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Over the Hump Airlift Campaign

India-China 1942-1945

Version 1.0

C-46 Hump Workhorse

Copyright: Jan Paul Hope 2012 Available as a Free Adobe Acrobat Download

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QUOTES

"It was safer to take a bomber deep into Germany than fly a transport plane over the Rockpile from one friendly nation to another."

General Tunner, Hump Airlift Commander 1944-1945

"We flew when the birds were walking." Otha Spencer, Hump Pilot

"The Base Commander selected me as the Night Pathfinder because I had commercial airline experience before the war. I liked flying at night because there was less chance of being shot

down." Paul Rommel, Hump Pilot

"If Air Corps technical orders were now in force, I doubt that there would be an airplane in the air."

Report on visit to CBI by C. R. Smith, President of American Airlines, joined USAAF during WWII as a Colonel and served as Director of Operations, Air Transport Command Headquarters,

Arlington, Virginia, rising to Deputy Commander and Major General

"Many stories were circulated throughout the CBI -- some were true." Otha Spencer, Hump Pilot

DEDICATION This simulation is dedicated to the selfless and courageous service of Paul Rommel and his fellow intrepid aviators who flew transport planes Over the Hump across the Himalayas between India and China in the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater during World War II. Their skill, commitment to mission, and perseverance under extreme danger and adversity are an inspiration to all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page 1 Quotes and Dedication Page 2 Table of Contents Page 3 1.0 Introduction Page 5 2.0 Simulation Procedures Page 6 2.1 Mission Flight Structure Page 6 2.2 Operational Turn Sequence Page 7 2.3 Mission Scenario Factors Page 8 2.3.1 Morale & Efficiency (M/E) Page 8 2.3.2 Daylight and Around the Clock Page 9 2.3.3 Airfield Takeoff and Landing Capacity & Monsoon Modifier Page 9 2.3.4 Loss Rate Page 10 2.3.5 Enemy Interception Page 10 2.3.6 Search and Rescue Page 11 2.3.7 Diversion of Aircraft to Other Missions Page 11 2.3.8 Average Daily Tonnage Page 12 2.4 The Map and Following the Route Page 12 2.5 The Clock Page 13 2.6 The Aircraft Page 13 2.6.1 C-47 Page 14 2.6.2 C-87/C-109 Page 14 2.6.3 C-46 Page 15 2.6.4 C-54 Page 16 2.6.5 Aircraft Performance Factors and Counter Sheets Page 16 2.7 General Tunner on Airlift Page 17 2.8 Scenarios Page 17 2.8.1 First Survey Flight, November 1941 Page 17 2.8.2 First Mission - First Day, April 1942 Page 18 2.8.3 First Mission - Bringing It All Page 19 2.8.4 Early Days - April - June 1942 Page 20 2.8.5 Early Days - Stilwell's Estimate Page 21

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2.8.6 Air Transport Command Takes Over - December 1942 Page 22 2.8.7 Over the Top - March 1943 Page 23 2.8.8 Making Progress - October 1943 Page 24 2.8.9 Operation Tsuzigiri - October 1943 Page 24 2.8.10 Flying Around the Clock - January 1944 Page 25 2.8.11 Reacting to Operation U-Go - March 1944 Page 26 2.8.12 Tom Hardin Day - 22 August 1944 Page 28 2.8.13 Age of Big Business - January 1945 Page 29 2.8.14 Worst Night on the Rockpile - 6-7 January 1945 Page 31 2.8.15 Big Month - July 1945 Page 33 2.8.16 Big Day - 1 August 1945 Page 35 3.0 Designer's Notes Page 38 4.0 South Carolina General Assembly Resolution Honoring Paul Rommel Page 42 5.0 Bibliography Page 45 6.0 Counter Sheets Comments Page 46 7.0 Map Pages Comments Page 46 8.0 Presentation Note Page 46 Counter Sheets Pages 47-50 Map Pages Pages 51-58

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1.0 INTRODUCTION: In 2011, my friend Paul Rommel, a member of the Tega Cay, South Carolina, Men's Friday Breakfast Club, was honored by local South Carolina state representative, Ralph Norman, with the presentation of a resolution by the South Carolina General Assembly. The resolution cited the Federal Aviation Administration's prestigious Wright Brothers Master Pilot Award to Paul and also recognized his service in World War II flying the Hump in C-46 and C-47 aircraft, earning the Distinguished Flying Cross for 950 hours of Hump missions. As a tribute to Paul's accomplishments, I thought that I would track down a simulation of the Over the Hump airlift operation, acquire it, and run a few missions. After some days of diligent searching, I could find no reference anywhere to a simulation of the Hump! I was astounded! A wargame or mathematically based simulation has been published on virtually every topic in warfare over the past 5,000 years, but yet I could not find one on the Hump airlift. I have been playing wargames since I first owned and played the old Avalon Hill U-Boat game as a young lad in 1960, and as part of my graduate studies in engineering management I took a number of electives in Operations Research. So, undeterred by a lack of published airlift simulations, or any particular personal knowledge of airlift, having made a career in designing naval ships, managing naval shipbuilding programs, and formulating naval construction policy, particularly as related to sea lift, I boldly went in where angels fear to tread and designed a solitaire airlift simulation of my own. The result of my efforts to date, and this is definitely a work in progress, follow below. This simulation is more or less set at an operational level with a tactical flavor. The simulation parameters tend toward "averages" that aggregate at an operational level of performance while also providing player interest with individual aircraft flying over representative terrain between geographic locations. The player is primarily at an operations level, although not really in an Operations Officer role, and who has strategic and command factors from above, as well as effects of weather, ground personnel performance, accidental losses, and other uncontrollable phenomena, influencing decisions on moving aircraft through the operating system while trying to deliver cargo tonnage to China within resource and time limitations. Also, the player is not really at the level of the Commanding General, and even though there are individual planes flying across the map, the player is not at the pilot level either. Having said all that, the idea of the simulation is to provide an interactive experience in learning about the Hump airlift campaign and its progress from the earliest days to the climactic Big Day. Before anyone launches into playing this simulation, I have to tell you that it is not the greatest simulation ever designed, and in fact to some degree the player will be orchestrating the system rather than playing a game. As such, I am hopeful that the simulation will provide a dynamic learning experience, and give the player a different perspective in studying the history of the Hump airlift campaign that might add a dimension beyond reading the several interesting and excellent accounts that are available in published books. I would highly recommend reading the books and other sources in the Bibliography, and then if you would like to see it all unfold on your table top, assemble the map, cut out the aircraft counters, and start in on the

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scenarios. Seeing all those hundreds of planes in the air over the Himalayas flying 5,000 tons to China on Big Day in August 1945 is a sight to behold! Enjoy your games! 2.0 SIMULATION PROCEDURES: 2.1 Mission Flight Structure: Each mission represents a specified day or several successive days to illustrate various aspects of the strategic campaign to supply China by airlift from India during World War II over the period from initial operations in April 1942 though "Big Day" on 1 August 1945. The mission flight structure is as follows: Outbound from India side: Available Pool 1st load box 2nd load box 3rd load box Load risk box, pass test or remain if applicable Cleared for Take Off box, take off if spot is available or remain as applicable Take off into first move hex, this hex, or hexes when taking off from Assam bases, with a "speed limit" of 1 is adjacent to the airfield to indicate climbing out before continuing on the flight. Test for accidents as applicable. Move to second speed limit 1 hex for further climbing out, Assam only. Move to third speed limit 1 hex for final climbing out, Assam only. Flight to China, at speed for that 10-minute turn depending on the type of plane, and following allowable terrain. Test for accidents or interception as applicable. Fly into Kunming airfield, landing if landing spot is available, otherwise fly holding pattern until a spot is available, test for landing accident as applicable. Place aircraft in landing box and record tonnage delivered. Return from China side: (Landing box from preceding step) 1st turn-around load box 2nd turn-around load box Turn-around load risk box, pass test or remain if applicable Cleared for Return Take Off box, take off if spot is available or remain as applicable Take off into first move hex, this hex with a speed limit of 1 is adjacent to the airfield to indicate climbing out before continuing on the return flight. Test for accidents as applicable. Flight to India, at speed for that 10-minute turn depending on the type of plane, and following allowable terrain. Test for accidents or interception as applicable. Fly into India base airfield, landing if landing spot is available, otherwise fly holding pattern until a spot is available, test for landing accident as applicable.

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Second and subsequent round trips follows same structure, moving from landing spot to 1st load box immediately after landing if a spot is available in the first load box. Each aircraft participating in that mission begins the mission in the available pool before the first load box in India. Up to 10 aircraft can enter the first load box each 10-minute turn at each airfield (Assam, and Bengal when Bengal is operational). Those aircraft in the first load box can move to the second load box in the next 10-minute turn, and up to 10 more can enter the first load box. Those aircraft in the second load box can move to the third load box in the next 10-minute turn, those in the first can move to the second, and 10 more can enter the first. In the next 10-minute turn, aircraft in the third load box can then test for completion of loading and clearance for takeoff. If the d10 roll is less than or equal to the current Morale & Efficiency (M/E) rating in effect at that moment, the aircraft has completed loading, is cleared for takeoff and can take off immediately if a takeoff spot is available, with a total time in the load sequence of 30 minutes. If the die roll is higher than the current M/E rating in effect (remembering that 0 = 10), then the aircraft moves to the load risk box and waits until the next turn to test for successful completion of loading and clearance for takeoff. If an aircraft successfully completes loading and is cleared for takeoff, but there is no take off spot immediately available, the aircraft may move to the cleared for takeoff box if within the 10 aircraft CTO box limit, and waits until a takeoff spot becomes available. There is no further test for taking off once cleared for takeoff, as soon a takeoff spot is available the aircraft may take off. There may only be 10 aircraft in each load sequence box, so if any box already holds 10 aircraft, no additional aircraft can proceed to that box until a space is available. An unlimited number of aircraft can be in the holding pattern box waiting for a landing spot, and in the landing box itself waiting for a spot in the first load box. Several successive bad weather dice rolls can lead to congestion in the takeoff sequence, especially in scenarios with many aircraft in operation. When landing in China, a plane can land, then enter the first turn-around load box on the next 10-minute turn, enter the second turn-around load box on the second 10-minute turn, then on the third 10-minute turn, it can take off if it successfully tests for turn-around completion and clearance for takeoff on the M/E rating die roll, and a takeoff spot is available, with a total time on the ground of 20 minutes. 2.2 Operational Turn Sequence: The operational turn sequence is flexible and generally the player can structure the sequence for personal efficiency in running the operation, subject to a few mandatory steps. Step 1: Index the clock to the next 10-minute turn. At the beginning of the scenario, the clock is set at the start time specified. For example, if the start time is 0600, the hour arrow is set on the "0600" hour segment of the 24 hour daily track and the minute arrow is set on the "10" segment (for 0 to 10 minutes) of the 60 minute hourly track, and the turn is Turn 1, an odd turn.

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Step 2: Roll 2 or 3 d10, depending on the scenario, for each base and determine the Take-Off and Landing capacity for that base, adjusting for monsoon season if applicable. Step 3: Land any aircraft in holding patterns over the bases or within range of reaching the bases that turn, up to the landing capacity of the bases. Planes are landed in order of arrival at the base, with planes in the air the longest having first priority for landing spots. More planes may be in line for landing than available spots, and if so, those excess planes must remain in the holding box until the next ten minute turn. Record load tonnage landed on the total tonnage track as applicable. Step 4: Move flights in the air toward destinations, usually beginning with those closest to their destinations and working backward along the path as the spaces ahead become available, checking for accidents and interceptions as applicable. It is not mandatory to move in this manner, but "pulling the string" helps avoid stacks of aircraft piling up on each other and is generally more efficient than "pushing the string." Step 5: Move aircraft on the ground through loading and turn-around boxes as applicable. When all aircraft have been moved or determined to be congested in place in the system, go back to step 1 and index the clock, continuing the turn sequence until the scenario is completed. When the scenario is completed, check the total tonnage delivered and congratulate yourself on a difficult mission accomplished and reward yourself with a suitable beverage of choice! The normal medicinal relief for a completed round trip mission over the Hump in the China Burma India Theater was two ounces of 100 proof bourbon! 2.3 Mission Scenario Factors: Each mission scenario provides for various factors for that mission including aircraft force levels, a morale and efficiency rating for the commander in play at that time, daylight only or around the clock flying, monsoon modifier for airfield take off and landing capacity, accident rate, enemy interception, search and rescue level, diversion of aircraft to other missions, and the average daily tonnage delivered during the period of the scenario. Each of these factors and its effect on simulation procedures is explained in the following paragraphs. 2.3.1 Morale & Efficiency (M/E): Each commander has a level of Morale & Efficiency as specified in the scenario reflecting his ability in organizing his staff, providing overall leadership to the campaign, the general level of training achieved in the command, and the resources, such as spare parts, available to the command. Some of these factors are beyond the control of the commander, but the factor represents what could be done making the best use of available resources. This factor is used to determine the daily availability of aircraft for the mission scenario. For example, if a scenario with Colonel Alexander in command has an M/E rating of 5, then the availability of each aircraft from the specified force level is determined by rolling one 10-sided

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dice (d10) with the aircraft determined as available on a roll of 1 through 5 and not available on a roll of 6 through 0 (0=10 for all purposes in this simulation). Similarly, if a scenario with General Tunner in command has an M/E rating of 7, then the availability of each aircraft from the specified force level is determined by rolling one d10 with the aircraft determined as available on a roll of 1 through 7 and not available on a roll of 8 through 0. Aircraft availability is determined each day in a multi-day scenario. Availability is determined at midnight for the start of the next day. First test those aircraft that were not available the preceding day, and add any newly available aircraft off map near the LNDG box of their India side base, ready to move into LD1. Then test any aircraft that flew the previous day and are in their India side base. If aircraft stayed overnight in Kunming, these aircraft may return to their India side base, and are tested once they land in India. In scenarios where there is night flying, aircraft are tested for the coming day as they land after midnight. The M/E level is also used in determining the completion of the turn-around cycle. The final box of the turn-around cycle is completed when each aircraft rolls one d10 less than or equal to the current M/E level. For example, the current M/E level is 5, and as each aircraft checks to determine if the cycle is completed, a d10 roll of 1 through 5 indicates that the aircraft is cleared for takeoff, a 6 through 0 indicates that the aircraft must wait until the next 10-minute turn to determine if it has completed the turn-around cycle. The delay can continue indefinitely until a successful die roll is obtained. The M/E track is immediately adjusted for any transport aircraft losses. Although it might not be known for some hours that an aircraft is missing, in some cases there could be Mayday radio contact from a disabled or shot down aircraft, or reports from following aircraft that could become rapidly known and have immediate effect. Rather than introducing a complicated simulation method to account for this variability, a simplistic method provides for immediate application of the reduction. The M/E level can never drop below 3. 2.3.2 Daylight and Around the Clock At first, Hump missions were flown in daylight only. Colonel Hardin introduced around the clock flying, and night flying initially increased the accident rate until pilots became more experienced in night flying. When flying daylight only missions, loading can take place during night hours, and takeoffs can begin at 0600. All landings must be completed by the end of the 1800 hour. Any aircraft still in flight after the 1800 hour are considered crashed unless these aircraft are in a holding pattern at their destination airfield waiting for a landing position. There are no restrictions on takeoff and landing times when flying around the clock missions. 2.3.3 Airfield Takeoff and Landing Capacity and the Monsoon Modifier Each base is limited in the number of take offs and landings per 10 minute turn as determined by rolling two or three d10, depending on the scenario, and selecting the best result. During monsoon season, the best result is then reduced by one. For example, in non-monsoon season, two d10 rolls are 1 and 0, the best result is 0 for 10 take offs and landings for that base for that 10 minute turn; the limit is the number of take offs allowed and also the number of landings

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allowed. If it is monsoon season, the best roll in this case would be reduced by 1 to 9 for 9 take offs and 9 landings at that airfield. The takeoff and landing capacity (TO/L) for each airfield is determined separately for each airfield for each 10 minute turn. Place a d10 dice with the TO/L capacity number shown by each base hex in operation as a reminder of the total available spots for that turn. If there are more planes in line for landing than available spots, planes above the landing capacity for that 10-minute turn must remain in the holding box until a landing spot is available. For example, if the TO/L capacity for an airbase is 8, and there are 10 planes ready to land, 2 must remain in the holding box. If the TO/L capacity for an airbase is 2, and there are 10 planes ready to land, at least 8 must remain in the holding box. 2.3.4 Loss Rate The accident or loss rate varied at different times during the three and a half year campaign. Initial missions in 1942 experienced no accidents until September 1942 when the first crash occurred. As more aircraft and newer types were introduced into the campaign, accidents increased. Later when General Tunner took command, accident rates decreased. The loss rate specified for the mission is the number of 3 by d10 dice rolls for each aircraft for that mission. For each loss test, roll three d10s (this is also known as a d1000), and if the result is 0-0-0 on all three dice, the aircraft has crashed. Each dice roll represents a 1 in a thousand chance of the aircraft being lost. C-87/C-109 aircraft have an accident rate five times the normal rate. The accident tests are allocated as follows: take off from India, crossing the Himalayas, landing in China, return take off, return crossing the Himalayas, return landing. If the loss rate is less than six, the tests are done in flight sequence order from first take off until all tests are completed for that flight. If the loss rate is greater than six, then these are allocated in flight sequence order until all are allocated. For example, if the mission loss rate is four, then each flight will test for an accident at first take off, crossing the Himalayas, landing, and return take off. If the accident rate is 15, then these are allocated as follows: three for first takeoff, three for crossing the Himalayas, three for landing, two for return take off, two for return crossing the Himalayas, and two for return landing. 2.3.5 Enemy Interception The possibility of enemy interception varied at different times during the three and a half year campaign. In the early days, Japanese forces had not yet captured Myitkyina and its airfield close to the transport plane flight paths. Once Myitkyina was held by the Japanese, fighter interception missions could be staged through Myitkyina during daylight against the transport plane routes. Interceptions were difficult at the ranges involved and often not fruitful for the interceptors looking for targets spaced out along the route and with some ability of transport aircraft to avoid interception by flying into clouds and otherwise evading the interceptors. However, determined surge interception operations could be mounted that increased the number of fighter interceptor aircraft for concentrated periods of time.

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The mission specification indicates the interception level. The normal level is the number of 3 by d10 dice rolls to test for interception during a flight with a result of 0-0-0 indicating that the transport plane is shot down. For example, if the level specified is 1 interception check per flight, then each transport aircraft will roll 3 by d10 when it crosses the interception line during daylight hours, and if the result is 0-0-0 the aircraft is shot down. If a transport aircraft is shot down, then each aircraft in its 10-mile hex and any hex in the surrounding 10-mile hexes is immediately tested for a "bonus" interception with any result of 0-0-0 resulting in that aircraft also shot down. The bonus interception applies to aircraft that have already passed their normal interception test in crossing the interception line ahead of the aircraft just shot down, and continues to be applied in a daisy chain of adjacent hexes until no aircraft are shot down in a hex and the chain is broken. Any aircraft tested by bonus interceptions must still be tested for normal interception when these aircraft cross the interception line during daylight hours. There are no fighter interceptions during night hours. 2.3.6 Search and Rescue Early on in the campaign there was no organized search and rescue to aid downed airmen in escaping back to home base. Blackie's Gang was the first organized search and rescue operation, and later when General Tunner took command, more effective search and rescue methods were implemented and greater resources applied. The mission specification indicates the level of search and rescue operations. When a transport aircraft is lost, either through accident or interception, the Morale & Efficiency level is immediately reduced by one. A Search and Rescue marker can then be moved to the M/E track to restore the M/E loss. When there are no SAR markers to move to the M/E track, the aircraft loss results in a permanent reduction to M/E for the remainder of the scenario. For example, Blackie's Gang provides one SAR marker, and one aircraft is lost reducing the M/E level from 5 to 4. The SAR marker can be moved from the SAR track to the M/E track to restore the M/E level to 5. If another aircraft is lost, the M/E level is reduced to 4, an there are no additional SAR markers to restore it to 5. Later on, under General Tunner, more efficient and robust search and rescue operations were implemented, and there are two SAR markers. 2.3.7 Diversion of Aircraft to Other Missions While the Hump airlift was the primary mission of the transport aircraft assigned to Air Transport Command in CBI, other strategic and tactical imperatives often siphoned off aircraft for other missions. The scenario specification indicates a percentage level determined by die roll. This percentage is reduced from the aircraft force level available for the scenario mission. C-47s were the most useful aircraft for other missions because their smaller size load capacity and load balance flexibility were well suited to tactical missions, and generally had a higher

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diversion rate. If the scenario provides a diversion table, roll 1 by d10 and then reduce the force level by the indicated percentage. For example, if the diversion table provides the following 1-6: 0%; 7-8: 10% C-47, 0% other types; 9: 20% C-47, 10% other types; 0: 30% C-47, 20% other types; and the d10 roll is 9, then reduce the C-47 force by 20% and the C-87/109, C-46, and C-54 forces by 10% each, rounding in favor of aircraft for the Hump mission. 2.3.8 Average Daily Tonnage The average daily tonnage is provided as a comparative measure of success of the player's operations. The simulation is an exploration of historical circumstances as a dynamic learning experience rather than a game with victory conditions, so the average daily tonnage can be thought of as an indicator of how the scenario played out compared to actual historical accomplishments. Given the variability of simulation interdependencies and the relative accuracy of modeling these, the tonnage factor should be considered an approximate indicator, and not necessarily a won-loss determination against history. The Over the Hump Airlift Campaign simulation is more of a journey and not so much a destination! 2.4 The Map and Following the Route: The map represents the geography of the terrain between the Hump air bases in India and the airfields in Kunming, China with the southern end of the Himalayas, and its weather system, as a significant obstacle between the airfields. The hex grid is at a scale of 10 miles per hex. The map is considered representative and not descriptive in that it illustrates some degree of following-the-route valley flying for C-47s and C-46s, but does not depict actual valleys that were followed (perhaps more research for Version 2.0!). C-47s and C-46s are unable to fly at altitudes that would directly cross the highest ranges on the map on only one engine, and as a safety precaution against engine failure they must fly into the Himalayas following the valleys that conform to the altitude restrictions of these aircraft as indicated on the map legend. Following the altitude restricted eastbound route will lead C-47s and C-46s across the interception line that can trigger interception events by Japanese fighters. C-54s were unable to fly at even these altitudes with one of four engines failed and were withheld from Hump operations until Myitkyina and its airfield were recaptured by American and Chinese forces, reducing the threat of Japanese fighter interception and opening the C-54 route from Bengal bases over the "Low Hump" to Kunming. C-87 and C-109 conversions of B-24 bombers could fly at all altitudes represented on the map and can fly anywhere without altitude restriction. C-47s and C-46s returning from China to India were generally lightly loaded or empty and could safely fly at higher elevations. Westbound C-47s and C-46s can return by a more northerly route as shown on the map, and can avoid the Japanese interception line by following this route. If a fully loaded C-47 or C-46 flies westbound in a scenario of the players own design, then it must follow the southerly route and would be subject to interception if interception operations are in effect. In the scenarios provided in the simulation it is assumed that all C-47s and C-46s return to India lightly loaded or empty and can fly the northerly route.

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Various simulation aids are included directly on the map including the time clock, loading and turn-around sequence boxes, tonnage delivered track, accident rates, as well as command track for M/E and SAR levels. Also, there is a 1-speed limit hex adjacent to the airfield hexes, and two more in succession flying out from Assam bases. These hexes represent the take off and initial climb out before heading toward the destination. In the case of the Assam series of three 1-speed limit hexes, planes taking off from Assam had to come up to more than 10,000 feet of altitude before continuing toward Kunming to clear the Naga Hills, so the first half hour to 45 minutes of flight were spent climbing up to altitude before making much progress toward the objective. The take off from Kunming and Bengal bases allowed more gradual gain in altitude so there is only one slow speed hex before the main journey begins. The Bengal bases were located hundreds of miles to the west of the west map edge, and rather than including additional map sections at 10 miles per hex, the bottom edge of the assembled map provides a series of hexes marked "4/3." When flying through these hexes, the C-54s move one hex per turn, whether odd or even turns, to account for the time it would take to fly the extra distance between Bengal bases and the map edge. The map sections can be assembled by trimming the interior borders down to the hex sides and overlaying them in the pattern: ABCD across the top and EFGH along the bottom, and then smoothly taping the interior edges with clear cellophane tape. 2.5 The Clock: The clock is shown on the map and there are markers to track the current 10-minute turn and the hour around the 24 hour face. The 10-minute turns are odd for 10, 30, and 50 minutes past the hour; and even for 20, 40, 60. The turns are divided into odd and even to provide for the average speed made good over the ground for the various transport aircraft while keeping the convenience of 10 mile hexes and 10 minute turns. A Version 2.0 of the simulation might look toward more granularity in distance and time relationships, but for Version 1.0 the odd and even construct seems reasonable and sufficiently accurate. There are also four "day" markers to indicate which day it is in multi-day scenarios. 2.6 The Aircraft: Representing aircraft performance in this type of simulation is not an exact science since there are many variables, such as load, altitude, and weather, that affect speed and load carrying capacity. In general, speed performance in the simulation is aligned to the "normal" flight time from Assam or Bengal to Kunming, normal being sort of anecdotally derived from various sources and intended to be representative for illustrating history in a dynamically interactive way and not necessarily scientifically descriptive. Also, load carrying capacity is subject to variability by source, and for purposes of this simulation each plane has a single number of tons per aircraft and it is the same throughout the whole period of time and for all routes. Many anecdotes mention overloaded planes, and also some may have flown with awkwardly shaped

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cargo that did not weigh the load factor given for each type. As further research provides greater granularity for future versions, load factors and speeds may be fine tuned. For now here is what we have: 2.6.1 C-47 - Gooney Bird

The first planes used in the Hump campaign were C-47s, along with its near twin brother the C-53. The C-47 was derived from the pre-war Douglas DC-3 twin engine commercial aircraft, one of the world's most famous and enduring aircraft. Its reliability and flyability are legendary, and it served in every theater in almost every conceivable mission, and some are still flying to this day. C-47s have a load tonnage of 2.5 tons per flight, and can fly 3 hexes on odd turns and 2 hexes on even turns for an average speed over the ground of 150 miles per hour. Various sources will provide a range of speeds, and these are somewhat dependent on the load carried, the altitude flown, and the weather. For our purposes, the selected "average" characteristics provide a representative model of the performance of the C-47s. 2.6.2 C-87/C-109 - Widow Maker

The C-87, and its tanker version, the C-109 -- nicknamed "C-One Oh Boom" for its propensity to explode without warning -- were cargo conversions of the four engine B-24 bomber. The C-87 was configured for general types of cargo including fuel in drums, while the C-109 was configured with internal fuel tanks to carry fuel loads. These aircraft had a high efficiency wing design that was very prone to icing, and the crash rate of these aircraft was said to be five times the rate of other aircraft in the Hump campaign.

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For our purposes, C-87s and C-109s have a load tonnage of 3.5 tons per flight, and can fly 3 hexes on odd turns and 3 hexes on even turns for an average speed over the ground of 180 miles per hour. 2.6.3 C-46 - Old Dumbo

The C-46 was an adaptation of a twin engine commercial airliner design and first entered service in the Hump campaign. There were many problems initially, and the aircraft became known by many unflattering names including "Old Dumbo" and "The Plumber's Nightmare." The first aircraft were sent back for upgrades and the production line models were changed with many modifications to rectify problems found in initial operations. Over time the C-46s became more reliable, and their tonnage capacity larger than the C-47s earned them the label of Work Horse. For our purposes, C-46s have a load tonnage of 4.0 tons per flight, and can fly 3 hexes on odd turns and 2 hexes on even turns for an average speed over the ground of 150 miles per hour.

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2.6.4 C-54 - Big Horse

The C-54 was the big brother of the C-47, and the military version of the Douglas DC-4 four engine commercial airliner. It was a large plane with similar reliability and flyability performance as the C-47. It had altitude limitations lower than the C-47s and C-46s and its operational introduction into the Hump campaign was deferred until the Low Hump routes could be opened after Myitkyina and its airfield had been recaptured by American and Chinese forces in 1944. C-54s had the range to fly from Bengal bases to Kunming and back while still draining down some on-board fuel in Kunming. Flying from Bengal bases avoided the time and effort required to take cargo up to Assam, and General Tunner's long range plan was to eventually replace all the other transport aircraft and operate the long haul C-54s exclusively in the Hump campaign. The end of the war curtailed implementation of the long range plan. For our purposes, C-54s have a load tonnage of 6.0 tons per flight per General Tunner's memoirs, and can fly 4 hexes on odd turns and 3 hexes on even turns for an average speed over the ground of 210 miles per hour. 2.6.5 Aircraft Performance Factors and Counter Sheets Players should feel free to modify these aircraft performance factors according to your favorite information source and also to suit any homegrown scenarios for missions where overloads were known to be carried or different speeds were attained under the weather conditions that prevailed for that scenario. The factors specified above are from various sources and represent approximate average conditions. Exceptional conditions occurred frequently and home grown scenarios could use performance factors that reflect known conditions of that particular mission. Players should modify these factors as appropriate for enjoyment of the campaign. Each aircraft counter on the counter sheets represents one plane of the type indicated. The counter includes the type of aircraft, its number, and its speed for odd turns then a slash followed by its speed for even turns. Various other game counters are included on these sheets including clock markers, M/E markers, etc. It is recommended that these counter sheets be printed or copied on card stock and then cut out to make the playing pieces for the simulation. Play test versions of the counters were

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printed on plain paper and moving the aircraft with these paper-thin counters can be tedious and be sure not to sneeze! 2.7 General Tunner on Airlift: Before embarking on a journey through the scenarios, it would be interesting to see what General Tunner, commander of the Hump airlift campaign during the period from August 1944 through November 1945 and the foremost practitioner of the art, said about airlift, as follows:

"The actual operation of a successful airlift is about as glamorous as drops of water on stone. There's no frenzy, no flap, just the inexorable process of getting the job done. In a successful airlift you don't see planes parked all over the place; they're either in the air, on loading or unloading ramps, or being worked on. You don't see personnel milling around; flying crews are either flying, or resting up so that they can fly again tomorrow. Ground crews are either working on their assigned planes, or resting up so that they can work on them again tomorrow. Everyone else is also on the job, going about his work quietly and efficiently. The real excitement from running a successful airlift comes from seeing a dozen lines climbing steadily on a dozen charts -- tonnage delivered, utilization of aircraft, and so on -- and the lines representing accidents and injuries going sharply down. That's where the glamour lies in air transport." Over the Hump, page 162.

So there we are, as glamorous as drops of water on stone! Enjoy your journey! 2.8 Scenarios: 2.8.1 First Survey Flight, November 1941 Background: The China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC), a joint venture between the Chinese government and Pan American Airways (and predecessor commercial aviation firms) had been flying regular runs from Hong Kong to Rangoon via Chungking, Kunming, and Lashio. With the fall of Indochina, Lashio was vulnerable to bases in Indochina. Per Robert Willett, "According to several reports, the real first flight testing a new route took place on November 22, 1941; the route was not yet approved for Army Air Corps flights so it fell to CNAC to pioneer the corridor. The test flight began at Lashio, flew over the under construction airport at Myitkyina, Burma and on into Dinjan, in north India's Assam Province on the still unfinished airstrip there. [After an overnight stop] the flight continued over Ft. Hertz, Burma, entered China near Chungtien in Yunnan Province, and then continued on to Likiang." The flight landed at Likiang to pick up a passenger who did not appear and then continued on to Kunming. This survey flight was flown by CNAC Captain Chuck Sharp in a DC-3 with Syd deKantzow and Joe Loh as crew, and carried a number of passengers. Force Level: 1 C-47 begins on the Assam Bases hex, cleared for takeoff. Morale/Efficiency: Not applicable.

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Clock Start: 0900. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Not applicable. Accident Loss Rate: None. Interception: None. Search and Rescue: Not applicable. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Not applicable. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound. Mission: One way trip from Assam to Kunming. (If anyone wishes to make the intermediate stop, Likiang is approximately 180 miles (18 hexes) to the east and slightly south of Ft. Hertz. Wait time on the ground should be timed to take off in sufficient time to arrive in Kunming before dusk.) Notes: This is a very basic scenario to show the minimal mechanics of sending a single flight on a mission from Assam, flying the route eastbound through the Himalayas, and landing in Kunming. It also highlights the role played by CNAC in the early pioneering days of Over the Hump flying. The book An Airline at War, by Robert Willett, is an excellent narrative account of the story of CNAC and well worth reading to learn about CNAC and its role in the Hump airlift campaign. CNAC carried more than 10% of the total tonnage lifted from 1942 through 1945. The following scenarios focus primarily on the aircraft and missions of the US Army Air Force, and as more statistical information emerges on CNAC, a future version of this simulation may include additional CNAC force levels and reflect the generally more efficient operation of experienced CNAC pilots and ground crews. 2.8.2 Fuel for Doolittle - First Mission - First Day, April 1942 Background: According to The Tenth Air Force 1942, Army Air Forces Historical Studies: No. 12, the first Over the Hump airlift task was to deliver 30,000 gallons of gasoline and 500 gallons of oil to China for the Doolittle Raiders to use in flying from China to India after the raid on Tokyo. Ten Pan American DC-3s from Africa were provided to the India-China cargo route, but one was damaged when it could not find the Dinjan airfield. On 6 and 7 April 1942, two of the transports flew 8,000 gallons of gasoline from Calcutta to Asansol and later delivered this cargo from Dinjan to China. The other planes then began transporting the remainder of the assignment. Force Level: 2 C-47s begin on the Assam Bases hex, cleared for takeoff. Morale/Efficiency: Not applicable, turnaround automatically stages through the boxes. Clock Start: 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Not applicable. Accident Loss Rate: None. Interception: None.

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Search and Rescue: Not applicable. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Not applicable. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly round trips from Assam to Kunming on one day, aircraft can end the day in Kunming. Notes: This is another basic scenario to show the mechanics of sending two aircraft on a mission from Assam, flying the route eastbound through the Himalayas, landing in Kunming, following the turn-around procedure, flying the northerly westbound route through the Himalayas, landing in Assam, turning around again, and taking another load east. 2.8.3 Fuel for Doolittle - First Mission - Bringing It All Background: This scenario picks up at the second day of the first mission, adding in the other seven borrowed DC-3s to transport the remainder of the 30,000 gallons of gasoline and 500 gallons of oil, approximately 420 tons of cargo (including the weight of the 55 gallon drums and other hardware associated with gasoline cargo), about 170 total C-47 round trips, and almost 20 trips eastbound for each for the nine available aircraft, about two weeks of daylight flying. Pick up from the tonnage delivered in Scenario 2.8.2 and carry on until 420 tons total are delivered. In the actual event, the Doolittle Raiders did not need the fuel, as all of the aircraft crashed, ditched at sea, or were interned, and the transport aircraft were diverted from the fuel airlift before it was completed to perform tactical supply missions for the forces retreating from Burma under the advance of Japanese forces, however for this scenario, that diversion is ignored and the scenario continues with all nine aircraft until 420 tons are delivered. Force Level: 9 C-47s begin on the Assam Bases hex, cleared for takeoff. Morale/Efficiency: Not applicable, all planes are available, turnaround automatically stages through the boxes. Clock Start: 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Not applicable. Accident Loss Rate: None. Interception: None. Search and Rescue: Not applicable. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Not applicable. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Deliver 420 tons of cargo from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Notes: This is another basic scenario to show the mechanics of operating the airlift, adding minor complexity of nine aircraft on a multi-day mission from Assam, flying the route eastbound through the Himalayas, landing in Kunming, following the turn-around procedure,

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flying westbound route through the Himalayas, landing in Assam, turning around again, and taking another load east. Staying overnight in Kunming provides some efficiency in allowing a flight to depart Assam in time to land in Kunming before dusk without also having to allow for a three and half hour daylight flight back to Assam. 2.8.4 Early Days - April - June 1942 Background: According to The Tenth Air Force 1942, Army Air Forces Historical Studies: No. 12, the Assam-Burma-China Ferry Command carried 1,401,950 pounds of passengers and freight eastward and 758,826 pounds westward from early April to mid-June 1942. The main cargo east was the original 30,000 gallons of gasoline counted at 840,000 pounds. The eastbound tonnage included: 208 passengers, ammunition and bombs, a Jeep, two airplanes, cigarettes, Post Exchange stores, and other items of supply, adding up to about 700 tons. Westbound cargo included 4,303 passengers, tin, tungsten ore, bombs, and engine assemblies. Since the eastbound cargo was larger, only eastbound flights are counted in the tonnage delivered on the scenario tonnage track. Aircraft force levels had been augmented beyond the originally borrowed DC-3s and included the first of the USAAF C-47s, as well as 13 CNAC aircraft. Force Level: 10 DC-3s, 4 C-47s, and 13 CNAC C-53 and C-39s. The C-53 was a near twin of the C-47 primarily for carrying military personnel and the C-39 was a developmental mix of the DC-2 and DC-3. For purposes of this scenario these are all considered C-47s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 6. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: Yes. In the early days of the airlift campaign, many days were rained out by heavy rain when the monsoon arrived in mid-May. Later on, Colonel Hardin issued a "No Weather on the Hump" order and flights generally proceeded if the end of the runway could be seen at takeoff. According to Stilwell's Mission to China, 21 flying days were rained out in May and June. So, for this early scenario, in addition to the TO/L-C adjustment, roll a d10 to determine if a whole day is a rained out. On a roll of 1-4, the day is rained out and proceed to the next day. The only effect of rained out days is to extend the calendar time for determining the average daily tonnage after four flying days have been completed. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result, then -1 for Monsoon effects. Accident Loss Rate: None, there were no accidents in Hump operations until September 1942. Interception: None. Search and Rescue: Not applicable. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 10. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Include rained out days in the determination of average daily tonnage.

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Notes: This scenario introduces the daily availability check using the M/E factor, as well as the possibility of constraints in moving through the load boxes and the Takeoff and Landing Capacity limitations. Depending on luck with the monsoon, the historical average tonnage target should be within reach. In addition to the monsoon TO/L-C factor, in the early days of the campaign, the supply chain was not yet fully established. With the Japanese invasion of Burma, there was naval activity around Rangoon that affected access to Calcutta, so seaborne cargos were unloaded in Karachi on the western side of India. Cargo was transported across India, and then along the Brahmaputra river basin up into Assam, and often needed to be transshipped from one railroad gauge to another among the different narrow gauge railways on the route. At several points trains were broken up and barged across waterways where there were no bridges. Urgent cargoes were flown all the way from Karachi to China in stages, and with this long distance and refueling stops, fewer round trips could be made compared to hauling cargo from Assam to China. This long-haul aspect of early operations is not simulated, and as further research might yield more statistics on these long-haul flights, a future version of this simulation may include that effect. 2.8.5 Early Days - Stilwell's Estimate Background: According to Stilwell's Mission to China, in the early days of planning to airlift cargo to China, General Stilwell stated that 140 C-47 aircraft would be required to carry 5,000 tons per month over the Hump in good weather and 300 aircraft during the monsoon. Backing through the good weather estimate, it appears that a daily availability factor of 0.5 (d10 equal 1-5, or an M/E factor of 5 as defined in this simulation) would fall out from the total monthly tonnage over 30 days and with a load per C-47 of 2.5 tons, as also provided in Stilwell's Mission to China. Additonally, it would appear that the monsoon estimate reflected a rained out ratio of about half of the calendar days. This scenario is based on good weather flying. Force Level: 140 C-47s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: None, this is a test of a planning scenario that is unlikely to have included accidents other than as inherent in the daily availability determination. Interception: None. Search and Rescue: None. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 170. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average.

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Notes: This scenario continues with the daily availability check using the M/E factor, as well as constraints in moving through the load boxes, the Takeoff and Landing Capacity limitations, and adds complication with a substantial increase in force levels. On any given day, about 70 aircraft should be expected to be available for flying that day. 2.8.6 Early Days - Air Transport Command Takes Over - December 1942 Background: After a period of organizational evolution including discussions with President Roosevelt, the War Department directed that the Hump airlift operation be put under the Air Transport Command (ATC) headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, with the new ATC India-China Wing in command of Hump operations. Stilwell's air officer, Colonel, and later Brigadier General Edward H. Alexander took command in India with 44 aircraft. December 1942 was the first month that the airlift operation exceeded a thousand tons. Force Level: 44 C-47s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip, first roll at takeoff from India, second roll at crossing the Himalayas; aircraft crashes if either d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: None. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 40. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: This scenario continues with the daily availability check using the M/E factor, as well as constraints in moving through the load boxes, the Takeoff and Landing Capacity limitations, and adds the Accident Loss Rate and Interception factors. According to The Aluminum Trail there was one crash in December 1942. Lady Luck, C-53 # 41-20098, piloted by Captain Warren Peterson, an experienced airline pilot and expert instrument flyer, was lost with all hands en route to Chabua from Kunming after an intermediate stop at Yannanyi. Peterson took off from Yannanyi at 1710 with Private Forrest Reynolds in his crew and Sergeant George Lindenfelter as a passenger. Later there were reports of a terrific storm in the area at the time of the return flight. In August 1977, a hunter found the wreckage of Peterson's plane high up in the Himalayas in a remote area of Assam that is snow covered most of the year. Precise records of flight statistics for December 1942 were not available in researching this simulation, and one

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crash among the fleet of 44 aircraft is approximated as a 2 in 1000 chance of loss per flight. Later on statistics were compiled and are available from on-line sources that provide more precision in estimating loss rates. By December 1942, enemy interceptions could be staged through Myitkyina, although no transport planes were shot down during this period. A standard 1 in 1000 chance of loss is used to simulate the possibility of being shot down on any given flight. 2.8.7 Over the Top - Bringing on the C-87 - March 1943 Background: The first C-87 conversions of B-24 bombers arrived in January 1943 when three aircraft joined Hump operations. By March 1943, there were 11 C-87s to go along with the 76 C-47s. There were 25 C-87s in operation by July 1943. The C-87 could fly higher and carry a larger cargo load than the C-47, but was much more loss prone, often cited as five times the loss rate of the C-47. During this period, C-47s achieved an unusually high daily operational availability rate of 81%! Force Level: 76 C-47s, 11 C-87. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5, also during this period the operational availability of C-47 type aircraft reached unusually high level and when determining daily availability of C-47s, use a factor of 8 (aircraft is available if d10=1-8). The normal M/E rating of 5 applies to all turn around operations for all aircraft. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip, first roll at takeoff from India, second roll at crossing the Himalayas; aircraft crashes if either d1000 equals 0,0,0. C-87: 10 by d1000, allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: None. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 70. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: This scenario introduces a new aircraft type along with its higher loss rate. None of the C-87s were lost during January through March with the first loss occurring on 9 April 1943, when C-87 3791 crashed on a routine return flight to Chabua, India, from Kunming.

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2.8.8 Making Progress - Adding in the new C-46 - October 1943 Background: The first C-46s began Hump operations in May 1943, carrying more tonnage per trip than the C-47s and C-87s. The C-46 was a commercial airliner design and its first operational use was in the Hump airlift campaign. Teething problems occurred right away, earning the plane various unflattering nicknames. The first 30 aircraft were returned for factory modifications and production line aircraft were modified as they were being manufactured to improve reliability and availability. September 1943 was the first month to achieve 5,000 tons of cargo carried eastbound from India to China, and in October 1943, more than 7,200 tons were carried to China. In spite of its problems and nicknames, the C-46 was bringing home the bacon! Colonel Tom Hardin was in command of the Hump at this time. Force Level: 32 C-47s, 27 C-87, 111 C-46s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87: 10 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: 1. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 230. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: This scenario introduces another new aircraft type with its larger cargo capacity, and brings the total aircraft in operation up to 170. The precise force level distribution at the beginning of October 1943 remains somewhat murky given the sources available for development of this initial version of the simulation. The numbers of aircraft shown for this scenario were derived from the force levels given on Wikipedia at the end of 1943, and then adding back losses reported in The Aluminum Trail for October, November, and December. As further in-depth research yields more information on force levels, a future edition will provide updated force levels and additional scenarios. 2.8.9 Operation Tsuzigiri (Street Murder) - October 1943 Background: In mid-October, Japanese air forces launched Operation Tsuzigiri (Street Murder) and made a concerted effort to intercept transports in flight over the Hump. Japanese fighters

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based at Mingaladon staged out of Myitkyina and searched for transports flying through the air space between Fort Hertz and Myitkyina. Transports usually flew individually rather than in formation, and were difficult to visually locate. Also, transports took evasive action flying into clouds and attempting to lose their attackers. Fighters had to loiter in the area and burn fuel awaiting targets. Sources suggest that from five to eight transport planes were shot down over a concentrated two week period during Operation Tsuzigiri. Overall, the interception operation consumed much fuel and yielded only limited success. Transport plane interceptions continued on a sporadic basis, but the Japanese air forces turned more toward bombing airfields and intercepting Army Air Force bombers attacking Japanese targets in Burma. Force Level: 32 C-47s, 27 C-87, 111 C-46s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5. Clock Start: 0400, first takeoff at 0600. Flight Rules: Daylight only. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87: 10 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d100 (2xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d100 equals 0,0. The chances of being shot down are considerably higher in this scenario compared to the normal interception factor. Search and Rescue: 1. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 230. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, aircraft can remain overnight in Kunming. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: This scenario provides a greater interception loss factor to simulate the one-time interception operation mounted in October 1943. It is very possible that even with the greater chance of losses, casualties may be the same or even less than scenario 2.8.8, depending on the luck of the dice, and it would be interesting to compare the outcomes of scenario 2.8.8 and this one with identical starting force levels to see how random factors can affect tonnage delivered. 2.8.10 Flying Around the Clock - January 1944 Background: Colonel Hardin gradually introduced night flying in October through December 1943. Night flying, combined with his edict that there is no weather on the Hump, increased accidents as inexperienced pilots learned by trial and error or died trying. The loss rate increased for January 1944 and was eight aircraft lost for every 1,000 flights eastward. Even with this loss rate, the 180 assigned planes carried almost 13,400 tons over the Rockpile in January, and as a result of the heroism and growing success of the airlift campaign against

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extreme adversity, the India-China Wing was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation on 29 January 1944, the first non-combat unit to receive this award. Force Level: 30 C-47s, 30 C-87, 120 C-46s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 6. Clock Start: 0000, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46: 8 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87: 40 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: 1. Captain John "Blackie" Porter, who had been performing Search and Rescue efforts with two dedicated C-47s assigned to his unit in July 1943, was shot down on a rescue mission in December 1943 while flying a B-25 aircraft. "Blackie's Gang" carried on in memory of their boss. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 430. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, beginning at 0000 Day 1, continue around the clock for four continuous days, takeoffs from Assam by 2400 on Day 4 can be flown to Kunming, and their tonnage is counted in the four day total for those that arrive safely. (This method counts four days of flying with the whole fleet beginning at a standing start with the first aircraft taking off a little after 0000 on Day 1 and arriving in Kunming approximately 3-1/2 hours later. An alternative tonnage counting method would be to start the whole fleet from a standing start and run it for a "pre-counting" day to come to a more or less "steady state" condition, and then count the tonnage delivered at Kunming from 0000 on Day 1 to 2400 on Day 4 of the four counting days.) Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: Around the clock flying is functionally similar to daylight flying in terms of operating aircraft over the Hump in the simulation, with the additional hazards of night flying by inexperienced pilots built into the overall accident loss rate. If more granular data emerges through further research that would allow differentiation between loss rates in night flying compared to daylight only flying, these effects will be reflected in a future updated version of this simulation. 2.8.11 Strategic Imperatives - Reacting to Operation U-Go - March 1944 Background: After months of planning and preparations for offensives on both sides, the Japanese launched Operation U-Go in March 1944 and invaded India. Among the U-Go objectives were to break the supply line to the Hump bases in northern Assam and also imperil

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supplies to Stillwell's Chinese and American offensive in north Burma that had begun in late December 1943. At various times throughout the Hump airlift campaign, transport aircraft were diverted from the strategic Hump cargo lift in support of keeping China in the war to tactical missions in support of ground operations that were accomplishing theater strategic and tactical objectives. Countering Operation U-Go was an especially important diversion of Hump aircraft because the momentum of this offensive almost carried Japanese forces to the Assam supply lines that would have stopped the flow of supplies to Hump bases and onward to China. Hump transports were used in tactical resupply and troop redeployment missions and demonstrated the flexibility of airlift to respond to strategic imperatives and exigencies as these emerge in any military campaign. In February 1944, 12,920 tons of cargo were carried eastbound. After Operation U-Go began in March 1944, some of the Hump transports were diverted, and March tonnage dropped to about 9,600 tons, then as the Japanese offensive lost momentum Hump tonnage started to rise again in April with about 11,500 tons, May with about 11, 380 tons, and once the offensive had fully run its course rising sharply to about 15,800 tons in June. This scenario provides an example of diversion of aircraft to other missions and how that affects tonnage delivered over the Hump. Force Level: 30 C-47s, 26 C-87, 108 C-46s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 5. Clock Start: 0000, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46: 5 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87: 25 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: 1. Force Diversion: Diversion table d10 = 1-2: 50% C-47, 10% C-46, 0% C-87; 3-4: 70% C-47, 10% C-46, 0% C-87; 5-6: 70% C-47, 20% C-46, 0% C-87; 7-0: 80% C-47, 20% C-46, 10% C-87. Roll d10 and reduce the starting force level of each aircraft type by the percentages indicated, rounding in favor of aircraft for the Hump. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 300. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam to Kunming, beginning at 0000 Day 1, continue around the clock for four continuous days, takeoffs from Assam by 2400 on Day 4 can be flown to Kunming, and their tonnage is counted in the four day total for those that arrive safely. (The alternative method with a pre-counting day as described in Scenario 2.8.10 can be used if the player prefers.) Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: As more pilot experience was gained, the accident loss rate dropped from the rate seen in January to a lower rate in February and March, but was still higher than would be seen later.

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The force diversion table is biased toward the more historical higher percentages of diversion during this month. If a low number is rolled, it would be interesting to play that scenario and then play another assuming the Diversion table d10 = 7-0, and compare the results to see the effects of alternative diversion levels. 2.8.12 Tom Hardin Day - 22 August 1944 Background: Colonel Tom Hardin took command of the Eastern Sector of the India China Wing in September 1943, and was promoted to Brigadier General in January 1944 shortly before the presentation of the Presidential Unit Citation at the Pentagon. Hardin returned to India and was promoted to command of the India China Wing in March 1944. Brigadier General C. R. Smith of Air Transport Command Headquarters in Arlington, Virginia reported from a field visit to CBI in December 1943 that: "Hardin is steaming like an old fire engine. ... I have never seen a man work harder. He usually works in the office in the morning and spends the afternoon going from one field to another. He has probably broken by now most of the Air Force rules about operations. If Tech orders were now enforced here, I doubt that there would be an airplane in the air." With around the clock flying and the edict that there was no weather on the Hump, Hardin was both feared and admired. When Hardin departed for the United States after two years of arduous service overseas, his airmen put on a one-day maximum effort as a tribute to his leadership. The Hump transport force flew over 300 sorties and carried 1,300 tons eastward into China on 22 August 1944, a one day total that was more than the whole month of January 1943. Force Level: 30 C-47s, 30 C-87, 112 C-46s. Begin with aircraft off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Morale/Efficiency: 7. Clock Start: 2000 the day before Hardin Day, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: Yes. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result, then -1 for Monsoon effects. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46: 3 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87: 15 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: 1 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight crossing interception line, transport aircraft shot down if d1000 equals 0,0,0. Search and Rescue: 1. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 1,300 tons in one day; one day maximum effort. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly from first takeoff after starting the loading process the day before Hardin Day. Begin the 24 hour tonnage counting clock when the first flight lands. Continue flying round trips and count all tonnage landed in China until the clock strikes 24 hours after the first flight landed. The early planes can return in time to reload and make another round trip, and some

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may be able to make three deliveries in the 24 hour period. Compare daily tonnage to the historical amount. Notes: During the end of General Hardin's tenure in command of the Hump, Morale and Efficiency was rising to higher levels and the accident loss rate was declining. These factors combined with around the clock flying made August 1944, at almost 23,700 tons, the first month to exceed 20,000 tons. 2.8.13 Age of Big Business - General Tunner and the C-54 - January 1945 Background: Brigadier General Tunner took command of the India China Division and Hump airlift operations in August 1944, and ushered in what became known as the "Age of Big Business." Tunner came to the Hump after commanding the Ferrying Division of the Air Transport Command, the equivalent of running two global airlines as well as training for the other ATC divisions. He brought a hand-picked staff and went to work increasing the tonnage, increasing aircraft availability and reliability, bringing on more resources, and most importantly reducing accidents. He was a demanding boss who knew the business of military air transport and was often called "Willie the Whip!" Tunner later also commanded the Berlin Airlift and wrote his memoirs in an excellent book Over the Hump. This book is well worth reading, not only for its insights into the Hump, and other airlift campaigns such as the Berlin Airlift, but also for what it takes to be a great commanding general. Over the Hump is available for free download from the Air Force Historical Studies Office web site. Tunner was an advocate of the four engine military transport, even though others had been skeptical of its use in forward theaters. With him came the Big Horse C-54 version of the civilian DC-4 four engine airliner. The C-54 was big, fast, but low altitude, and its introduction into Hump operations had to wait until Stilwell's Chinese and American forces had captured Myitkyina in the summer of 1944 that opened the "Low Hump" route from the Bengal bases near Calcutta directly across to Kunming without the lengthy rail and barge transshipment of cargo up the Brahmaputra River to Assam. Also, the C-109 tanker version of the C-87/B-24 aircraft began being introduced in the summer of 1944, and these four engine aircraft were also adding to the tonnage lift calculus. In addition to the strategic imperative of building up supplies and redeploying some Chinese troops from Burma to China to counter Japanese operations there, the Allied offensives continued in north and central Burma to re-conquer territory lost in 1942. During early 1945, diversions of Hump aircraft continued as tactical exigencies required. Tunner implemented a full range of policies that improved performance of the India China Division including an extended rotation policy that reduced pilot fatigue and increased flight safety, Production Line Maintenance that minimized time out of service for routine periodic aircraft inspections and increased aircraft availability and reliability, improvements to Morale and Efficiency across the board including better food and more items in Post Exchanges, and improved Search and Rescue efficiency along with more resources. Oh, and he also insisted on military discipline, and all it entailed! As Tunner said in his memoirs:

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"Those filthy bashas which had never been cleaned -- I ordered them cleaned and given a full-dress inspection, with an inspection to follow every day. The officers' barracks would be inspected once a week. And on Saturday, I ordered, each base would have a parade. There had never been, to my knowledge, a United States Army parade on Saturday in either India or China since the Hump operations had begun. The men stood inspection and marched in parades and shaved their faces and cut their hair and spruced up both their personal appearance and their living quarters. Though quarters might be thatched-roofed bashas, with dirt floors, they were now kept as clean as the decent American homes from which the boys came. Though the first parades may have been composed of slouching, self-conscious, and diffident men, you could see, each Saturday, a little more stiffness in that backbone, a little prouder tilt to head and shoulders, a more purposeful swing to the arms. They were beginning to look like American soldiers I was by no means unaware that a positive result of this new-found cleanliness, pride, and patriotism might well result in increased efficiency and performance. I had been taught it a the military academy and had learned it through personal experience as commander of the Ferrying Division -- bases that were well run, clean, orderly and soldierly did a better operating job."

Willy the Whip had arrived in CBI to sweep with a new broom! Tunner's first full month in September 1944 delivered 22,315 tons to China, and by January 1945 the amount had nearly doubled to almost 44,100 tons, while the accident rate dropped from three per 1,000 trips eastbound to only two per 1,000 trips, even with the worst night on the Rockpile on "Black Friday," the night of 6-7 January, when as many as 14 planes of several commands were reported lost in the worst storm seen in the three and half years of the Hump airlift. Force Level: 18 C-47s, 144 C-87/C-109, 171 C-46s, 39 C-54s. Begin with C-47s, C-87/C-109, and C-46s off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Begin with C-54s off map near the Bengal Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. All aircraft cycle their trips through their starting bases, and the C-54s are restricted to following the "4/3" track along the bottom of the map edge and then flying only in the "Low Hump" area of the map when crossing the Himalayas. In this first version of the simulation, there is no functional difference between C-87s and C-109s and they can be used interchangeably despite the propensity of C-109s to explode in mid-air. Volume 5 of Craven and Cate suggests that there was never more than 100 of either type in operation,

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and for purposes of this scenario, there could be 100 C-87s and 44 C-109s, or any other mix that keeps either type at 100 or less. Morale/Efficiency: 7. Clock Start: 0000, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: C-47, C-46, C-54: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87/C-109: 10 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. Interception: None. Japanese fighter aircraft no longer had access to the Myitkyina staging airfield and were fully occupied defending against the advancing British, Indian, Chinese, and American forces. Search and Rescue: 2. Tunner writes eloquently about Blackie Porter in his memoirs, and goes on to describe how increased efficiency and effectiveness, along with more resources, were brought to bear for improved SAR efforts. Force Diversion: Diversion table d10 = 1-6: 0%; 7-8: 10% C-47, 0% other types; 9: 20% C-47, 10% other types; 0: 30% C-47, 20% other types. Roll d10 and reduce the starting force level of each aircraft type by the percentages indicated, rounding in favor of aircraft for the Hump. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 1,400. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly four days from Assam and Bengal to Kunming, beginning at 0000 Day 1, continue around the clock for four continuous days, takeoffs from Assam and Bengal by 2400 on Day 4 can be flown to Kunming, and their tonnage is counted in the four day total for those that arrive safely. (The alternative method with a pre-counting day as described in Scenario 2.8.10 can be used if the player prefers.) Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average. Notes: In his excellent book The Hump, John Plating provides a graph of the Fleet composition for the Hump portion of the India China Division. This table is used as the basis for the force levels provided in this scenario. The India China Division had some aircraft dedicated to Intra-India missions and others dedicated to Intra-China missions, and care should be used when pondering the total of aircraft assigned to ICD when deriving force levels for Hump scenarios. 2.8.14 "Black Friday" - Worst Night on the Rockpile - The Big Storm of 6-7 January 1945 Background: According to the account by Hump pilot Otha Spencer in his excellent book, Flying the Hump:

"The worst and most tragic storm in the history of the Hump was the night of 6-7 January 1945, when a Siberian cold front moved down across the mountains and mixed with warm moist air from the Bay of Bengal. In that one wild and terrible night, the ATC lost seven aircraft with thirty-one crewmen and passengers. The China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC),whose pilots were the best in the world at flying weather, closed down operations completely after losing three

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aircraft and nine crewmen. Other commands lost four planes. This tragic night was known as "Black Friday." Although the official total was fourteen aircraft lost, many historians and researchers think that the losses for "Black Friday" were more than fourteen. Rumors among pilots reported as many as fifty to sixty planes were lost. According to researcher Chick Marrs Quinn, eighteen aircraft were lost in the big storm, with forty-two crewmen and passengers. Lt. Thomas M. Sykes, Jackson, Massachusetts, reported his experience in the Big Storm, as he and his crew "departed from Chabua in a C-46 to Kunming with twenty-three drums of fuel. Buildups over the first ridge went to 30,000 feet with heavy turbulence to correct for a wind of 100 miles per hour, a thirty degree drift was made heavy sleet, snow, hail and extreme turbulence caused variations in altitude as much as 2,000 feet up and down." After Sykes passed Paoshan, all frequencies were MAYDAY. His C-46 hit a violent downdraft, which threw the plane on its side. Descending 4,000 feet per minute with full throttle, they recovered at 14,000 feet -- below the minimum safe altitude. Syke's report continues: "All gyros and the artificial horizon were inoperative only the needle and ball were left air speed went from 300 miles per hour to 40 miles per hour rate of climb went to 4,000 feet per minute and we were on our backs, blown skyward like a leaf in a wind hanging on the safety belt with dirt from the floor falling all around [we] finally became level at 21,000 feet." When normal flight resumed, Sykes found his heading had changed 180 degrees and they were flying toward Assam. Since he was closer to China, he returned to his original course This was not an isolated experience. Many pilots flew through a turbulent icy hell."

With all this in mind, this scenario takes a 24 hours slice of the airlift operation per the previous scenario and provides for an increased chance of aircraft loss when flying over the Hump during the night hours. Force Level: 18 C-47s, 144 C-87/C-109, 171 C-46s, 39 C-54s. Begin with C-47s, C-87/C-109, and C-46s off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Begin with C-54s off map near the Bengal Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. All aircraft cycle their trips through their starting bases. In this first version of the simulation, there is no functional difference between C-87s and C-109s and they can be used interchangeably. Volume 5 of Craven and Cate suggests that there was never more than 100 of either type in operation, and for purposes of this scenario, there could be 100 C-87s and 44 C-109s, or any other mix that keeps either type at 100 or less.

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Morale/Efficiency: 7. Clock Start: 1200 on 6 January 1945, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: No. Takeoff/Landing Capacity: Roll 2 d10, take best result. Accident Loss Rate: Normal All Hours: C-47, C-46, C-54: 2 by d1000 (3xd10) per flight round trip. C-87/C-109: 10 by d1000. Allocate to flight segments as described in Section 2.3.4 above; aircraft crashes if any d1000 equals 0,0,0. In addition to the Normal All Hours tests, for Night Hours: Each aircraft rolls 3 by d100 (2xd10) when crossing into the Hump during night hours eastbound or westbound, High Hump or Low Hump. The aircraft crashes If any one of these rolls equals 0,0. Interception: None. Search and Rescue: 2. Force Diversion: None. Average Daily Tonnage: Approximately 1,400. Flight Load: Heavy eastbound, light westbound. Mission: Fly from 1200 6 January to 1200 7 January 1945. Compare average daily tonnage to the historical average, and aircraft lost to the historical 7 ATC aircraft lost that night. Notes: The storm loss rate is derived from the historical losses as a proportion of a likely number of flights that occurred during the night hours. These losses under severe weather conditions would be on top of the normal reliability, weather, or pilot error type of losses that would ordinarily occur. 2.8.15 Age of Big Business - Big Month - July 1945 Background: General Tunner continued to aggressively implement improvements in every aspect of the Hump airlift operation. Improved instrument flying equipment was installed along the routes and at destination airfields, airfields were improved, the rotation policy assured improved experience and less pilot fatigue, and improved safety regulations were implemented including flying passengers only during daylight hours, and requiring mandatory oxygen masks for all flight crews on all night flights, among other requirements. As a result of these policies, accident rates dropped in half from 2 per 1,000 trips eastbound in January to only 1 per 1,000 trips in July 1945. The number of C-54 big horses continued to increase. The Hump also benefitted from a "reverse diversion" effect. After the recapture of Rangoon, the India China Division was reinforced by tactical organizations whose combat missions had been completed. These units included the 7th Bombardment Group, 308th Bombardment Group, 443d Troop Carrier Group, and 3d and 4th Combat Cargo Groups, plus two combat cargo squadrons of the 1st Combat Cargo Group, with the support of twelve airdrome squadrons. These units operated a variety of aircraft including B-24s, C-47s, and C-46s, totaling just over 260 aircraft by the end of July 1945. As a result of all of these and other factors, Hump tonnage for the month of July 1945 reached an all-time high of just over 71,000 tons, about 10% of the total tonnage delivered over the whole three and a half year campaign.

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Force Level: 29 C-47s, 120 C-87/C-109, 275 C-46s, 129 C-54s. Begin with C-47s, C-87/C-109, and C-46s off map near the Assam Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. Begin with C-54s off map near the Bengal Bases LNDG box ready for the daily availability check and then those determined to be available ready to move immediately into LD1 within normal box constraints. All aircraft cycle their trips through their starting bases, and the C-54s are restricted to following the "4/3" track along the bottom of the map edge and then flying only in the "Low Hump" area of the map when crossing the Himalayas. In this first version of the simulation, there is no functional difference between C-87s and C-109s and they can be used interchangeably despite the propensity of C-109s to explode in mid-air. Volume 5 of Craven and Cate suggests that there was never more than 100 of either type in operation, and for purposes of this scenario, there could be 100 C-87s and 20 C-109s, or any other mix that keeps either type at 100 or less. Morale/Efficiency: 7. Clock Start: 0000, first takeoff when cleared through the loading process. Flight Rules: Day and Night, around the clock. Monsoon: Ye