Institute of SFRJ, 1970). Keyareas of melange include the southwestern Serbia, between Zlatibor andMetohija (summarized by Dimitrijević, 1995), the Ibar Valley (Brković etal., 1977; Mojsilović et al., 1980), Mt. Jelica (Brković et al., 1978), and thearea between the Drina-Ivanjica unit and the Jadar block, in centralBosnia, and especially in northwestern Bosnia and north of Kozara(Mojičević et al., 1977; Šparica and Buzaljko,1984; Jovanović andMagaš,1986). Themelange in the Ibar Valley, northwestern Serbia and northernBosina has some specific features andwas previously named “TectonisedJurassic Ophiolite Melange” in Bosnia, and “Upper Cretaceous OphioliteMelange” in Serbia (Dimitrijević,1997), suggesting that both Jurassic andCretaceous melanges were present regionally.


To understand melange it is essential to correctly interpret therelative roles of tectonic versus sedimentary processes (e.g. Cloos andShreve, 1988a,b). For the last 20 years the melanges of the northernBalkan Peninsula were commonly termed (sedimentary) olistos-tromes and were commonly thought to have experienced littledeformation prior to Early Cenozoic collisional deformation (Dimi-trijević and Dimitrijević, 1973; Dimitrijević, 2001). These “olistos-tromes” are composed of “olistoliths” (i.e. gravity blocks) within asedimentary matrix. True olistostromes are nowadays known tocomprise debris flows and turbidites with large exotic blocks (e.g.Raymond, 1984). Some more localised matrix-supported conglomer-ates may result from mud volcanism, as seen in the modernMediterranean Ridge accretionary prism (Camerlengli et al., 1992;Robertson and Kopf, 1998) and some ancient accretionary prisms (e.g.in SE Asia; Barber et al., 1986).

Olistostromes have been traditionally distinguished from mel-anges, which were regarded tectonic in origin (e.g. Hsü, 1974).However, whether melanges formed by sedimentary or tectonicorigins, or both, is not always easy to determine in the field. For thisreason, the term melange is best used as a non-genetic fielddescription for a pervasively mixed body of rocks, regardless ofwhether it formed by sedimentary processes or by tectonic processes,or both (e.g. Robertson, 1994). Tectonic or sedimentary melanges maylater undergo one or more stages of deformation, such that many truesedimentary melanges (olistostromes) are commonly deformed.

Two end-member melange types can be recognised in thenorthern Balkan Peninsula:

Tectonic Melange: All the component blocks and matrix show apervasive tectonic fabric, mainly resulting from layer-parallel exten-sion without contemporaneous sedimentary deposits (e.g. inter-bedded debris flows). The blocks typically result from the tectonicextension of layered units (e.g. turbiditic sandstone, radiolarian chert,lava flows) and are deformed into elongate, phacoidal-shaped blockswithin a pervasively sheared matrix (e.g. blocks and clasts tend to bepreferentially aligned). A primarily tectonic origin is inferred here byRobertson for much of the melange (“olistostromes”) in the northernBalkan Peninsula.

Sedimentary Melange: The blocks are associated with coevalsediments, typically matrix-supported conglomerates (debris flows),graded sandstone turbidites and mudrocks. In some cases the blocksshow evidence of being exposed on the seafloor and eroded whilethey were being emplaced, and include marginal spalled material (e.g.breccia). Karamata here favours a mainly sedimentary origin for themelanges (olistostromes) of the northern Balkan Peninsula.

The melanges of the northern Balkan Peninsula are clearlycomposite in origin and individual examples need to be assignedeither to mainly sedimentary or tectonic origins. There aremany casesof tectonic melange where well-layered turbiditic sandstones havebeen deformed into phacoidal blocks as a result of pervasive layer-parallel extension. For example, within the Dinaride ophiolite belt(e.g., at Jotanovići village; Borja massif) “phacoidal-shaped” blocks ofsandstone occur in a black shale matrix. The sandstones originated aslaterally continuous beds of turbiditic sandstone, up to 2.5 m thick.The thinner beds are strongly sheared, forming numerous smallelongate phacoidal blocks in a sheared shaly matrix. However, morecompetent thicker beds, up to 2.5m thick, have partially survived withless deformation. A scaly fabric is well developed, suggestive ofdeformation under high confining fluid pressures. Elsewhere, in theVardar Zone western belt (near Raška) the melange is composed ofsheared turbidites interbedded with sheared red mudstones. Thesandstones exhibit phacoidal fabrics resulting from layer-parallelextension and are intercalated with green and red sheared chert up totwo metres thick.

On the other hand, sedimentary melange (i.e. olistostrome)certainly exists and includes examples of graded, matrix-supportedconglomerates (polymict debris flows), interbedded with sandstone

turbidites and shales. For example, in the Dinaride ophiolite belt(at Krš pod Gradcem) polymict debris flows formed, possibly aschannelised units that were shed from with an emplacing ophiolite,together with other lithologies (e.g. Permian limestone, basalt,radiolarite).

The formation of both tectonic and sedimentary melanges isnowadays quite well understood following deep-sea drilling ofsubduction zones and field studies of emplaced accretionary prismson land. The primary process is tectonic. During subduction, deep-seasediments are either accreted to the front of a subduction zone, orunderplated to the base of the overriding plate, or both.Within frontalaccretion zones there is potential for some of this material to begravitationally reworked into trench or forearc basin settings.However, if the material is underplated at depth within the wedge,entirely tectonic processes form the resulting melange, although thismaterial could be reworked gravitationally if later exhumed. As theaccretionary wedge grows it is uplifted and tilted and material can bereworked, both within the subduction trench and within forearcbasins. As the wedge grows it remains tectonically active, resulting inout-of-sequence thrusting and backthrusting. Subduction “erosion”may lead to complete loss of underplated material. Mud-matrixmelange may also result from mud volcanism, related to fluidover pressuring within the accretionary wedge. Re-thrusting andremixing of melange from different tectonic settings may occurduring any subsequent regional tectonic event (e.g. continentalcollision). For example, Cretaceous melange of the Vardar zonewestern belt appears to have been tectonically mixed with olderaccretionary material (i.e. “recycled mélange”) in some areas relatedto Upper Cretaceous subduction or Lower Cenozoic continentalcollision (e.g. Pamić, 2002).

The relatively low-grade metamorphism of the melanges in thenorthern Balkan Peninsula (as presently documented) suggests thatthis material was mainly preserved as a result of frontal accretion, orshallow-level underplating above a subduction zone. However, HP/LTmetamorphism, suggestive of deep-level subduction is reportedlocally from the Vardar Zone in the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia (e.g. Majer and Mason, 1983) and in northern Greece(Sharp and Robertson, 2006).

3.5. Accretionary versus overthrust emplacement of ophiolites

A further question is the process of emplacement of the ultramaficrocks in relation to the melanges of the Dinaride ophiolite belt, theVardar zone western belt and the Main Vardar zone. As noted above,the ultramafic rocks range from inferred sub-continental-type mantlelithosphere to supra–subduction zone-type oceanic mantle litho-sphere. One alternative is that all of these bodies were accreted from adown-going (subducting) plate, together with originally overlyingcrustal rocks (e.g. gabbro, sheeted dykes, lava, pelagic sediments) toform variable sized thrust slices and blocks (Karamata, in Robertsonand Karamata,1994). A second alternative is that the ultramafic bodiesand related lithologies represent the over-riding plate of a subductionzone, whereas oceanic lavas and sediments (i.e. upper crust) weredetached from the down-going oceanic slab to form an accretionarycomplex (Robertson, in Robertson and Karamata, 1994).

In the first alternative (favoured by Karamata) ultramafic rocks, oreven a complete ophiolite (e.g. at Rzav; Pamić and Desmons, 1989),were detached from a young mid-ocean ridge (possibly betweenfracture zones) and gravitationally emplaced into a subduction trench,where olistostromes formed by gravity processes. The inferreddetachment was located at the base of the cumulates or at high levelswithin the ultramafic tectonites. The still-hot ophiolites wereemplaced over the trench sediments metamorphosing them at thecontact. Later, the emplaced ophiolites were covered by olistostromesand gravity emplaced sheets (olistoplaka), mainly limestones (e.g.Zlatibor; western Bosnia; north from Brezovica).


In an alternative favoured by Robertson, the Dinaride ophioliteswere emplaced as a regional-scale thrust unit, whereas the melangewas accreted in a subduction trench setting. Consistent with this,Dimitrijević (2001) noted that the large ultramafic bodies mainlyoccur above the melange. Several lines of interpretation support thisinterpretation. (1) most, or all, of the lherzolitic-type ultramaficrocks (e.g. Zlatibor) could be subduction-related (i.e. upper plate)(Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-this volume), as noted above. (2) Most ofthe ultramafic rocks are not co-magmatic with the MOR-type-basaltblocks in the melange (e.g. Robertson and Karamata, 1994;Zakariadze et al., 2006). (3) Hot over-riding mantle lithosphere isneeded to generate the sub-ophiolite metamorphic soles. (4) Wheredated using radiolarians, the MORB in the melange is Late Triassic(Goričan et al., 1999; Vishnevskaya and Đerić, 2006; Vishnevskaya etal., 2009-this volume), whereas the ultramafic massifs of theDinaride ophiolite belt are inferred to be Jurassic based on thedating of the metamorphic soles. (5) The results of deep seismicreflection studies and ocean drilling elsewhere suggest that thesubduction décollement is normally located near, or above, theinterface between the oceanic crust and overlying sediments anddoes not normally cut deeply into the oceanic crust or mantle (e.g.Moore, 1989). As a result, lavas and sediments are commonlyaccreted, especially seamounts, whereas ultramafic rocks are rarelyaccreted other than for ductile serpentinite that is readily protrudedalong seafloor fault zones.

In other areas, large intact ultramafic thrust sheets (e.g. JurassicMesohellenic ophiolites, Greece; Upper Cretaceous ophiolites, Tur-key) typically overlie melange, commonly with an interveningmetamorphic sheet. These ultramafic bodies include huge regionallyintact thrust sheets above accretionary melange (e.g. Baer–Bassit andHatay ophiolites, S Turkey; Lycian ophiolite; SW Turkey; Dilek et al.,1999; Robertson, 2002). Similarly, many of the ultramafic ophioliticrocks of the Dinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar Zone WesternBelt can be interpreted as remnants of regionally extensive ophioliticthrust sheet.

On the other hand, within the northern Balkan Peninsula many ofthe smaller ophiolitic bodies including blocks of gabbro, plagiogra-nite and sheeted dykes are pervasively mixed with other melangeblocks (e.g. Triassic MOR-type basalts, pelagic sediments, neriticsediments). This is as expected in the gravity sliding model, but isless easy to explain in the regionally emplaced thrust sheetinterpretation. One possibility is that “subduction erosion” tookplace resulting in fragments of an over-riding SSZ-type ophiolitebeing detached and mixed with accretionary melange. Within theVardar zone western belt of western Serbia and western Bosnia (i.e.north of Kozara), the melange matrix is reported to include bothUpper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous palynomorphs (Ercegovac,1975), whereas further north (e.g. north Kozara Mountains) some ofthe ophiolitic rocks are dated as Late Cretaceous. In this case, someof the mixing of melange and ophiolites probably relates to latestCretaceous–Palaeogene collisional deformation. Comparable mixingof ophiolite slices and melange is documented, for example, in theAvdella Melange, N Greece and explained as the result of Jurassicaccretion followed by Early Cenozoic collisional deformation (Jonesand Robertson, 1991).

3.6. Role of arc magmatism

The Main Vardar zone includes dismembered ultramafic rocks,gabbros, diabase dykes and basaltic lavas. These bodies arelocally intruded by granitic plutons that were tectonically deformedand then covered by Tithonian sediments (e.g. reef limestones) andLower Cretaceous sediments (“Paraflysch”). The igneous assemblageis interpreted as a dismembered oceanic arc complex (Resimić-Šarićet al., 2000, 2006; Šarić et al., 2009-this volume). The subduction-influenced rocks are comparable with the Guevgueli complex, an

inferred back-arc basin in the eastern Vardar zone (i.e. Peonias zone)of northern Greece (Bébien et al., 1987; Zachariadou and Dimitriadis,1995).

In addition, the Serbo–Macedonian composite massif in Serbia,F.Y.R.O.M., northern Greece, and the Carpatho–Balkanides generallyare associated with a laterally persistent belt of Upper Cretaceous–Lower Cenozoic calc–alkaline magmatic rocks. This is generallyattributed to eastward or northward subduction culminating incontinental collision (Karamata, 1986; Berza et al., 1998; Ricou et al.,1998) (see Discussion of regional tectonic models).

3.7. Upper Cretaceous oceanic crust genesis

Petrological, geochemical, palaeontological and radiometric evi-dence suggests that Upper Cretaceous oceanic lithosphere formedwithin the northwestern part of the Vardar zone western belt,especially in the northern Kozara Mountains and adjacent areas(Karamata et al., 2005). It was commonly assumed that the ophiolitesof the Balkan region including former Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greeceare all of Jurassic age, in contrast to the Upper Cretaceous ophiolitesfurther east including Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Iran and Oman. However,this is an oversimplification, because Cretaceous ophiolites also occurfurther south in the Vardar Zone in the F.Y.R.O.M. (e.g. at Ržanovno Ni-mine) (Arsovski, 1997) as a continuation of the Almopias zone. Also,incomplete ophiolites are exposed in the Vardar zone of northernGreece (eastern Almopias zone) where they are dated as Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (e.g. Migdalitza ophiolite), based on micropaleonto-logical and radiometric dating (Sharp and Robertson, 2006). Further-more, ophiolitic rocks are interbedded with Upper Cretaceous pelagiccarbonates further south in the Vardar zone, in Evia and Argolis(Robertson, 2004), and have also been interpreted as dismemberedUpper Cretaceous ophiolites (Clift and Robertson, 1989). Finally,dismembered ophiolitic rocks in Crete, Karpathos and Rhodes areknown to be Late Cretaceous in age from radiometric and micro-paleontological dating (Koepke et al., 2002). At least one of theseophiolitic bodies (e.g. Argolis) shows geochemical evidence offormation above a subduction zone (Clift and Robertson, 1989;Robertson, 2002); another, shows near-MORB chemistry (easternAlmopias zone, N Greece). The extrusive in the northern KozaraMountains cannot yet be assigned to any specific tectonic settingbased in the available geochemical evidence (Ustaszewski et al., 2009-this volume). The existence of Upper Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceousoceanic lithosphere is, however, in keeping with the concept of theVardar Zone as a Mesozoic ocean that did not completely close untillatest Cretaceous time.

3.8. Closure and collision

Traditionally, ophiolite emplacement was thought to involveclosure of an “ophiolite basin” culminating in continental collision(e.g. Aubouin et al., 1970a,b). However, this is rarely true (Robertson,2006a), as exemplified in Oman where the Semail ophiolite wasemplaced in the latest Cretaceous, followed by a resumption of passivemargin conditions in a region full continental collision is yet to takeplace (Glennie et al., 1990).

For the Dinaride ophiolite belt and other oceanic domains in thenorthern Balkan Peninsula, ocean basin closure and collision weretraditionally assumed to have taken prior to the Late Jurassic(Tithonian) (e.g. Pamić et al., 2002a). However, such closure is unlikelybecause Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceousophiolites have been identified within Vardar Zone where some ofthe melange has also been dated as Cretaceous. There is also thewidespread record of Upper Cretaceous–Lower Cenozoic calc–alkalinerocks related to subduction, as summarised above. We, therefore,assume that that the Vardar zone western belt remained an oceanicarea until the end of the Cretaceous.


When did the ocean represented by the Dinaride ophiolite beltcompletely close? This depends on when the ophiolites and melangewere first emplaced over the Dinaride carbonate platform. In Greece,the Gavrovo–Tripolitza zone is overthrust by the Pindos–Olonosnappes that restore as the easterly passive margin of Adria (e.g.Dercourt et al., 2000) and the westerly margin of the Pindos ocean(e.g. Robertson et al., 1991). A similar relationship holds in Albaniawhere the Krasta–Cukali nappes are restored as the passive margin ofAdria until the end of the Cretaceous (e.g. Robertson and Shallo, 2000).In former Yugoslavia there is little or no evidence that the Bosniannappes and the Dinaride ophiolites were emplaced onto the Dinaridecarbonate platform until after the deposition of Palaeogene turbiditesin a flexural foreland basin setting.

Local successions in the Bosnian nappe units include LowerJurassic–Lower Cretaceous slope-facies radiolarites, Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous turbidites (“Bosnian Flysch”) and Upper Cretaceouscalcareous turbidites (“Ugar or Durmitor Flysch”). The Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous succession (Vranduk Group) includes ophiolite-derived sediments (Hrvatović, 2000a), but there is little evidence thatophiolites split the succession, or that the Upper Cretaceous marinesuccession is transgressive on emplaced ophiolites and melange.

It seems likely that a seaway persisted during the Cretaceousbetween the Dinaride carbonate platform to the southwest andpreviously emplaced ophiolites and melange of the Dinaride ophiolitebelt further northeast. A similar, or wider, remnant basin has beeninferred further southeast along strike in Albania, represented by theKrasta–Cukali unit (Robertson and Shallo, 2000); this, in turn, openedinto an ocean basin further southeast, represented by the Pindos zonein Greece (e.g. Degnan and Robertson, 2006; Piper, 2006).

Within the Vardar Zone western belt continental collision ap-pears to have begun during the Maastrichtian but was diachronous

Fig. 9. Alternative tectonic models for Triassic rifting in th

(Karamata, 2006). Upper Cretaceous–Eocene clastic sediments over-lying the inferred Upper Cretaceous ophiolite of the northern KozaraMountains record regional development of a foredeep or forelandbasin, related to southward overthrusting of the Eurasian Serbo–Macedonian composite massif (Ustaszewski et al., 2006, 2009-thisvolume). There is a general southward decrease in the age of theclastic sediments (mainly turbidites), consistent with a southwest-ward-propagating deformation front (in present geographical coordi-nates). A similar, generally southwestward, migration of deformationis also documented further east in Albania (e.g. Robertson and Shallo,2000; Muceku et al., 2006).

Following the ending of collision-related compression during thePalaeogene, the orogen was affected by regional-scale strike–slip andterrane displacement, which is outside the scope of this paper.

4. Regional tectonic models

In this final section we use the information and interpretationsabove to test alternative models for Triassic rifting and ophiolitegenesis/emplacement. Key units are summarised in Figs. 6–8.

4.1. Triassic rifting and continental break-up

Three main alternatives are considered (Fig. 9).

4.1.1. Southward subduction and back-arc riftingA Palaeotethyan ocean subducted southwards (Fig. 9c), opening a

Triassic back-arc basin to the south (Şengör, 1984). Within thenorthern Balkan Peninsula rifting took place along the northernperiphery of Adria during Late Permian–Middle Triassic, including theBudva zone, eventually opening the Dinaride ocean to the north

e Northern Balkan Peninsula. See text for discussion.


during Late Triassic–Early Jurassic time (Karamata, 2006). This modelis supported by the presence of voluminous Triassic calc–alkalineigneous rocks within the Adria, Budva and Dinaride units (Pamić,1984; Karamata et al., 2000b; Knežević and Cvetković, 2000) and is amodel favoured by Karamata, here.

On the other hand, there is little evidence of a subduction-relatedmagmatic arc along the northern periphery of Adria. Also, thegeochemistry of the igneous rocks does not necessarily confirm theexistence of contemporaneous Triassic subduction. The incompatibleelements in the least evolved basaltic rocks can be explained, either byhydrous melting of enrichedmantle (i.e. subduction), or as very small-degree melts derived from a heterogeneous mantle enriched in lightrare earth elements and large ion lithophile elements (Knežević andCvetković, 2000). Also, the known Upper Triassic volcanics within theDinaride ophiolite belt lack chemical evidence of a subductioninfluence (Zakariadze et al., 2006), questioning a back-arc setting.

A Triassic back-arc setting related to southward subduction is alsoquestionable for other parts of the Adria periphery ranging from Italyto Greece. A number of recent geochemical studies from the Adriamargin to the west of former Yugoslavia, including the central Alps,the Apennines, Sardinia and Corsica (Capedri et al., 1997; Beccaluvaet al., 2005) are compatible with rifting unrelated to contempora-neous subduction (“anorogenic model”). In the Greek area it isgenerally accepted that some of the Triassic rift-related rocks requirea subduction influence (e.g. Pe-Piper, 1998), although this mightrelate to subduction of Hercynian or Triassic age (Pe-Piper and Piper,2002). It is interesting that basaltic rocks erupted within thecontinent–ocean transition zone of the Newfoundland rifted margin(N Atlantic) show a negative niobium anomaly suggestive of asubduction influence that was possibly inherited from subduction ofthe Iapetus ocean (Robertson, 2007a). It should also be noted thatthe regional geology of the entire Adria periphery is consistent with arift setting and lacks evidence of associated magmatic arcs similarto those bordering modern back-arc rifts (e.g. Mariana, Tonga orTyrrhenian arcs).

Fig. 10. Alternative tectonic models for ophiolite genesis and emplacement that involve

4.1.2. Northward subduction and back-arc riftingA Late Palaeozoic ocean (Palaeotethys) existed beyond the north-

ern periphery of Adria. This ocean subducted northwards (Fig. 9b)during the Triassic, opening a back-arc basin within the northerncontinental margin of Eurasia (Stampfli and Borel, 2000; Stamplfliet al., 2001a,b; Garfunkel, 2004; Stampfli and Kozur, 2006). A MiddlePermian (Roadacian) siliciclastic unit, N1000 m thick is exposed in anisolated outcrop in NW Croatia (Mrzle vodice). This contains clasts ofdeep-sea sediments including black chert (lydite) dated as Pensylva-nian and Early–Mid Permian in age. Thermally altered LowerCarboniferous (Visean) conodonts are also reported (Aljinović andKozur, 2003) from clasts. This unit is interpreted as a fragment of aEurasian forearc basin that collided with Adria when Palaeotethysclosed duringMiddle Permian time. In this interpretation the Dinarideocean rifted during the Early–Middle Triassic within the southernmargin of Eurasia to form a back-arc marginal basin. Palaeotethysclosed regionally by the end of the Triassic, amalgamating Gondwananand Eurasian continental units while the Dinaride ocean continued towiden.

In the northward subduction model the northern margin of Adriais assumed to remain passive, whereas in reality the Budva riftcontains abundant Triassic volcanic rocks and restores as part of Adria.Also, there is no known evidence of a latest Triassic “Cimmerian”collisional event inwithin themarginal Central BosnianMountain unitand the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit or the more distal Dinarideophiolite belt. The outcrop in NW Croatia could alternatively recordrift-related faulting along the margin of Adria, followed by tectonicemplacement during Early Cenozoic closure of Tethys. In addition, asnoted above, the geochemistry of the Triassic rift-related igneousrocks does not necessarily confirm contemporaneous subduction.

4.1.3. Rifting of continental fragments from Adria (North Africa)A wide Palaeotethyan ocean existed to the north and one or more

continental fragments rifted from the Gondwana and drifted north-wards across Tethys towards Eurasia (Dercourt et al., 2000; Robertson

the opening and closure of a single Mesozoic oceanic basin. See text for discussion.


et al., 2004; Okay et al., 2006; see also Papanikolaou, 2009-thisvolume). The size and location of the continental fragment, orfragments, depends on how the ophiolites are interpreted. As oneend member, all of the continental units south of the Serbo–Macedonian composite unit are interpreted as part of Adria, so thatonly one large continental unit rifted from Gondwana (i.e. Adria; e.g.Aubouin et al., 1970a; Dercourt et al., 1986). As the other end member,Adria, the Drina–Ivanjica unit and the Kopaonik unit representdifferent rifted continental fragments (i.e, exotic terranes; Karamata,2006). In whichever scenario, a possible cause of rifting was slab–pullrelated to northward subduction of Palaeotethys beneath Eurasia. Thiswas possibly augmented by lithosphere weakening that resulted fromplume-related magmatism (Robertson, 2007b). In this rift setting thecalc–alkaline and subduction-influenced nature of some of the Triassicrift volcanics relates to melting of lithosphere that was previouslyaffected by subduction, probably during the Hercynian orogeny (Dixonand Robertson, 1993). Comparisons can be drawn with the rifting ofcontinental fragments from Gondwana, as documented for the NWAustraliamargin (Pigram and Pammabean,1984; see also Smith,1999).

There is good evidence of Permo–Triassic northward subduction alongthe Eurasian margin further east in the Pontides (Turkey) (Ustaömer andRobertson,1997; Okay et al., 2006). However, there is so far little reportedevidence of Permo–Triassic northward subduction beneath the Eurasianmargin in former Yugoslavia, although thismay be concealed by Cenozoiccollision and metamorphism within the Serbo–Macedonian compositeunit. Despite this problem, northward subduction and rifting ofcontinental fragments from Adria is favoured by Robertson (Fig. 9a).

4.2. Ophiolite genesis and emplacement

There are twomain types of model. The first assumes the existenceof a single Mesozoic Tethyan ocean in the region, with either a simple

Fig. 11. Alternative tectonic models for ophiolite genesis and emplacement that involve the oSee text for discussion.

or more complex history (Fig. 10). The second type of model assumesmultiple oceanic basins andmicrocontinents (Fig. 11). Pros and cons ofeach of these two types of model are explored below. In general,comparisons with areas to the west (e.g. Eastern Alps) suggest arelatively simple one ocean-type model (e.g. Neubauer and vonRaumer, 1993; Schmid et al., 2008), whereas comparisons with areasfurther east (Eastern Mediterranean; Middle East) suggest morecomplicated scenarios (e.g. Şengör, 1984; Robertson and Dixon, 1984;Stampfli and Kozur, 2006), more akin to the SW-Pacific region.

4.2.1. Structural constraintsStudies of Greece and Albania show that collision-related defor-

mation of Late Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic age played a critical role inthe regional structure, modified by later extensional and strike–slipprocesses. It is increasingly clear that pervasive collision-relatedthrusting and folding affected former Yugoslavia as awhole, extendingfrom the Serbo–Macedonian composite unit as far as the foreland ofAdria in the southeast.

One consequence of collision-related deformation is that earliertectonic fabrics, including those related to ophiolite emplacement inthe Dinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar zone may have beenconcealed or obliterated. For example, in northernGreece, a top-to-thesouthwest shear fabricwithinparts of the Pelagonian zonewas initiallyattributed to Upper Jurassic southwestward ophiolite emplacement(e.g. Mercier, 1968; Mercier et al., 1975). However, this fabric has sincebeen shown to the Early Cenozoic in age because in some areas ofnorthern Greece dated Cretaceous rocks show similar fabrics andvergence (Sharp and Robertson, 2006). Also, ductile-to-brittle fabricsrecording top-NE displacement have been demonstrated within theultramafic rocks of the Vourinos, Pindos, Othris and related ophiolitesof northern Greece (Smith et al.,1975; Naylor andHarle,1976; Smith etal., 1979; Wright, 1986; Rassios et al., 1994; Rassios and Smith, 2000;

pening and closure of a several Mesozoic oceanic basins separated by microcontinents.


Rassios andMoores, 2006; Rassios and Dilek, 2009-this volume). Unitsbeneath the Vourinos ophiolite, specifically, show abundant evidenceof emplacement generally eastwards or northwards towards thePelagonian continental unit, as confirmed by all those who haveworked in this area over several decades. The ophiolite emplacementstructures in the Vourinos area are unusually well preserved and theCretaceous cover in this area is relatively undeformed. For this reasonthe NE-directed structures cannot be dismissed, for example, as EarlyCenozoic collision related backthrusting. By contrast, in many otherareas the Cretaceous cover sediments aremore deformed (e.g. Argolis;Othris) and in these areas primary ophiolite emplacement-relatedstructures can be difficult or impossible to decipher.

Throughout large areas of former Yugoslavia imbricate thrustfaults and folds are generally oriented NW–SE, with a general SWvergence that is probably related to Early Cenozoic continentalcollision. In addition, some northerly areas of the Vardar zonewesternbelt (e.g. Mts. Majevica, Motajica and Prosara) show a northwardvergence (Hrvatović, 2006). Internally, the Serbo–Macedonian com-posite massif shows a generally east-directed vergence (e.g. Ilić et al.,2005) that may mainly represent post-collisional compression (i.e.suture tightening).

At present, there is little firm evidence of the direction of initial,Jurassic emplacement of the ultramafic ophiolitic bodies of theDinaride ophiolite belt, or of the Vardar zone western belt. South-westward emplacement is assumed in many studies (e.g. Aubouinet al., 1970a; Rampnoux, 1970; Pamić et al., 2002a). On the other hand,early top-NE-directed displacement has been reported locally fromthe Tejići ultramafic complex at Mount Povlen in western Serbia(Srećković-Batoćanin et al., 2006). Early northeastward displacementhas also been reported from several other ultramafic massifs includingZlatibor (Dimitrijević and Dimitrijević, 1979; Bazylev et al., 2003). Onthe other hand, Schmid et al. (2008) report top-W to top-NW shearsense indications in mylonitic metamorphic sole rocks from theselocalities (i.e. sub-parallel to the strike of the orogen).

Metamorphic soles are liable to syn- or post-emplacement verticalaxis rotations and the available structural data do not provide aconvincing indication of primary emplacement direction. In thisrespect, the structural data from Vourinos in northern Greeceare outstanding because a similar sense or movement, initiallytowards the northeast, is documented in the sub-ophiolite melange,the metamorphic sole and in the overlying ophiolites in an areawherethe mainly Cretaceous sedimentary cover is not greatly affected bycompressional deformation.

Assuming the Greek Jurassic ophiolites were emplaced generallynortheastwards (present co-ordinates) from a Pindos ocean onto aPelagonian continent, it is possible that all of the Greek, Albanian andformer Yugoslavian ophiolites were emplaced in a similar manner.However, it is also possible that there was a change in emplacementpolarity along the orogen, possibly along the regional Peć–Srbicatransverse lineament so that structural evidence of ophiolite empla-cement from Albania and Greece may not be applicable to formerYugoslavia.

4.2.2. Model 1: Single ocean closed in Late JurassicIn an early interpretation (Aubouin et al., 1970a,b; Aubouin,1973) a

single ocean basin opened in the Triassic between two continents(Fig. 10.1). The southern margin included, what are here termed theAdria, the Dinaride carbonate platform, the Budva zone, the CentralBosnian Mountains unit, the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit and theSana–Una and related units. The distal (northerly) parts of thissoutherly margin were represented by the large “Golija” unit(Rampnoux, 1970), a window through emplaced oceanic units toAdria. The “Golija unit” included what are here termed the Dina–Ivanjica unit, the Kopaonik unit and the Jadar unit. This single oceanbasin closed northwards and sutured by Late Jurassic–Early Cretac-eous time, creating the melange and emplacing ophiolites generally

southwestwards, onto the northerly part of the Adria continentalmargin. The suture experienced post-collisional shortening duringLate Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic time. A comparable model wasadopted by several other authors (e.g. Pamić et al., 1998; Pamićet al., 2002a), who believed that the Dinaride ophiolites at least, werethrust over the “Golija unit” from a northeasterly position prior toTithonian–Berriasian time.

4.2.2.1. Pros. This simple comprehensive model is consistent withmost of the information that was available during the 1960s and 1970s(e.g. Bernoulli and Laubscher, 1972) and even today is apparentlyconsistent with some tectonic models of the Alpine Tethys to the west(e.g. in the eastern Alps; Neubauer and von Raumer, 1993).

4.2.2.2. Cons. (i) All reconstructions of Africa and Eurasia suggest
that a wide separation (many hundreds of kilometres) still existedin the region until Early Cenozoic time (e.g. Scotese, 2007). All ofthis space would need to be accounted for by the existence of awide ocean between Adria and North Africa for which there is littleevidence. (ii) The model does not explain the existence of the extensive belt
of calc–alkaline magmatic rocks of generally Late Cretaceous–Palaeogene age, which is located along the Eurasian peripheryfrom the northern Balkan area through northern Greece andinto the Pontides of northernTurkey (Şengör,1984; Ricou,1996;Berza et al., 1998; Ricou et al., 1998). These magmatic rocks arewidely attributed to northward or northeastward subduction ofa Vardar ocean that persisted until the latest Cretaceous or earlyCenozoic time (Ricou et al., 1988; Karamata, 2006; Sharp andRobertson, 2006).

(iii) The model does not explain the existence of inferred UpperCretaceous ophiolites in the Vardar Zone western belt (e.g. inthe northern Kozara Mountains) (Karamata et al., 2005;Ustaszewski et al., 2009-this volume). This ophiolite wouldhave to be explained, for example, as a pull-apart basinwithin asuture zone, for which there is no independent evidence.

(iv) The interpretation of the “Bosnian Flysch” (Vranduk Group)as a deep-water passive margin succession of Adria (Pamićet al., 2000) has some important implications. In the one-ocean basin model this passive margin was thrust from anoriginal location to the northeast of the Drina–Ivanjica unit,an assumed window through to the Adria–Dinaride platform(Schmid et al., 2008). If restored to this position, theophiolites had to pass over the Vranduk sedimentarysuccession to be emplaced onto the Dinaride platform,prior to the accumulation of Tithonian–Lower Cretaceouscover sediments (e.g. Pogari Series). Abundant, ophioliticdebris is indeed recorded within the Late Jurassic (TithonianBerriasian) “Bosnian Flysch” (Vranduk Formation). However,there is little evidence that the Upper Cretaceous calcareousturbiditic succession (Ugar Flysch) in the area is transgres-sive on emplaced ophiolitic rocks as would be expected if theolder flysch accumulated on the leading edge of a subductingpassive margin. The sedimentary margin could have beendetached and bulldozed ahead of the advancing ophiolite inwhich case a major unconformity should exist between theolder and younger “flysch” units which has, however, not bereported. Also, the Upper Cretaceous facies are mainly deep-water turbidites and debris-flow deposits with no evidenceof shallow-water or non-marine deposition at the base(Hrvatović, 2000a).An alternative is that the “Bosnian Flysch” accumulated alongthe distal northern margin of the Adria/Dinaride platform,rather than along the northern margin of, for example, theDrina–Ivanjica/Kopaonik/Jadar units, as in the one-oceanmodel. In this case ophiolitic debris reached the outer


periphery of the Adria passive margin during Tithonian–Berriasian time, but ophiolites were not emplaced over theAdrian continent to the southwest until Early Cenozoic time.

(v) Tethyan areas to the east, including the Vardar zone in northernGreece and the Izmir–Ankara–Erzincan suture zone in Turkeyshow evidence of the existence of an ocean basin that remainedopen throughout Late Mesozoic–Early Cenozoic time, and thesame oceanic area can be assumed to extend westwardsthrough the Vardar zone of former Yugoslavia.

4.2.3. Model 2: one ocean closed and reopenedThis involves complete closure of the ocean during Late Jurassic

time followed by re-opening to create a new Cretaceous ocean(Fig. 10.2). In the north Balkan region Dimitrijević (2001) inferred theopening of a flysch trough (Durmitor Flysch) within a wide area(“Sarajevo Sigmoid”) during the Cretaceous. According to someauthors the Vardar ocean in northern Greece sutured by Late Jurassictime (Papanikolaou, 1996–1997) but then re-opened during the EarlyCretaceous (Jacobshagen and Wallbrecher, 1984).

4.2.3.1. Pros. The model could explain the evidence of Cretaceousophiolite formation and subduction-related magmatism, assumingthe Cretaceous ocean rapidly widened.

4.2.3.2. Cons. (i) There is no evidence of a rifted margin of Early
Cretaceous age within the Vardar Zone western belt, for examplerift volcanics and sediments. In comparison, in the SW Pacificregion an emplaced ophiolite rifted to form the Woodlark Basin.This rifting was associated with the very rapid deposition of up to1000 m of Plio–Quaternary muddy and volcaniclastic sediments(Taylor et al., 1999). Such rift-related sediments should be wide-spread and difficult to conceal in the stratigraphical record. Theonly possible candidate for a rift-related succession is the LowerCretaceous “paraflysch”. However, this is restricted to the MainVardar zone and the Kopaonik unit, and does not show thestratigraphy of a rift or subsiding passive margin (i.e. a deepening-upward succession). Rather the “Paraflysch” is more typical of aforearc basin. (ii) Any new rift basin would have to evolve rapidly into a wide
ocean (N500 km) to be able to fuel the extensive UpperCretaceous–Palaeogene arc magmatism to the north;

(iii) To maintain a wide separation of Europe and North Africaduring the Cretaceous, as suggested by reconstructions of Africaversus Eurasia (e.g. Dercourt et al., 2000; Scotese, 2007), acorresponding opening (Upper Jurassic) and then contraction(Early Cretaceous) of some other ocean in the region would berequired (e.g. south of Adria) for which there is no knownevidence.

(iv) Recent work in northern Greece suggests the Vardar oceanremained partly open from Triassic until the latest Cretaceous(Sharp and Robertson, 2006), as summarised above.

4.2.4. Model 3: southwestward emplacement of marginal basinophiolites

This model is based on that of Stampfli et al. (1998, 2001a,b) fornorthern Greece (Fig. 10.3). Intra-oceanic subduction was initiatedduring the Mid-Jurassic, facing away from the Adria/Dinaridecontinental margin (northeastwards in present coordinates). Themelange of the Dinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar Zone westernbelt were all created within a single subduction zone. As subductioncontinued, back-arc rifting generated new oceanic crust as an intra-oceanic marginal basin. The trench then collided with the Adria–Dinaride passive margin, including inferred peripheral units, and thecombined Dinaride and Vardar ophiolites were thrust southwestwardover the Drina–Ivanjica unit and related continental units (i.e.Kopaonik unit; Jadar unit), which are interpreted as parts of the

Adria passive continental margin. Oceanic lithosphere (Vardar ocean)still remained to the northeast as a remnant ocean during theCretaceous. This oceanic lithosphere subducted northeastward (withor without genesis of new oceanic crust) fuelling Late Cretaceous–Palaeogene arc magmatism, followed by suturing.

Similarly, Schmid et al. (2008) suggests that generally northwardintra-oceanic subduction triggered the development of an intra-oceanic arc. The ophiolites of the Dinaride ophiolite belt representthe leading edge of the over-riding plate. This collided with Adriaemplacing all of the ophiolitic rocks during Tithonian–Berriasiantime. A remnant ocean remained to the northeast and thissubducted during the Late Cretaceous creating the youngerophiolites of the Vardar zone western belt (e.g. northern KozaraMountains).

4.2.4.1. Pros. This model provides a means to form and emplace theDinaride melange and ophiolite prior to the Late Jurassic (Tithonian),and also to retain an ocean basin to the north during the Cretaceous. Itis also consistent with the presence of Jurassic arc-related magmaticrocks within the Main Vardar Zone and with the Upper Cretaceous–Palaeogene arc magmatism of the Main Vardar Zone and the Serbo–Macedonian (Eurasian) composite unit.

4.2.4.2. Cons. (i) An inferred intra-oceanic arc unit of Early Jurassic age
is indeed present within the Main Vardar Zone (Resimić-Šarić et al.,2000, 2006; Šarić et al., 2009-this volume). However, this is locatedwithin theMain Vardar zone to the northeast of the inferred remnantCretaceous ocean. It is, therefore, difficult to envisage how this unitcould have been emplaced together with the other ophiolites overAdria during the Late Cretaceous. Alternatively, the arcmagmatism inthe Main Vardar zone relates to a separate continental marginsubduction zone. (ii) Evidence from northern Greece shows that, there, the inferred
Mid-Jurassic volcanic arc was constructed on continental crust(within the Paikon zone) rather than oceanic crust (Mercier,1968; Brown and Robertson, 2003, 2004) and thus was not ofintra-oceanic origin, as in this model. On the other hand thepossible existence of an intra-oceanic arc unit within theVardar zone has recently been suggested (Saccani et al.,2008a).

(iii) The abundance of white mica in the melange, dated as Variscanin age (Ilić et al., 2005) is inconsistent with this model of intra-oceanic subduction as no suitable source area would exist forthis continentally derived sediment if the subduction trenchwas located far from a continent;

(iv) The Kopaonik unit is located to the northeast of the UpperCretaceous ophiolites within the Vardar zone western belt,which is difficult to explain if the Kopaonik unit formed part ofthe Adria foreland that was over-ridden by ophiolites duringthe Late Jurassic.

(v) None of the pre-Upper Cretaceous ophiolites of the Dinarideophiolite belt or the Vardar zone western belt can beconsidered as representing an intra-oceanic arc, but theyinstead may have formed by supra-subduction zone spread-ing. Present understanding of SSZ-spreading suggests thatthe subduction influence increases as the subducting platerolls back and the flux of water to the mantle wedgeincreases (Stern and Bloomer, 1992). In Greece and Albaniathis petrogenetic model has been used to support subductiontowards the southwest (Bébien et al., 2000; Robertson andShallo, 2000; Rassios and Moores, 2006; Dilek et al., 2005;Koller et al., 2006; Dilek et al., 2008). A similar relationshipcould apply in former Yugoslavia with the Dinaride ophio-lites and the pre-Upper Cretaceous western Vardar zoneophiolites forming during generally northward retreat of thesubduction zone.


(vi) Arc-continental margin collision does not obviously explain thepresence of large sheets of inferred sub-continental mantlelithosphere (e.g. Bistrica massif; Bazylev et al., 2006, 2009-thisvolume) within the Dinaride ophiolite belt.

(vii) The model proposed by Schmid et al. (2008) is very similar tothat for the emplacement of the Semail ophiolite, Oman (e.g.Glennie et al., 1973). In this case the ophiolite was emplacedtogether with sedimentary thrust sheets (Sumeini Group andHawasina complex) that document the existence of a regional-scale deep-water passivemargin. However, there is no evidenceof a comparable emplaced passive margin of Adria. Rather,blocks in the melange are indicative of sediment-starved riftand basins settings, more consistent with a palaeogeographi-cally complex setting in contrast to Oman.

In summary, none of the above scenarios involving only one UpperTriassic to Mid-Jurassic oceanic basin adequately explains one or morekeyaspects of the tectonic evidence from thenorthern BalkanPeninsula.

4.2.5. Multi-oceans and microcontinentsThe second type of model assumes a more varied regional

palaeogeography with more than one oceanic basin, separated byone, or several, microcontinents (Fig. 11). Multi-ocean models weresuggested for former Yugoslavia (Dimitrijević and Dimitrijević, 1973;Robertson and Karamata, 1994; Karamata, 2006), although palaeogeo-graphic interpretations vary. Dimitrijević (1982) suggested that theDrina–Ivanjica unit represented a microcontinent rather than part ofAdria. Robertson and Karamata (1994) envisaged the Drina–Ivanjicaunit, as a microcontinent within the Jurassic Tethyan ocean, whichthey compared with the Korabi zone of Albania and the Pelagonianzone of Greece. Karamata (2006) envisages the existence of a widelong-lived Vardar ocean (Palaeozoic to Late Cretaceous), associatedwith the genesis of several marginal basins. In additionmultiple oceanmodels are favoured by many authors for Greece and Albania (e.g.Robertson et al., 1991; Smith, 1993; Robertson et al., 1996; Dilek et al.,2005; Smith, 2006a; Dilek et al., 2008).

4.2.6. Multi oceans with a Cretaceous marginal basinThis model (Fig. 11.1) was adopted by Pamić et al. (2002a) to take

account of problems with the one-ocean basin model, and also toexplain the presence of Cretaceous “oceanic-related” magmatismwithin the Vardar zone. This model sees the Drina–Ivanjica unit as amicrocontinent rifted from the Adria/Dinaride continent. The Dinarideophiolite and melange are interpreted as an accretionary prismrelated to northward subduction beneath this microcontinent. Thiscreated a magmatic arc, which later split to open a Cretaceous back-arc basin within a Sava–Vardar zone (Pamić, 2000). In a laterinterpretation, Pamić (2002) suggested that the Dinaride ocean closedby the Early Cretaceous, but then re-opened above a northward-dipping subduction located within the Budva zone. A back-arc basinopened from 111–63 Ma during which time Upper Cretaceousophiolites formed, and then closed northwards associated with calc–alkaline arc magmatism. The older and younger melanges wereintersliced to form a nappe pile related to collision during Palaeogenetime, followed by transpression during the Oligocene.

4.2.6.1. Pros. This model provides a means of forming a Cretaceousocean in the Vardar zone related to opening of a back-arc basin.

4.2.6.2. Cons. (i) The only evidence of a possible oceanic arc related
to northward subduction during the Jurassic is within the MainVardar Zone (Resimić-Šarić et al., 2000, 2006; Šarić et al., 2009-this volume). However, this unit was transgressed by terrigenousclastic sediments during the Early Cretaceous (“Paraflysch”). Nooceanic lithosphere remained within the Main Vardar zone(Sava–Vardar zone) after this time.
(ii) The Dinaride ocean was effectively closed and transgressed byshallow-water carbonates or terrigenous sediments (PogariSeries) by the latest Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. No oceaniclithosphere remained within the Dinaride ophiolite belt to fuelnorthward subduction and back-arc spreading further north-east during the Cretaceous. Also, the Budva zone further south isinterpreted as a rift rather than an oceanic basin. Seismictomographic studies across the northern Greece have beentaken to suggest that only one subduction zonewas present fromthe Early Cretaceous onwards (van Hinsbergen et al., 2005).

4.2.7. Multi-ocean terrane modelKey aspects of this interpretation (Fig. 11.2) are that the Vardar

ocean evolved out of a pre-existing Main Vardar ocean, equivalent toPalaeotethys, and has since subducted beneath the Eurasian continent(Karamata, 2000; Karamata et al., 2003; Karamata, 2006). A Palaeo-tethyan Vardar ocean also subducted southwards opening a Triassicmargin oceanic basin along the northern margin of Adria (see Discus-sion of rifting, above). TheMainVardar oceanwas already subducting tothe northeast during Late Palaeozoic time, creating HP/LT rocks withinthe Serbo–Macedonian composite unit (Korikovsky et al., 2003). OnlytheDevonian–Carboniferous Veles Series, a possible oceanic island arc,remains to record this Upper Palaeozoic subduction.

Two microcontinents (Drina–Ivanjica and Kopaonik) rifted fromthe Adria/Dinaride continent during Middle and Late Triassic,respectively. The Dinaride ocean opened in the Ladinian andsubducted northeastwards beneath the Drina–Ivanjica microconti-nent, beginning in the Late Triassic, resulting in formation of theDinaride melange and southwestward emplacement the Dinarideophiolites during Middle–Late Jurassic time, by which time theDinaride ocean was closed. A branch of the Vardar ocean representedby the Vardar Zone western belt opened in the Late Norian andremained as a wide oceanic area separating the Adria/Dinaridecontinent from Eurasia until the Maastrichtian. By contrast, theoceanic basin represented by the Main Vardar zone closed duringMiddle–Late Jurassic. Northeastward subduction during the Cretac-eous of the still-extant western branch of the Vardar ocean triggeredsupra-subduction zone genesis of oceanic crust. This created theUpper Cretaceous Kozara ophiolite and fuelled Upper Cretaceous–Palaeogene arc volcanism along the southern margin of Eurasia.

The Drina–Ivanjica unit remained towards the southern margin ofthe Mesozoic Tethyan ocean, whereas the Kopaonik unit driftednorthwards and accreted to the southern margin of Eurasia,represented by the Serbo–Macedonian composite unit. The Drina–Ivanjica unit and the Kopaonik unit were, therefore, located on theopposite sides of the ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous, untilthey were reassembled following Upper Cretaceous subduction andMaastrichtian–Palaeogene continental collision.

4.2.7.1. Pros. (i) The terrane model provides a means of forming and
emplacing the Dinaride ophiolitic melange and the Dinarideophiolites adjacent to the Adria/Dinaride continental margin,while also forming and emplacing ophiolites and related melangeto the north within the Vardar Zone, and simultaneously allowingthe persistence of a wide intervening Cretaceous ocean; (ii) The model satisfies most of the key constraints in terms of the
timing of rifting, subduction, ophiolite genesis, formation ofmetamorphic sole and sedimentary transgressions.

4.2.7.2. Debateable aspects. 1. Are the ophiolites and melange of theDinaride ophiolite belt and the Vardar Zone Western Belt really ofsystematicallly different age (i.e. Upper Triassic to Middle Jurassic in theDinaride ophiolite belt versus Late Triassic to Campanian (LateCretaceous) in the Vardar Zone western belt)?

A regional geological map (Petković, 1961) shows the Drina–Ivanjica unit as wedging out to the northeast and any extension is


covered by large ophiolitic massifs. In this region there is no clearboundary between Jurassic melange of the Dinaride ophiolite belt andCretaceous melange of the Vardar Zone western belt (e.g. Maglaj area;Petković, 1961): if one existed, it was masked by Upper Cretaceous/Palaeogene collision-related thrusting. Also, is it realistic to infer twomajor episodes of ophiolite emplacement in this area, involving large-scale emplacement of oceanic lithosphere in a relatively short space oftime (Mid-Jurassic vs. Early Cretaceous), with metamorphic soles ofdifferent ages in the two zones? In other regions, ophiolite emplace-ment was an unusual event, typically driven by the collision of asubduction trench with a passive margin (e.g. emplacement of theUpper Cretaceous Oman ophiolite over the Arabia margin; Glennieet al., 1973).

Potential answers are, first that the matrix of the Vardar ZoneWestern Belt contains Lower Cretaceous palynomorphs, in contrast tothe Dinaride melange in which the matrix is entirely Jurassic or older(although further documentation and confirmation is needed). LowerJurassic palynomorphs have been reported from the Vardar zone tothe northwest, in Croatia (Babić et al., 2002), but detailed correlationsare uncertain. Second, the K/Ar ages of metamorphic soles appear tobe younger in the Vardar Zone western belt (Early Cretaceous) than inthe Dinaride ophiolite belt (Mid-Late Jurassic) (see Tectonic pro-cesses), but this requires confirmation with a more precise datingmethod.

2. Is the Main Vardar Zone a successor ocean of Palaeotethys?In this model, Palaeotethys continued to close northwards or

northeastwards during the Triassic, while new ocean was simulta-neously created within the Main Vardar zone within a southerly,younger extension of Palaeotethys. This interpretation is questionedby evidence from the southern margin of the correlative Serbo–Macedonian zone in northern Greece. There, the metamorphicbasement is covered by a Permian and Triassic succession related torifting to form an oceanic basin within the eastern Vardar zone (Staisand Ferrière, 1991; Dimitriadis and Asvesta, 1993; Brown andRobertson, 2003, 2004). In addition, it was recently suggested, basedon new radiometric dating evidence from northern Greece (Himmer-kus et al., 2006) that a suture zone (Palaeotethys?) exists within theSerbo–Macedonian zone; only the northern part of Serbo–Macedo-nian zone and the Rhodope zone is truly Eurasian in this interpreta-tion, whereas the southern part of the Serbo–Macedonian zone wasapparently accreted to the Eurasia during “Alpine” deformation. It is,therefore, possible that the Main Vardar zone represents a Triassic riftbasin and that the Palaeotethyan suture zone is located further northwithin the poorly dated Serbo–Macedonian composite unit. In thiscase the Kopaonik might have rifted from the Serbo–Macedoniancomposite unit to the north.

3. Is the Kopaonik unit a drifted, then accreted terrane?Is the Kopaonik unit a continental fragment that rifted from a

southerly Drina–Ivanjica microcontinent, drifted across Tethys andthen accreted to the Eurasian margin by Late Jurassic time (Karamata,2006)? The presence of inferred Upper Cretaceous ophiolites withinthe northern Vardar Zone western belt between the northerlyprolongations of the exposed Drina–Ivanjica unit and the Kopaonikunit suggest that an oceanic separation existed between these units atleast during the Cretaceous. Pollen data from the Kopaonik sedimen-tary cover suggest that this unit was joined with the Serbo–Madeconian composite massif by the Early Cretaceous (Dulić, 1999).One problem is that the predicted deep-water passive marginsequences bordering conjugate rifted fragments (i.e. Drina–Ivanjicavs. Kopaonik) have not yet been identified, although they may exist asblocks and dismembered thrust sheets within the melange.

4. Were the Dinaride ophiolites emplaced by northeastward subduc-tion beneath the Drina–Ivanjica microcontinent?

This model is favoured by Pamić (2000, 2002) and by Karamata(e.g. 2006) but is problematic for several reasons. (1) The model doesnot easily explain the presence of dismembered ophiolites on the

upper plate, for example along the southern margin of the Drina–Ivanjica unit (Dimitrijević, 2001). (2) Subduction (underthrusting) isnot an effective mechanism to emplace large slices of oceaniclithosphere onto a continent (see Discussion of tectonic processes).For example, northward subduction of Upper Cretaceous supra-subduction-type oceanic lithosphere has taken place beneath amicrocontinent in eastern Turkey (Tauride–Keban platform). In thiscase, a complete ophiolite, with intact volcanics and pelagic sedimentswas thrust beneath the continental platform during latest Cretaceoustime (Robertson et al., 2006; Rızaoğlu et al., 2006). If the JurassicDinaride oceanic lithosphere was subducted beneath the Drina–Ivanjica continental unit, similar ophiolites would be expectedbeneath a regionally over-riding continental unit. By contrast, theDrina–Ivanjica unit appears to have been over-ridden and interslicedwith serpentinised peridotite and melange. To achieve this geometryit is likely that the Drina–Ivanjica microcontinental unit was over-ridden by the ophiolites and melange, followed by erosion. If correct,the Dinaride ophiolites were emplaced by overthrusting of the Drina–Ivanjica unit from an oceanic basin either within the Vardar Zonewestern belt or the Dinaride ophiolite belt.

4.2.8. Dinaride ophiolites emplaced northeastwards from the Dinarideocean

This model proposed by Robertson (in Robertson and Karamata,1994; Fig. 10.3), follows the interpretation that the Jurassic ophiolitesof Greece and Albania were emplaced from a Pindos ocean towardsthe northeast over the Pelagonian zone during the Mid–Late Jurassic(e.g. Smith et al., 1975; Naylor and Harle, 1976; Wright, 1986;Robertson et al., 1991; Smith, 1993; Rassios et al., 1994; Robertsonet al., 1996; Rassios and Smith, 2000; Rassios and Moores, 2006;Robertson, 2006b; Rassios and Dilek, 2009-this volume). Emplace-ment towards the (present) northeast has also been suggested in theMirdita zone of Albania (Bébien et al., 2000; Robertson and Shallo,2000; Dilek et al., 2005; Koller et al., 2006; Dilek et al., 2008). In thisinterpretation, the Jurassic Greek and Albanian ophiolites are inferredto have formed by spreading above a southwestward-dippingsubduction zone (present co-ordinates) (Robertson et al., 1991;Rassios and Smith, 2000; Dilek et al., 2005; Koller et al., 2006; Dileket al., 2008). Assuming a comparable setting for former Yugoslavia, theJurassic Dinaride ophiolites formed by spreading above a southwest-dipping intra-oceanic subduction zone and the Dinaride melangerepresents an accretionary prism generated by northeastward sub-duction. In this context it is interesting to note that an Upper Jurassicgranite has been reported from the East Bosnian Durmitor Unit in thesouth (Dimitrijević, 2001) that might be subduction related.

The above model can be further developed as follows (Fig. 12).Palaeotethys subducted northeastwards during Late Palaeozoic–EarlyMesozoic time: its suture is assumed to lie within the Serbo–Macedonian composite unit. The northernmargin of Adria tectonicallyextended creating the Budva rift and detaching the Drina–Ivanjica unitcontinental unit during the Triassic (Fig. 12a) The Drina–Ivanjicafragment rifted away opening the Dinaride ocean basin during LateTriassic–Early Jurassic (Fig. 12b). Continental lithosphere was partiallyexhumed during rifting. During the late Early to Mid-Jurassic theDinaride ocean subducted to the southwest (Fig. 12c). Subductionwasthen initiated oceanwards of Adria, and this triggered supra–subduc-tion spreading of the Dinaride ophiolites. The subduction influenceincreased as the oceanic slab rolled back towards the northeast. Themelange was created by accretion beneath the over-riding oceanicplate coupled with gravity reworking. The terrigenous component ofthe melange matrix decreased as the subduction zone retreatedoceanwards. The metamorphic soles formed related to inter-oceanicconvergence and underplating of cold oceanic crust beneath the hotmantle wedge, represented by both sub-continental mantle in thesouthwest and oceanic mantle further northeast. Some oceanic crustwas deeply subducted, then exhumed in a subduction channel and

Fig.12.Model for ophiolite genesis and emplacement in the Northern Balkan Peninsula, assuming a tectonic model similar to that previously developed fromGreece and Albania. Thisassumes that the Jurassic ophiolites of the Dinaride ophiolite belt were obducted onto a continental unit, similar to other Jurassic and Cretaceous ophiolites of the East Mediterraneanregion and elsewhere. Two alternatives are indicated for the setting of the Kopaonik continental unit, either drifted from Adria–Dinaride continent to the south, or rifted from theSerbo–Macedonian continent to the north.


underplated to themantlewedge. The subduction trench then collidedwith the intra-oceanicDrina–Ivanjicamicrocontinent and theDinarideophiolites and sub-continental mantle bodies were thrust north-eastwards onto the Drina–Ivanjica microcontinent (Fig. 12d). Theophiolites andmelange completely overrode theDrina–Ivanjica unit inthis interpretation so that the pre-Upper Cretaceous ophiolites andmelanges of the Vardar Zone western belt (i.e. of Jurassic age) are, ineffect, a continuation of the Dinaride ophiolite belt (e.g. ultramaficrocks of the southern Kozara Mountains). In this interpretation theEarly Cretaceous K/Ar ages of metamorphic soles from Vardar ZoneWestern Belt ophiolites are considered to be unreliable.

Further north, the Triassic Vardar ocean subducted northwards(independently) beneath the Serbo–Macedonian continent (Fig. 12c).Depending on the setting of the Kopaonik unit (rifted from Adria orthe Serbo–Macedonian continent) this subduction zonewas located to

the south, or north, of the Kopaonik continental fragment. In eitherscenario, a back-arc basin opened giving rise to subduction-relatedmagmatism, followed by closure of this marginal basin prior to EarlyCretaceous time. During closure, ultramafic ophiolitic rocks werethrust southwards over the Kopaonik unit and are now exposed onboth sides. The compositionally varied granitic magmatism cuttingbasic ophiolitic-type rocks within the Vardar zone (Šarić et al., 2009-this volume) could record generally northward subduction thatcreated a marginal basin adjacent to the Serbo–Macedonian continentduring Late Jurassic time. This basin closed, possibly in response to thecollision of a continental fragment with the Serbo–Macedoniancontinent, which allowed the transgression of clastic sedimentsfrom Early Cretaceous times onwards. The remaining CretaceousVardar ocean subducted northeastwards (present coordinates) duringthe Late Cretaceous (Fig. 12e), triggering genesis of new oceanic crust


(e.g. in the northern KozaraMountains) and genesis of an accretionarywedge along the southern margin of Eurasia (Serbo–Macedonianzone). The Late Cretaceous subduction trench evolved into a south-ward-migrating collisional foreland basin during the Palaeogene.During collision-related shortening, the pre-existing allochthonexperienced pervasive re-thrusting, which mixed some ophiolitesand melange, especially within the Vardar Zone western belt. As thecollision front migrated southwards, the Central Bosnian Mountainsunit and the East Bosnian–Durmitor unit were thrust southwestwardsover Adria, collapsing the Budva rift basin (Fig. 12f). Exhumation,strike–slip and related basin formation ensued during the Oligocene–Miocene.

4.2.8.1. Debateable aspects. (i) The relatively high-temperature
metamorphism (amphibolite facies) within the Drina–Ivanjicaunit (e.g Dimitrijević, 1997) was alternatively attributed to ridgesubduction beneath the Drina–Ivanjica continent (Karamata, inRobertson and Karamata, 1994). However, the age of this meta-morphism is not well constrained and could pre-date Triassiccontinental rifting. (ii) Only limited structural evidence exists for the initial pre-
Tithonian direction of subduction and ophiolite emplacement.However, as noted above early top-NE-directed displacementwas described from the Tejići ultramafic complex at MountPovlen, W Serbia (Srećković-Batoćanin et al., 2006) and fromseveral other ultramafic massifs including Zlatibor.

(iii) There is little evidence of a volcanic arc related to Mid-Jurassicintra-oceanic subduction near, or along, the Adria margin.However, in the model of supra–subduction zone spreading(“pre-arc spreading” of Pearce et al., 1984), no volcanic arc needexist prior to ophiolite genesis, and indeed no such arc existsrelated to the emplacement of many other supra–subduction-type ophiolites (e.g. Semail ophiolite, Oman). Ophiolites formsoon after SSZ-spreading begins and a related magmatic arcscan only form later if subduction is not interrupted by ophioliteemplacement.

In summary, insufficient data exist at present to confirm onespecific model. However, Karamata retains his multi-ocean basinterrane model (Karamata, 2006), whereas Robertson believes that amulti-ocean basin model similar to that developed for Greece andAlbania is also likely to be applicable to former Yugoslavia.

5. Conclusions

1. The northern margin of Adria experienced crustal extensionduring the Triassic, creating the Budva zone rift in the south andthe Dinaride oceanic basin further north. One, or more, con-tinental fragments (e.g. Drina–Ivanjica unit) are likely to haverifted from Adria and drifted northwards towards Eurasia.

2. Several Tethyan oceanic strands are likely to have existedbetween Adria and Eurasia after Triassic time, namely theDinaride ocean in the southwest and the Vardar ocean in thenortheast. The Main Vardar ocean included a Jurassic marginalbasin that was created by Jurassic northward subduction that waslater deformed and transgressed by Early Cretaceous sediments.The Vardar ocean as a whole remained partly open until thelatest Cretaceous, represented by the younger parts of the VardarZone western belt.

3. The presence of allochthonous slices and blocks of Variscangranitic rocks within the Jurassic melange of the Dinarideophiolite belt could be explained by extensional exhumationduring the Triassic within a broad continent–ocean transitionzone, followed by incorporation into the melange during LateJurassic–Early Cretaceous time. Comparable, extensional exhuma-tion is well documented for the North Atlantic (i.e. Iberia–

Newfoundland conjugate margin) and the Alps–Apennines. Inaddition, several of the ultramafic ophiolitic massifs of theDinaride ophiolite belt are inferred to represent extentionallyexhumed sub-continental mantle lithosphere that was emplacedwithin the melange together with other ultramafic massifs ofsupra–subduction zone type during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceoustime.

4. Upper Triassic (Carnian–Norian) radiolarites associated withMOR-type volcanics within the Dinaride ophiolite best areinterpreted as accreted fragments of Triassic oceanic crust thatformed within the Dinaride ocean. The lavas erupted during thelatest stages of continental break-up or the early stages ofseafloor spreading. Rare blocks of WPB-type volcanics in themelange may represent late-stage rift volcanics or emplacedoceanic seamounts.

5. Many of the ultramafic massifs within both the Dinaride ophiolitebelt and the Vardar zone western belt are interpreted to haveformed in a supra-subduction setting, mainly based on geochem-ical evidence, and are similar to many other Tethyan ophiolites,including those of theMirdita zone in Albania and the Pindos zoneof northern Greece.

6. The ophiolites of the Dinaride ophiolite belt are likely to have beenregionally emplaced as a result of subduction trench–continentalmargin collision, similar to many other ophiolites (e.g. in Anatoliaand Oman), although other explanations exist.

7. Closer to the opposing, northern margin of the MesozoicTethys, the ophiolites within the Main Vardar zone wereformed in a subduction-related marginal basin, associated witharc magmatism, similar to the eastern Vardar zone of northernGreece.

8. The Mesozoic Vardar ocean persisted from Late Triassic to LateCretaceous. Northeastward subduction of remaining Cretaceousocean triggered the formation of Upper Cretaceous oceaniclithosphere (e.g. ophiolites of north Kozara Mountains).

9. Additional regional evidence of Cretaceous ophiolites, sum-marised here, invalidates the common assumption that theBalkan ophiolites are entirely Jurassic in age, in contrast toUpper Cretaceous ophiolites further east (e.g. Turkey, Cyprus,Oman) and that the Vardar zone entirely closed by EarlyCretaceous time.

10. Several alternative tectonic models that are discussed here nowneed to be tested with new data, notably high-precision Ar–Ardating of metamorphic soles and detailed structural kinematicstudies of the earliest fabrics related to the ophiolite emplace-ment. Also, the tectonic development of the Serbo–Macedoniancomposite unit, a potential Palaeotethyan suture zone, needs to beunravelled using state-of-the art radiometric studies.

Acknowledgements

We thank the participants of the international field meeting onnorth-Balkan ophiolite-related geology, June, 2006, for discussionsand insights. A.H.F. Robertson and S. Karamata thank Prof. D.Milovanović for helping to lead a field excursion during autumn2004 and for much helpful discussion. The first author is apprecia-tive of the late Prof. J. Pamić and also of Dr. Bruno Tomljenović forcoordinating the PANCARDI 2000 field excursion, which includeddiscussion of many aspects. S. Karamata thanks the late Prof. J. Pamićand also Prof. V. Cvetković for discussions of the Dinaride ophioitebelt over many years. The authors also thank the late Prof. J. Pamićand Dr. H. Hrvatović and MSc. J. Olujić for leading several excursionswithin Bosnia–Herzegovina and for related discussions. Some of thefieldwork summarised here was funded by the Serbian Academy ofSciences and Arts (Project “Geodynamics”) and the Serbian Ministryof Sciences (Project No. 146013). The manuscript benefited frominsightful reviews, especially by Prof. E. Saccani.


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