Overview of Occupational Segregation in the U.S.

Vicky Lovell, Ph.D.

Institute for Women’s Policy Research

World Bank Workshop II for Gender Focal PointsApril 7, 2005

• Occupational segregation is a strong, persistent feature of U.S. labor markets.

• Despite the end of legal barriers to professional education for women, in the 1960s, women and men continue to work in very different jobs.

• There has been some decline in the extent of occupational segregation in the U.S. in recent decades:

Table 1. Index of Dissimilarity(0 = complete integration)

Year Score

1970 67

1980 60

1990 56

2000 52

Source: Jerry A. Jacobs, “Detours on the Road to Equality”(Contexts 2(1):32-41, Winter 2003).

Table 2. Examples of occupational segregation

Occupation Women as percent of all workers

Ratio of women’s to men’s earnings

Physicians and surgeons

32 % 59 %

Lawyers 32 % 87 %

Computer software engineers

22 % 75 %

Registered nurses 90 % 88 %

Secretaries 96 % 93 %

Pre-school and kindergarten teachers

98 % n/a

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2003(USDOL 978, September 2004).

Why does it matter?

• Wages are lower in jobs that are held mainly by women (Stone 2003).

• Many female-dominated jobs are extremely low-wage.

• Women are not able to reach their full potential if limited in their occupational choices.

• Employers are not able to choose the most productive workers.

Table 3. Top 20 occupations for women

OccupationNumber of

WomenOccupation's

Percent FemaleWomen's Median Weekly Earnings

Total, 16 years and older 44,076 43.9 $552

Secretaries and administrative assistants 2,692 96.3 531

Elementary and middle school teachers 1,780 80.6 757

Registered nurses 1,650 90.2 887

Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides 1,144 89.0 372

Cashiers 1,040 75.5 315

Customer service representatives 1,038 69.1 503

First-line supervisors/managers, office/admin support 984 67.9 609

First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers 938 41.5 496

Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks 894 91.4 512

Receptionists and information clerks 831 93.2 446

Accountants and auditors 784 58.3 756

Retail salespersons 765 41.6 382

Maids and housekeeping cleaners 682 84.6 317

Secondary school teachers 540 53.5 824

Waiters and waitresses 528 68.1 318

Teacher assistants 527 90.9 344

Office clerks, general 511 83.8 502

Financial managers 491 51.6 823

Preschool and kindergarten teachers 476 98.3 493

Cooks 452 39.3 317

• Concern about slow progress in closing the gender wage ratio

Figure 1. Ratio of Women's to Men's Median Annual Earnings, Full-TimeYear-Round Workers, 1955-2003

50%

55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Wag

e R

atio

Sources: Data for 1955: Francine D. Blau and Marianne A. Ferber, The Economics of Women, Men, and Work, 2nd ed. (Englew ood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992), Table 5.6; Data for 1960 through 2003: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Historical Income Tables (http://w w w .census.gov/hhes/income/histinc/p38.html, October 2004), Table P-38.

• There is increasing concern about women’s and families’ economic stability and self-sufficiency, with women having a growing responsibility for family income.

• In some occupations, women’s representation has actually decreased – e.g., some computer-related occupations.

• Employment growth is expected to be greatest in some very low-paying jobs requiring very low (or no) training or education.

Table 4. Employment growth 2002 – 2012Occupation No. new jobs

expectedEarnings quartile

(4 = lowest)

Education / training requirement

Registered nurses 623,000 1 Associate degree

Post-secondary teachers 603,000 1 Doctoral degree

Retail salespersons 596,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Customer service representatives

460,000 3 Moderate on-the-job training

Food preparation and service, including fast food

454,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Cashiers 454,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Janitors and cleaners 414,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

General managers 376,000 1 College degree + exp.

Waitpersons 367,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Nursing aides 343,000 3 Short-term on-the-job training

Truck drivers 337,000 2 Moderate on-the-job training

Receptionists 325,000 3 Short-term on-the-job training

Security guards 317,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Office clerks 310,000 3 Short-term on-the-job training

Teacher assistants 294,000 4 Short-term on-the-job training

Source: Daniel E. Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to 2012” (Monthly Labor Review 27(2): 80-105, February 2004)..

Interest in non-traditional jobs for women

• In the U.S., “non-traditional” means fewer than 25 percent of workers in the occupation are women.

• Typically have higher pay than female-dominated jobs.

• For less-skilled workers, main jobs are in construction (carpenters, electricians, plumbers).

• Training provided by community colleges or union apprenticeship programs.

Non-traditional occupations offer manybenefits to women . . . .

• Higher wages• Good benefits (health insurance, pensions)• Variety and mobility• Casual dress• Outdoor work• Job satisfaction• Opportunities to learn on the job• Career ladders• Enhanced quality of life• New skills that can be used in many jobs

. . . . along with some challenges:

• Hazardous workplaces• Discrimination and/or harassment• Sense of isolation if there are few other women• Families and friends may not be supportive• Transportation and child-care may be difficult

to arrange• Weather, heat, cold, dust, dirt, noise• Physical requirements• Shift work• Seasonal layoffs• May need to learn unfamiliar skills

Source: Wider Opportunities for Women 2004.

Non-traditional occupations offer higher wages and lower education/training costs

• Average cost of a 4-year college degree: $74,000• Average cost of a 4-year apprenticeship program:

$2,000

In the first 20 years, workers will earn:• College graduates: $630,000• Union workers in building trades: $844,000

Source: Oregon Tradeswomen n.d.