OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING

in

ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING

by

SHAEDA DADABHAY

Mini-Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATION'S

in

TERTIARY AND ADULT EDUCATION

in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING

at the

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR SJ GRAVETT

NOVEMBER 1998

DEDICATION

To my mother, Rookeya Limbada, a perfectionist, who had never been to school, but

inspired and motivated each of her children to do their very best in whatever we did.

11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to the following persons who made this research study a reality:

A person who has been a great inspiration and mentor, who demonstrated teaching techniques in a

way that no other teacher or textbook has enlightened me, Dr Sarah Gravett, thank you for your

expertise, critical guidance, and support in reaching this milestone, most of all, for believing in me.

My husband, Yusuf, who gives me unconditional support in all my endeavours and tolerated me

when I was in the depths of despair during this study.

Tasnim, my daughter, for her moral support.

To Mnymezeli Ndevu: Deputy Director - District N5, my dearest friend and colleague, for the

concern and motivation shown during the completion of this study.

My Director, Nomalizo Malefo, for the support and kindness to sanction the desperately needed

study leave.

Jean Broodryk, who constantly urged me to persevere.

To my colleagues in the ABET Unit at the Gauteng Department of Education, Emily Mnisi and David

Diale for the material resources not available in libraries.

Dr KC Naik, my dear friend for his effort, time and willingness to edit this study, and Mrs KC Naik for

her kind support.

To ALMIGHTY GOD

for giving me the strength, perseverance and tenacity to complete this study.

SYNOPSIS

Democratic South Africa finds itself involved in the policies and economics of the twentieth century world

while it has inherited a legacy of myriad of illiterate adults, whose potential contribution to the economy is

limited as a result of their lack of formal training. Nor can liberty and democracy flourish under such

conditions. Adult education was low on the past state agenda and the traditional state literacy courses,

which paralleled formal schooling had no link between education and real-life performance roles.

Within the new constitutional framework, the state has prioritised the redress of apartheid inequities. A

range of new legislation provides access for all South Africans to basic education and training provision,

and establishes an outcomes-based education and training (OBET) system. Adult Basic Education and

Training (ABET) is on the National Agenda and a Policy and a Multi-Year Plan (IMP) has been launched to

redress the imbalances of the past.

An OBET curriculum is currently being implemented formally at grade one level in the schools. An adult

learner-centred OBET curriculum is envisaged to be implemented at ABET centres (ABETCs) by the year

2000. OBET requires that ABETCs be organised to enable adult learners to engage in intellectually

stimulating learning experiences in which they can construct understanding of knowledge, skills, values and

attitudes needed in the classroom and in real life.

In the light of the above preamble, the central problem of the study is twofold, and explores the type of.

• knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that ABET practitioners (ABETPs) need to be equipped with to

transform teaching and learning in a way that it benefits and equips adult learners with the skills,

knowledge and qualities needed to be successful in the learning situation and in the world of work; and

e practitioner development programmes (PDPs) that will assist ABETPs to experience the epistemology

underlying OBET so that they are empowered to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice.

The primary aims of this study are to highlight, first, the underlying knowledge, skills and qualities that

ABETPs need to transform teaching and learning at ABETCs by implementing OBET successfully in ABET

practice. Second, to suggest guidelines to PDPs that would afford ABETPs the opportunity of

understanding the epistemology of OBET by experiencing the basic tenets of OBET so that they begin to

engage in creative and reflective practice.

The research method of this study incorporates a study of literature, policy documents and media

publications pertaining to ABET and OBE(T) in South Africa and internationally. A historical overview is

iv

presented aimed at outlining the shift from adult literacy to the present notion of ABET. Next, OBET as the

vision for the fundamental transformation of education in SA is discussed in the light of the link between

ABET and the background of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF).

OBET envisions self-directed and responsible learners, independent, creative and critical problem solvers

who are able to work and communicate effectively within a group context. Thus, it is argued that if ABETPs

are supposed to facilitate such skills in their learners, it is imperative PDPs equip them with knowledge,

skills and qualities to ensure simultaneous development of individual practitioners and organisational

changes to effect ET reforms, so that successful and meaningful learning is facilitated for adult learners.

I argue in the study that in order for ABETPs to approach their instructional practice creatively, reflectively,

and hence effectively, they need to develop a deep epistemological understanding of the principles and

concepts underlying OBET. Furthermore, ABETPs need to experience OBET in constructivist learning

situations as dialogic-cooperative learning experiences, which will engender self-sustaining, generative

change among practitioners. However, it is argued that if PDPs are to generate systemic and systematic

change at ABETCs they must be rigorous and ongoing as opposed to one day workshops that have no

bearing on preceding or subsequent PDPs.

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS

ABE Adult Basic Education

ABET Adult Basic Education and Training

ABETP(s) ABET Practitioner(s)

ABETC(s) ABET Centre(s)

AE Adult Education

AEC(s) Adult Education Centre(s)

AET Adult Education and Training

AETC(s) Adult Education and Training Centre(s)

COLTS Culture of Learning, Teaching and Services

COSATU Congress of South African Trade Union

CHRC COSATU Human Resource Committee

CPRP COSATU Participatory Research Project

CPRPT COSATU Participatory Research Project Team

CTDU Curriculum and Teacher Development Unit

DoE Department of Education

DoL Department of Labour

ECDP Early Childhood Development Practitioner

EIC Education Information Centre

EFA Education for All

ET Education and Training

ETQA Education and Training Quality Assurers

GDE Gauteng Department of Education

IAC Independent Accreditation Committee

IEB Independent Examination Board

ILY International Illiteracy Year

MYP Multi-Year Plan

NABEC National ABE Conference

NABETCC National Adult Basic Education Consultative Conference

NEPI National Education Policy Investigation

NGO(s) Non-governmental Organisation(s)

NSB(s) National standards Body (Bodies)

NSF National Stakeholders Forum

OBET Outcomes-based Education and Training

PDP(s) Practitioner Development Programme(s)

SASO South African Students Organisation

SAQA South African Qualifications Authority

SGB(s) Standards Generating Body (Bodies)

SO(s) Specific Outcome(s)

RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

US(s) Unit Standards(s)

CONTENTS Page

TITLE PAGE

DEDICATION (ii)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (iii)

SYNOPSIS (iv)

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMNS (vi)

CHAPTER 1

CONTEXTUALISATION OF RESEARCH

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 1

1.3 FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 4

1.4 AIM OF THE RESEARCH 4

1.5 RESEARCH METHOD 4

1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 5

1.6.1 Outcomes-based Education and Training (OBET) 5

1.6.1.1 Outcomes 5

1.6.2 Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) 6

1.7 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 6

1.8 CONCLUSION 7

CHAPTER 2

THE TRANSITION FROM ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION TO ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING (ABET)

2.1 INTRODUCTION 8

2.2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ADULT LITERACY IN SOUTH AFRICA 8

2.3 ADULT EDUCATION DURING THE APARTHEID ERA 8

2.3.1 Adult I Literacy Service Providers: Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 8

2.3.2 The State and the Department of Education and Training (DET) 10

2.3.3 Literacy initiatives by other state departments 10

2.4 LEGAL CONSTRAINTS DURING THE APARTHEID ERA 11

viii

2.5 PROGRESSIVE LITERACY INITIATIVES DURING THE APARTHEID ERA 12

2.5.1 South African Communist Party (SACP) Night Schools 12

2.5.2 Education for Liberation 12

2.5.3 Networking and Co-ordination among Progressive Initiatives 13

2.5.4 Legal Constraints during the Apartheid Era 13

2.6 Synopsis 13

2.7 THE IMPACT OF THE WORLD-WIDE EVOLUTION OF LITERACY ON ABET 14

2.7.1 International Literacy Year 14

2.7.2 Lifelong Learning 14

2.7.3 Education for All 15

2.8 POLICY ANTECEDENTS TO ABET 15

2.8.1 COSATU and Allied Organisations 15

2.8.2 A Critique on COSATU and Allied Organisations' Initiative 17

2.9 NATIONAL WILL 18

2.10 NATIONAL ABET POLICY FORMULATION 18

2.10.1 Ithuteng (Ready to Leam)Campaign 19

2.10.2 Principles and values that underpin ABET provisioning 19

2.10.3 ABET Implementation Plan 19

2.10.3.1 Implementation of the first phase: Practitioner Development 20

2.10.3.2 Implementation of the first phase: A Curriculum Framework 21

2.11 PROVISIONING BY OTHER DEPARTMENTS 21

2.12 A LESSON FROM THE CUBAN EXPERIENCE 22

2.13 CONCLUSION 22

CHAPTER 3

THE NEW VISION TO EDUCATION AND TRAINING: \OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET)

3.1 INTRODUCTION 24

3.2 WHY A CURRICULUM CHANGE IN SOUTH AFRICA 24

3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABET AND THE NQF AND ITS ASSOCIATED OBET 26

3.3.1 Lifelong Learning 27

3.3.2 Résumé 27

ix

3.4 27 WHAT IS OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET)?

3.4.1 Outcomes 28

3.4.1.1 Critical Crossfield Outcomes 28

3.4.1.2 Specific Outcomes 30

3.4.1.3 Unit Standards 30

3.4.1.4 Learning Programmes 30

3.5 THE PROCESS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF TRANSFORMATIONAL OBET 31

3.6 OBET AND ASSESSMENT 31

3.6.1 Core Principles of Assessment in OBET 32

3.6.1.1 A transparent and participate approach 32

3.6.1.2 Criterion-referencing 32

3.6.1.3 Outcome-based assessment 33

3.6.1.4 Validity and Reliability 33

3.6.2 Synopsis 33

3.7 CONTROVERSIES THAT SURROUND OBET 34

3.7.1 Language and terminology of OBET 34

3.7.2 OBET drops standards, hence, `dumbs the nation' 34

3.7.3 The implementation plan of OBET is poorly conceived 36

3.8 THE NQF BUREAUCRACY 37

3.8.1 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) 37

3.9 HOW DOES ABET FIT INTO THE BIG PICTURE? 38

3.9.1 Implications of the NQF for ABET Learners: A case study 38

3.9.2 Principles of the NQF 39

3.9.2.1 An Integrated Education and Training System 39

3.9.2.2 Credibility and Coherence 40

3.9.2.3 Recognition of Prior Learning 40

3.9.2.4 Equality of Opportunity 40

3.9.2.5 Portability 40

3,9.2.6 A Résumé 41

3.10 AN EXAMPLE OF THE INTEGRATING NATURE OF THE NQF 41

3.11 CONCLUSION 42

CHAPTER 4

IMPLICATIONS OF OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET) FOR ABET PRACTITIONERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION 44

4.2 A SHIFT IN PARADIGMS 44

4.2.1 A paradigm shift in the approach to learning and teaching 45

4.2.2 A paradigm shift in practitioner work ethic 46

4.2.3 A shift in teacher appraisal 47

4.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM 49

4.3.1 Constructing Understanding of Outcomes 49

4.3.2 Constructing Understanding of Assessment 50

4.3.3 Learner-centredness 51

4.4 CONCLUSION 53

CHAPTER 5

GUIDELINES FOR ABET PRACTITIONER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

5.1 INTRODUCTION 54

5.2 ADDRESSING THE NEEDS OF ABET PRACTITIONERS 54

5.2.1 Introduction 54

5.2.2 Outcomes-driven PDPs 55

5.2.3 Systems Thinking 57

5.2.4 Constructivist Learning Experiences 59

5.3 GUIDELINES FOR ABET PRACTITIONER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 61

5.3.1 Introduction 61

5.3.2 Peer group development 62

5.3.3 Consistent PDPs for ABET 63

5.3.4 Interaction and Ongoing Practitioner Support 64

5.3.5 Self-sustaining, Generative Change 65

5.4 BUDGETARY IMPLICATIONS 65

5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 66

LIST OF SOURCES 68

xi

CHAPTER ONE

CONTEXTUALISATION OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This research study focuses on the relationship between Outcomes-based Education and Training (OBET) and

Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET), and the implications thereof in practice. In this chapter the

background to the research problem is identified and the aims of the study are elucidated. Reference is made to

the research method and concepts that are central to the study are briefly explained. A summary of the ensuing

chapters concludes the chapter.

1.2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

This investigation is undertaken at a time when the ABET Policy Document and Multi-year Plan (MYP) have just

been launched. OBET has been introduced at grade one level in formal schooling sector and is envisaged to be

implemented at ABET centres by the year 2000. The MYP has a two phase approach to implementation. The first

phase (1998 to 1999) focuses on developing structures, systems and capacity of the sector to deal with the

second phase (2000-2001) aimed at mass mobilisation of learners to reach a target of 2,5 million (Department of

Education (DoE), 1997b: ix-x). This is a small fraction of the 12 million who were marginalised because of the

historic inequities and inadequacies of education provision, particularly for Africans (Aitchison, 1998:1). These

people received either no education whatsoever, or little formal education of low quality and therefore, are unable

to participate optimally in a new democracy (National Adult Basic Education Conference (NABEC), 1993:5;

(National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI), 1992:2,5) and a society steeped in the information age (French,

1992:50).

During the first week of March, since 1995, 'Adult Learner Week' is celebrated, which seeks to motivate adult

learners to attend ABET classes and eliminate illiteracy. This celebration generally results in an influx of learners

to the state Adult Education and Training Centres (AETCs). Among them are domestic workers, single working

mothers, house-wives and men who fill the ranks of unskilled or semi-skilled workers. According to Lyster

(1992:17) their reasons for seeking literacy education vary, but are mostly personal manifestations of importance.

For example, it could enable them to read the bible, assist their children with homework, fill in forms, sign their

names instead of placing a cross or making a thumbprint, write letters, remove the dilemma of shopping, not being

cheated and expanding their job opportunities. However, towards June, when the cold and inclement conditions

prevail, the numbers begin to dwindle.

1

The reason for this dropout rate is not only a consequence of a sombre season. They are manifold and probably

result from a system that was inherited from the erstwhile Department of Education and Training (compare NEPI,

1993:22). For example, except for the principals of centres, all ABET practitioners (ABETPs) are also employed

on a part-time basis. Most of these teachers are employed in a permanent capacity in the formal schooling sector

where there is a tumultuous clamour from all sectors of the community for the creation of the Culture of Learning,

Teaching and Service (COLTS) (Reeves, 1998:13). Many of them are demotivated (Anon. 1998:20) and teach

adult learners in ABET classes.

Furthermore, during informal discussions I held, in my capacity as a District Development Official of the Gauteng

Department of Education (GDE), with those that have opted out of the programmes it was perceived that many

learners were disappointed with the course content To illustrate, in 1996 I was initiated as an official by the terse

objection of a fifty year old granny, who saw no value in having to learn about the locust when it had no bearing on

her life. Discussions of transforming ABE had been in progress since the early 1990s (DoE, 1997a:1) and by 1996

ABETPs ought to have been experimenting in the transitional OBE mode (see 1.6.1.1). However, change had not

generally impacted at ABET centres as the curriculum duplicated formal schooling and it was evident that learner

needs and interests were neglected (Norton, 1992:20).

The dire need to restructure the curriculum was obvious. Several meetings were organised at District level with

ABETPs, learners and other stakeholders on planning and restructuring the curriculum to meet the needs of the

learners. Initially, the response was positive, but constraints associated with skills, time, attitude and lack of

human resources, in particular, impeded our attempts (compare Norton, 1992:20). It can be argued that the

process of consultation and restructuring is a time consuming task that demands commitment. Both, time and

commitment seem to be rare among most ABETPs at the AECs ( compare NEPI, 1993:19).

Generally, ABETPs do not have any training in teaching adult learners (Matabane, 1990:345) and their

effectiveness is questionable as they ought to be fatigued with little time for effective preparation for two teaching

duties. If metric results are a means of gauging their efficacy, they produce mediocre results. This is well

publicised and much to the concern of all stakeholders (Sylvester, 1998:2; Anon., 1998: 20). However, it would be

unfair to censure all AET practitioners as there are some who have guided learners towards good results in the

matric exams among learners, both at the AET centre and formal schooling.

I am of the opinion that problems with ABET do not only pertain to a lack of dedicated or qualified practitioners, but

also owing to a lack of political will as the GDE suspended all classes at AETCs in January 1998, a few weeks

before the launch of the Policy and the Multi-Year Plan for the first quarter, and only resumed on 15 April 1998.

Between June and July ABET classes were once again suspended. Even though the suspension was justified by

2

the general drop in attendance of learners during winter, such moves have a negative impact on the few dedicated

ABETPs, puts ABET 'right into the cold,' and thwarts efforts to expel the 'step-child' image (NABEC, 1993:5).

Ultimately, learners bear the brunt.

Our district welcomed the directive (Gauteng Department of Education (GDE) Circular 36\98) from the

Superintendent General that unemployed teachers replace the day-school teachers. This process afforded

principals and Governing Bodies of AETCs an opportunity to get rid of many of the undisciplined (compare Anon.,

1998:20) and inefficient practitioners, who showed a total lack of respect for ABET learners revealed by

absenteeism, violation of the rules and value of sobriety and punctuality, inadequate preparedness (Rohan,

1997:4) and tardy presentation of inapt and dull lessons (compare Kobokoane, 1998:21; NEPI, 1993:14; Rees,

1996:18). This did not imply that Circular 36 of 98 was a panacea for adult literacy education. Most among the

ranks of the unemployed teachers were novices. We still have to contend with teachers who are not trained to

teach adult learners nor adequately prepared to meet the challenges of OBET. In fact, teacher training colleges

complained that "this is a whole new mindset and colleges will be churning out teachers who don't know the new

curriculum" as time was insufficient to prepare courses for the academic year, 1997 (Cooks, 1996:8).

In 1997, when Curriculum 2005 was launched there was a fear that the teachers who were not on board could

"sabotage the process' of transformation and all teachers were introduced to OBET (Rantao & Naidu, 1997:1), but

it was only implemented at grade one level in 1998. Six months into the process of implementation a need for

retraining has been acknowledged by the DoE (Pretorius, 1998:16). In my opinion, the reason for teachers

experiencing such difficulty in implementing OBET is that the Practitioner Development Programmes (PDPs) were

incongruent to the envisaged transition from the approach that the practitioners were accustomed to OBET.

The approach to teaching, generally implemented in the past is often criticised as being time bound, emphasising

content, passive rote learning and examinations which produced people who were not equipped for life's

challenges: graduates that are unable to use their academic knowledge to interpret the world around them

(compare Higgins, 1994:24; Ramsden, 1988:13), and adult learners who are incapable of completing a simple job

application form or decipher a water and lights statement (compare Norton, 1992:20). It is particularly criticised for

the lack of emphasis on relevance of subject matter and inefficiency at developing skills of enquiry in learners

(Boud & Feletti, 1991:15).

Conversely, the OBET system advocates a shift from focusing on teacher inputs, syllabus expressed in terms of

content, to learner outputs, outcomes that the learner must achieve (DoE, 1997c, 6). This positive learner-centred

philosophy (see 4.3.3) is reflected in the fact that it recognises no limits on who or how many learners can be

successful, nor how much they can learn or how rapidly they can advance (Spady, Marshall & Rogers: 1994:30).

3

This implies that learning is not time bound and cognisance will have to be taken of 'adult learners' unique learning

needs, rates and style of learning' (compare Marzono, 1994:44; Gravett, 1994: 24). The bottom line is that

ABETCs must be organised to enable adult learners to engage in stimulating, intellectually challenging

experiences in which they can construct understanding of knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for success in

the classroom and in real-life (Gordon, 1998:390; Winebrug & Grossman, 1997: 352; Guskey, 1994:53). This

requires skilful and committed ABETPs and a well strategised PDPs that will generate a paradigm shift in the way

that the ABETPs conceive ABET (see chapters 4 and 5).

1.3 FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In the light of the background sketched above, the research problem addressed by this study is twofold and reads

as follows:

What knowledge, skills, values and attitudes must ABETPs be equipped with in order for them to be

successful in transforming teaching and learning in a way that it benefits and equips adult learners with the

skills, knowledge and qualities to be successful in the learning situation and in the life-worlds; and

What type of practitioner development programmes (PDPs) will assist ABETPs to experience the epistemology

underlying OBET so that they are empowered to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice?

1.4 AIM OF THE RESEARCH

OBET envisions learners who are self-directed, responsible, independent, creative and critical thinkers, competent

in identifying and solving problems and are able to work and communicate effectively within a group context. If

ABETPs are supposed to facilitate such skills in their learners it is imperative that they actively engage in PDPs

that would equip them with skills that would enable them to fulfil this vision. Hence, the primary aims of this study

are to highlight

first, the underlying knowledge, skills and qualities that ABETPs need to transform teaching and learning at

ABETCs by implementing OBET successfully in ABET practice and

secondly to suggest guidelines to PDPs that would afford ABETPs the opportunity of understanding the

epistemology of OBET by experiencing the basic tenets of OBET so that they begin to engage in creative and

reflective practice.

1.5 RESEARCH METHOD

The research method of this study incorporates a study of applicable literature, policy documents and media

publications pertaining to ABET and OBE(T) in South Africa and internationally. To determine the rationale for the

4

implementation of OBET in ABET, and the origin and vision of the term ABET pertinent issues will be identified,

analysed and integrated; which will serve as an extrapolation of guidelines to development programmes for

ABETPs.

16 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

1.6.1 Outcomes-based education and Training (OBET)

OBET is unique to SA and is derived from transformational outcomes-based education (OBE) (Pahad, Cohen,

Marsh & Tema, 1998:22) underpinned by the following premises:

ALL learners can learn and succeed, but not all at the same time and infra same way.

Success breeds success.

Learning sites and teachers control the conditions of learning success (Spady, Marshall & Rogers, 1994:29).

However, to appreciate what outcomes-based education and training entails, one has to have a clear

understanding of what outcomes are, as understood currently in SA.

1.6.1.1 Outcomes

Outcomes are high quality, ceskoffnallag observable demonsgiagions of significant learning in conger (Spady,

1994:18).

Demonstragions imply that it is not a grade or a mark that is viewed as important, but the end product which

learners dearly carry out (Spady, 1994:18).

Despite learners being permitted to learn at their own pace high quality and thorough demonstrations are

expected of all learners (Spady, 1994:18). In other words, learners are given adequate time, individual

attention and opportunities (Slavin, 1994:14) to experience success and continue learning content that is

relevant and appropriate to their developmental level and interest, until they can demonstrate the desired

outcomes confidently, hence OBET advocates a learner-centred approach (Spady, et al 1994:29-30).

Cuggiaindko implies that the demonstrations occur at the end of a segment of curriculum after the formal

instruction is over. These demonstrations reflect what a learner knows and can do with what she or he knows

(Spady, gal. 1994:29; Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a:21).

Significant learning must be demonstrated. 'Content alone cannot be a significant outcome as content is

inherently inert thus has to be manifested through a demonstrated process' (Spady, 1994:18; compare

Parkyn, 1994:35; Killen, 1996:15).

Finally, all demonstrations of learning occur in some canglasd. What learners need to know, do and be like in

5

order to succeed is subjected to the conditions and circumstances learners face when performing (Spady,

1994:18; Parkyn, 1994:35).

Spady (1994:19) distinguishes among traditional, transitional and transformational OBE. The first can operate

within the 'old system' that we used as it is grounded primarily in subject matter content. Outcomes are drawn

direct from the content of an existing syllabus and are often not linked to the learner's ability to use this learning in

work or life. Transitional OBE implies that planning must begin with the critical outcomes (see 3.4.2) and the

existing syllabus is used to achieve these outcomes, which simply means to use the existing syllabus in new ways.

South Africa has opted for transformational OBE, which requires the creation of a whole new system. However, it

has been adapted to the needs and desires, particular to SA by adding the training component, hence the term

OBET (Pahad, et al. 1998:17,22; compare Evans & King, 1994:12; Spady, 1994:30).

1.6.2 Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET)

Adult basic education has either been defined in functional terms allowing individuals and groups to become

functional in their own societies, or it is defined as part of an economic strategy to promote higher productivity and

to contribute to development (compare NEPI, 1993:4-5). The T which denotes the integration of education and

training (ET) in ABET makes it particularly South African, but ABET emanates from international trends in adult

basic education (ABE), which is the first step to a process of lifelong learning (see 3.3.1) and aspires to integrate

basic adult education on the one hand, and training for income generation on the other hand (Bhola, 1989:485).

The above views on adult literacy educirtion and in particular, the principles underpinning the declarations of the

International Year of Literacy (ILY) and the World Conference of Education for All (EFA), have impacted greatly in

the way in which SA conceives ABET (DoE, 1997a:4). ABET is defined as follows in the Policy Document for

ABET: "Adult basic education and training is the general conceptual foundation towards lifelong learning and

development, comprising of knowledge, skills and attitudes required for social, economic and political participation

and transformation application to a range of contexts. ABET is flexible, developmental and targeted at the specific

needs of particular audiences and, ideally, provides access to nationally recognised certificate" (DoE, 1997a:5).

1.7 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

The study consists of five chapters.

Chapter 2

This chapter presents a historical overview and highlights the roots of adult literacy education within the sockt-

6

economic and political context, and the impact that the dominant powers of different eras had on AE in SA. It

sketches the processes that led to the shift from literacy education to the present notion of ABET.

Chapter 3

In this chapter the focus is on OBET as the vision for the fundamental transformation of education in SA. How this

link between education and training can materialise in the ABET context is explained against the background of

the National Qualifications Framework. In essence, the nature of this link and the implications that this new

education incentive, OBET has on ABET is elaborated upon.

Chapter 4

The focal point of this chapter is to outline some of the knowledge, competencies, attitudes and values that

ABETPs must develop in order to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice.

Chapter 5

The final chapter focuses on guidelines for ABET practitioner development programmes that is envisaged to

develop and empower ABETPs to approach their instructional practice reflectively, creatively and effectively so

that they are able to transform ABET centres to increase learner retention and performance.

1.8 CONCLUSION

This chapter presented a contextual orientation to the study in which the problem is embedded. The research

problem was stated and the aim of the study outlined. The focus area was demarcated and the research method

that will be employed is described. Key concepts were clarified to promote a clearer understanding of the study.

In closing, a short overview of the study was sketched.

Chapter 2 will focus on an historical overview that will convey an understanding of the source and course of the

term ABET.

7

CHAPTER 2

THE TRANSITION FROM ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION TO ADULT BASIC EDUCATION

AND TRAINING (ABET): A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter a historical overview is presented, which aims at highlighting the roots of current South African

practice of adult basic education and training, within the socio-economic and political context, and the impact that

the dominant powers of the different eras had on adult literacy education. This chapter sketches the processes

that have contributed to the shift from adult literacy education to the present ideological and political notion of

ABET, and sets the scene for the policy proposals that follow.

2.2. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ADULT LITERACY IN SOUTH AFRICA

Education is not a neutral process. People have different motivations and views of literacy, and their beliefs

influence the type of education that they want or offer (compare Lyster, 1992:11, 53-5, Christie, 1985:158; Freire,

1995:16). Definitions of adult literacy that have emerged over the last few decades have been conceptualised in

varying degrees concerning the nature and purpose of literacy. In order to understand how adult education policy

decisions are arrived at, education policy development has to be viewed and understood within the framework of

broader periods of crisis and conflict in the socio-economic context. They reveal how different notions have

gained ascendancy at various key moments in the history of adult literacy (Lyster, 1992:10-11). The sections that

follow will attempt to contextualise the above in the South African socio-economic and political climate.

2.3 ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION DURING THE APARTHEID ERA

2.3.1 Adult Literacy Service Providers: Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

At the advent of the apartheid era, private adult literacy organisations had grown enterprisingly and were major

adult literacy service providers (French, 1992:58). Bird (1984:198) argues that many proponents of the liberal

movement offered courses that had a religious rather than political content and an individual rather than collective

approach in order to solicit state support and funding. Hence, the liberal movement aligned with the State's policy

to support adult education to meet the demands of economy and increase productivity (Bird, 1984:201). They

focused on selective and intensive approaches to literacy to tutor those who were already working in formal

sectors of the economy where the value of literacy was immediate (Bhola, 1996:10). The concept of work oriented

8

or vocationalised literacy for manpower training cohered with UNESCO's definition on adult literacy at the time

(compare Bhola, 1989:485; Lyster, 1992:10). However, Matabane (1990:346) is of the opinion that the liberal

movement aimed at conforming African workers to the social cultural dictates of the political economy.

Nevertheless, legal repression during the apartheid era led to closure of many private enterprises (Millar, 1979:5),

but literacy work of two of the oldest NGOs', South African Institute for Race Relations (IRR) and Operation

Upgrade of Southern Africa (Upgrade), involvement in literacy work was extensive and grew during the Apartheid

era (Bird, 1984:200; Matabane, 1990:347). Initially, they applied the Laubach approach to their courses in teacher

training, writing for neo-literates and management of literacy projects. Both NGOs also developed primers and

basic readers in many of the South African languages (French, 1992: 58-61). They used the Laubach motto "each

one teach one and win one for Christ" (Bird, 1984:202) to drive their literacy campaign. Despite the spiritual

overtures, this approach also espoused self improvement and modemisation. It used the rationale that the

illiterate masses seek education as their salvation from poverty and hunger (Lyster, 1992:30).

When state subsidies dried up in 1960, the IRR focused their literacy efforts in mine compounds and were

instrumental in developing the 'fanagolo' programme (Matabane, 1990:347), which was rejected by trade unions in

the 1980s (COSATU Participatory Research Project (CPRP), 1993:49). The economic boom of the late 1960s in

SA, the subsequent demand for African skilled labour from organised business and the international boost for

literacy movements prompted a local demand for adult literacy. As a result, IRR's work expanded and-they

registered as an independent company known as the Bureau of Literacy and Literature (BLL) in 1964 (Bird,

1984:209-10). Towards the mid 1970s they had updated their material with the current American methods and

replaced the Laubach approach, but Operation Upgrade only adapted the Laubach approach. Both organisations

grew into chief literacy service providers for industries, hospitals, missions and state departments in various parts

of the country (French, 1992:58-61).

The above NGOs are still operational today, as well as, others that emerged during the 1970s and 1980s. Several

of these politically non-aligned and low profit NGOs, like SALT and Prolit or commercially run professional

agencies, like Basic Education and Skills (BESA) and Lead the Field Africa sell literacy and other educational

services to the corporate world and industry. They partially satisfied the illiteracy issue at the time, but each one

functioned as an entity (Matabane, 1990:347; compare NEPI, 1992:14).

In the 1970s, many literacy consultants began to customise courses and training programmes for the mining and

industrial sector (NEPI, 1992:13-14). For example, Anglo American had an English language course developed in

the 1970s pertaining to job related issues on the mine such as safety and grievance procedures (Bird, 1984:212).

In contrast, the 1990s focused on human resource development which had a participative and consultative

9

approach to literacy education and covered issues like work-place democracy and participative decision-making

involving learners in designing the curriculum (NEPI, 1992:13; Bhola, 1989:486; French, 1992:73).

2.3.2 The State and the Department of Education and Training (DET)

Christie (1985:243) reckons that the Apartheid Governments belated interest in literacy projects resulted as a

response to the 1976 resistance. First, it was demonstrated by the issue of the Bantu Employees' in-Service

Training Act of 1976, which aimed to encourage the formation of training centres at the work place. Hence,

literacy projects in industry were initially prompted by the dismantling of job-reservation restrictions and the tax

incentives provided by the above Act (Matabane, 1990:347).

Next, the Department of Bantu Education, renamed Department of Education and Training (DET) instituted a

special section for adult literacy and commissioned an inquiry into existing projects to determine a viable AE

programme (Bird, 1984:215). The focus was on provision for manpower needs and equal quality education for all

race groups in SA (Christie, 1985:243,268).

Concurrently, the DET established night schools for black adults but legislation was stringent (discussed in 2.4). In

the 1980s, the DET contracted teacher training to Operation Upgrade (see 2.3.1) despite the material being

outdated (NEPI, 1992:16). The results proved to be unsatisfactory (French, 1992:76) and in 1983 the DET

designed their own courses and material in African languages and in English. Towards the mid eighties black

education departments became the major providers of adult literacy at adult education centres (AECs) (Matabane,

1990:347). One of the reasons for adult learners opting for the State programmes was that only DET courses

were accredited and learners regarded accreditation as an advantage to better job prospects (Christie,

1985:80,196). However, the DET could not cope with the illiteracy problem and began to take a benign attitude

towards private AE enterprises but monitored their teaching and course content against subversive tendencies

(French, 1992:57,75).

2.3.3 Literacy Initiatives by Other State Departments

The International Literacy Year in 1990 stimulated interest in literacy instruction among other state departments,

particularly Manpower, where trade unions' had a great influence. According to the NEPI (1993:12) report,

Manpower 'distorted' the development of adult training as many training centres and courses were established

simply to gain funds from their huge budget. Other official projects concentrated on increasing productivity,

promoting policies or aimed at public awareness rather than ABE. Nevertheless, the literacy project of the

Department of Prisons was lauded for its success. French (1992:72) maintains that the learner dropout rate of the

1 0

inmates was low as they were not exposed to the problems that were experienced by learners at AECs, such as

transport and poor resources. However, State department provision lacked co-ordination as they worked in

isolation from each other as did many NGOs in SA (NEPI, 1993:17,29), but the most inhibiting factor to adult

literacy initiatives was the apartheid legislation (compare Aitchison, 1998:3).

2.4 LEGAL CONSTRAINTS DURING THE APARTHEID ERA

Discrimination, segregation and subordination of Africans have had a long history in South African night school

movement, but the apartheid ideology curtailed adult literacy work (compare French, 1992:57; Aitchison, 1998:3).

With the accession of the National Party into power in 1948 legal constraints entitled 'Regulations for Night School

and Continuing Classes for Bantu Pupils in European areas,' coupled with the Bantu Education, Suppression of

Communism and the Group Areas Acts had a negative ripple effect on the night school movement (Matabane,

1990:345; Christie, 1985:55; Millar, 1979:5).

Support for night schools was undermined and subsidies were repealed. All 'education for blacks' was required to

register with the central government (French, 1992:57; Aitchison, 1998:3). Conditions for registration of night

schools marginalised many people as only learners over the age of sixteen, who were employed and had legal

residency status, could enrol. The curriculum duplicated formal schooling and teachers were employed at the

discretion of the Director of Bantu Education (Bird, 1984:205-6; Matabane, 1990 :345).

Literacy enterprises in white areas required permits from the Group Areas Board. In African urban areas control

had to be transferred to African school boards, which created logistical, organisational and administration

problems effecting a country wide drop in learner enrolment and many night schools closed (Bird, 1984:206-8),

thus, highlighting the depressed status of ABE at the time (Millar, 1979:5).

Despite the DET's initiative in instituting AECs after the 1976 riots, state repression intensified. The enrolment age

of adult learners was increased to eighteen years apparently to exclude militant youth expelled from formal school,

and the methodology had to be ratified by the Human Science Research Council. However, a significant variance

was that Governing Councils and Student Liaison Committees replaced the inapt boards at the state AECs (Bird,

1984:216-7; Matabane, 1990:346). Even NGOs that were prepared to work within the political order have had to

struggle against closure but these repressive legal measures impacted more intensely on the progressive

initiatives (French, 1992:57).

1 1

2.5 PROGRESSIVE ADULT LITERACY INITIATIVES DURING THE APARTHEID ERA

Progressive adult literacy initiatives emanated from resistance to the discrimination and segregation of apartheid

education.

2.5.1 South African Communist Party (SACP) Night Schools

Demands for alternative education has its roots in the South African Communist Party (SACP) night school

movement of the 1930s. The SACP collaborated with the African National Congress (ANC) and the trade unions in

opposing the discrimination practised by the ruling class and sought alternative means to assert their ideology and

improve conditions among the African working class (Bird, 1984:192-4).

The SACP night schools were the first effective effort to adult literacy needs of African workers and was urged by

their inability to participate constructively at union meetings in deliberating work conditions (Matabane, 1990:344).

The SACP night schools served this aim and focused on worker education, mainly on English and politics (French,

1992:56). The main aim was to recruit African working class leaders and to facilitate an understanding of the

historical and social system that gave rise to oppression and empower them to transform that situation (Matabane,

1990:344). Owing to the political content, the SACP night schools faced state harassment through legal and other

repressive mechanisms (Matabane, 1990:343). However, the literacy work of this era is acclaimed as the launch

to literacy promotion in SA (French, 1992:56).

2.5.2 Education for Liberation

An interplay of radical ideologies impacted on progressive literacy agents in SA in the 1970s. While the Black

Consciousness Movement (BMC) was fervent in Africa and America (Bird, 1984:222), Freire's ideology of literacy

influenced the world concept on adult literacy, thus, economic functionality was discarded in favour of literacy for

liberation (Bhola, 1989:486).

Student-directed literacy projects initiated by South African Students' Organisation (SASO) decried the failure of

the `necrophilic banking' Bantu Education. They were highly receptive to the views of literacy for critical

consciousness, for empowering and for total liberation from oppressive structures. SASO's project declined as

affiliates of the BMC were banned and many were detained owing to their involvement in the 1976 Soweto student

uprising (Bird, 1984:212; Matabane, 1990:346; Lyster, 1992:36; compare Bhola, 1989:486; Aitchison, 1998:3).

Student protests against Bantu Education marked the beginning of a long period of resistance and a creeping

12

disintegration of the learning environment in schools (Cross & Chrisholm, 1990:63). The collapse of the education

system and the high drop-out rate resulted in a new generation of illiterate and semi-illiterate adults. The student

resistance movement joined forces with trade unions and the community at large, henceforth, education mirrored

the conflicts and anomalies of the wider society (Christie, 1985: 244-6; 252).

2.5.3 Networking and Co-ordination among Progressive Initiates

A call for networking and co-ordination among the progressive initiatives of the 1970s accrued to the National

Literacy Co-operation (NLC) towards the 1980s. Learn and Teach, Use, Speak and Write English, English Literacy

Project and others combined a modified Freirian view with service to trade unions (French, 1992:66). By 1994 the

NLC had developed into a national association of 160 adult literacy NGOs (Bhola, 1996:16), but the NEPI Report

(1992:16) criticised it for being a forum for debate and sharing ideas instead of a co-ordinating body. However,

this was the first attempt of its kind and Bhola (1996:16) envisaged the NLC as a major role player in the new

education dispensation. Unfortunately, it has disintegrated since May 1998.

2.6 SYNOPSIS

ABE provision up to the 1990s can be described as fragmented and having minimal impact reaching less than one

percent of the multitude who would benefit from adult literacy work (French, 1992:78). The total lack of coherence

within or across government, NGOs, or industry ABE provision implies that there was no shared vision or common

approach towards ABE and different educational ideologies were pursued by different agents in various socio-

economic contexts.

Industry's involvement in AE was related to advancing productivity or industrial relations within the work place,

either as a social responsibility or to comply with trade union demands. COSATU criticised the inflexibility of the

literacy and training programmes and argued that the courses were job or company specific thus, not transferable

to new job situations or learning contexts. The certificates that were offered had no currency in terms of creating

career pathways or progression to further training or access to higher education (COSATU human resource

committee (CHRC), 1992:88-91; compare NEPI, 1992:26; Anon., 1995:1).

A certificate system was the exclusive domain of the State and qualifications were parallel to formal school. This

subjected adult learners to a school curriculum unsuitable to their needs. Despite their location in the school

environment adult learners did not benefit from the resources of the formal schooling system. Other official

initiatives were ineffective in providing for the general education of adults.

13

The major snags of ABE provisioning were incoherence, duplication of resources, absence of a nationally

recognised accreditation system and accountability (CHRC, 1992:86). The NEPI Report (1992:27) cites decision

making as being top down, and that NLC was specifically formed to promote democratic values but NGOs did not

operationalise these values in practice. Learners were not consulted in course construction (French, 1992:74;

CHRC, 1992:91) yet countries that have promoted the practice of consulting worker and mass organisations have

yielded great success in mobilising people to participate in the projects, a potential that needed to be examined in

the South African context of ABE provision (NEPI, 1992:27).

The above section dealt with literacy initiatives during the apartheid era. International influence of the evolution of

adult literacy on the definition of ABET will be outlined next.

2.7 THE IMPACT OF THE WORLD•INIDE EVOLUTION OF LITERACY EDUCATION ON ABET

2.7.1 International Literacy Year

The significance of literacy was heralded by the United Nations declaration of 1990 as the International Literacy

Year (ILY) and the dawning of the Decade of Literacy. People, internationally and nationally reconfirmed the

importance of literacy (Lyster, 1992:9). In South Africa the concern for illiteracy became more compelling than

before and was highly influenced by the ethos of change that permeated in the country and hopes of a democratic

SA (Hofmeyer & Buckland, 1992:28). For instance, COSATU and ANC were most vociferous in expressing the

need to place ABE on the national agenda. At the 1989 Education Conference, COSATU articulated the inhibiting

impact of illiteracy on the working class movement as it curtailed members from effective participation from

decision making structures (see 2.7.1). In the same year, the National Education Co-ordinating Committee

(NECC) conference resolved that structures be established to work earnestly on long term policy and direction on

the literacy issue (Norton, 1992:21; compare NABEC, 1993:5-7).

2.7.2 Lifelong Learning

The term lifelong learning came in vogue in the 1970s. Dave (as quoted by Bhola, 1989:487) views lifelong

learning as a comprehensive concept, which includes formal and informal learning extended throughout the life-

span of an individual to attain the fullest possible development in personal, social and professional life. Lifelong

learning seeks to view education in its broadest sense and includes a learning that occurs in the home, learning

institutions, community and workplace, and through mass media and other situations and structures for acquiring

and enhancing enlightenment (NEPI, 1993:4-5; DoE, 1997a:1,5,9; Bhola, 1989:487). The subsumation of ABE

and post ABE resembles a 'continuum ranging from the first attempts to forming letters to writing in the abstract'

14

(Lyster, 1992:11). Hence, the notion of lifelong learning is a dynamic process that permits and encourages

mobility and introduces adult learners to learning as a never ending process. Basic education is, thus, a minimum

package of lifelong learning experiences and implies a continuous developmental process (Bhola, 1989:486).

Current ABET ideology was generated from the contributions and recommendations of the above and other

consultative endeavours (see 2.7; 2.7.1). The term ABET signifies a comprehensive policy and is influenced by

global trends in literacy education that issued a new definition of functionality, where literacy was seen as the

portal to all knowledge for socio-economic and political survival (Bhola, 1989:487) involving the provision of skills

in literacy and numeracy, and of essential knowledge that helps people to become more self reliant and is income

generating.

2.7.3 Education for All (EFA)

Lifelong learning principles are embedded in the proclamations made at the World Conference on Education for All

(EFA), held in 1990 and profoundly influenced contemporary views on ET, in particular ABET. EFA advocated

universal primary education as a certain and permanent formula for the eradication of illiteracy. In the long run,

illiteracy would fade as successive generations of children emerged from schools, hence, "the battle must be

waged on both fronts" (Jeffries, 1967:73). Based on the EFA premise, ABET is geared towards creating

educational opportunities that would empower people for life and focuses on meeting the learning needs of

learners relevant to a country's particular social and cultural context (Anon., 1998b:4-5). ABET is intended to plan

initiatives based on outcomes that are measurable and that would equip learners with the foundation for acquiring

knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to cope with the demands of survival; to develop learners' full capacities; to

live and work in dignity; to contribute to reconstruction, development and social transformation; to make informed

decisions and to continue learning (DoE, 1997a:4,9).

However, such an endeavour cannot be a state responsibility alone and a partnership between state departments,

NGOs and other bodies is imperative (Anon., 1998b:4; Essop, 1996:19; Dickenson, 1997:18). At the delivery

level, the integration of adult literacy teaching with agriculture or technology, and of health extension with literacy

instruction, requires inter-sectoral co-ordination (Bhola, 1989:497).

2.8 POLICY ANTECEDENTS TO ABET

1990 was the dawning of the year of international literacy, the unbanning of the liberation movement and the

dismantling of apartheid. This historic ideological shift signified that more structures were dynamic in the 1990s

than 1980s (Hofmeyer & Buckland, 1992:31). The changing world view on literacy (see 2.6) and the concomitant

15

concern and interest in literacy stimulated the ABET policy initiatives in SA. The ANC, COSATU, Organised

Labour, South African Committee for ABE (SACABE), the Centre for Education Policy Development (CEPD),

NECC; other NGOs, the National Training Board, and employer bodies played a pivotal role in interrogating policy

options for ET (EIC & IEB, 1996:6) Deliberations spanned over an approximate period of seven years culminating

into the launch of the Policy Document on Adult Basic Education and Training in February, 1997 (DoE, 1997a:5).

The next section focuses on COSATU's endeavours as their initiative emerged as one of the most powerful

influence in generating ABET ideology (French, 1992:74).

2.8.1 COSATU and Allied Organisations

COSATU had a vested interest in adult literacy work as the organisation needed its constituency to participate

constructively in collective bargaining processes thus, it was actively involved with ABE providers and provision in

the late 1980s (Norton, 1992:21). Its demands for relevant ABE provision engendered ABET policy initiatives

among the NLC and corporate sector (NEPI, 1993:43). Also, in 1990 COSATU was the only 'legal,' progressive

organised social formation in SA that had the capacity to develop a planning and policy research unit (compare

Bhola, 1996:9). Hence, in co-operation with affiliates and allied organisations (unions of mine and metal workers),

COSATU embarked on a participative and consultative process of developing policy guidelines (CHRC, 1992:94)

for a national system of an integrated ABET. Henceforth, COSATU and the allied organisation are referred to as

the COSATU Participatory Research Project Team (CPRPT) as they contributed to the research document

namely, COSATU Participatory Research Project (CPRP), that contributed greatly to the current ABET ideology.

The CPRPT identified the need for co-ordinated efforts (compare 2.7.3), and felt that the lack of union involvement

in structures dealing with literacy and training provision, spawned inadequate and irrelevant programmes that did

not impact on the socio-economic development of the country (CHRC, 1992:80;88). For the CPRPT, ABE was

integral to a new approach to human resource development as a basis of the wider development. They believed

that this could only occur in the context of an integrated education and training system that is aimed explicitly at

developing 'skills and knowledge needed to shape and develop economic policies, run industries, build a

democratic society and strengthen job creation' (CPRP, 1993:14). Moreover, an integrated ET system would

eliminate the fragmentation and duplication of resources which was characteristic of the apartheid education.

Bhola (1996:10) explains that the need for structural social and economic changes are imperative if the

Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) were to serve all South Africans. The CPRPT argued that

this could only be achieved by reviving the formal economy and opening it to people who were historically

excluded from it, but job reservation, structural racism and the heritage of Bantu Education were critical barriers to

16

empowering people to fulfil the ideals of the RDP (CPRP, 1993:20; compare 3.2). They were of the opinion that

inferior education coupled with discriminatory practices and a grading system that did not recognise informally

acquired skills had kept most African workers concentrated in the lowest rungs of the formal economy (CHRC,

1992:83), and denied them access to higher-level skills training (see 3.2). To train and educate those already in

the economy on farms, factories and other industries, 'a second chance education' (Bhola, 1996:10) had to be

developed and delivered. This implied that adult learners needed more than literacy and numeracy to participate

in the modem economy, thus CPRPT (CPRP, 1993:1) recommended grading, training, education and assessment

systems that would be determined on the basis of competency. The ability to do a job to a required standard

enabling workers to gain recognition for prior learning acquired through experience was emphasised (Miller,

1996:95). This entailed writing the curricula in terms of competency outcomes and develop national competency

standards in each sector and generic core standards across sectors. However, CPRPT argued that consultative

participation of all major players, including subsystems of education and training was imperative in the above

processes (CPRP, 1993:39,42).

To the CPRPT, an integrated education and training system signified that curricula for training courses had to be

broadened to include core education skills such as literacy, numeracy, communication, problem solving and

planning. It should provide adequate general basic knowledge not the same as formal schooling, but equivalent in

knowledge and skills to grade 9 at the General Education and Training Certificate (GETC) level. This would,

according to the CPRPT form the basis to lifelong learning (CPRP, 1993:40-1, see also DoE, 1997a:8).

A nationally integrated qualifications system would be introduced with certificates issued at all levels enabling

vertical, horizontal or diagonal progression (CPRP, 1992:51). The certificate would be recognised, portable and

articulated to career paths in the formal economy. That is how Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) was

conceived (Bhola, 1996:10-11), and amended or elaborated upon by the stakeholders mentioned above (see 2.8).

2.8.2 A Brief Critique on the COSATU and Allied Organisation Initiative

It is instructional to note that the CPRPT viewed integration of ET in a broader context and argued that it involved

the process of structuring formal links of the different parts of the education and training (ET) system. They held

the view that the espoused integration can only result into a systemic and systematic approach to ET (CPRP,

1993:28 -9) if systems, labour market, geographical, economic, political and racial integration is in place. The

concept of integration is enshrined in the White Paper of Education (DoE, 1995:17).

However, the CPRPT's notion of ABET was criticised for marginalising woman, youth and rural communities, not

employed in the formal economy as not many women are employed in industry (compare Bhola, 1996:11; NEPI,

17

1993:47). Furthermore, their idea of 'prioritising and targeting groups' of learners deviated from democratic

principles of equity and redress as workers, 'with less education proficiency' and the marginalised groups, are

placed last (CPRP, 1993:23). The National Stakeholders Forum (NSF) (see 2.10) were of the opinion that owing to

the gravity of the illiteracy problem and the comparative paucity of available resources, ABET efforts should be

concentrated amongst the neediest as they need it to adequately fulfil their place in the community (ANC,

1994:288; Bhola, 1989:486; Jeffries, 1967: 11). Thus, the CPRPTs view has been amended and current ABET

policy focuses on learner needs (DoE, 1997b: 77).

2.9 NATIONAL WILL

With the advent of a democratic government ABET was placed on the national agenda. ABET has been accepted

as a responsibility of the state in the spirit of the South African Constitution of 1996 that pledges the right to basic

education for all (Bhola, 1996:12). World experience has it that national and political will is key to the success of

large scale ABET and that state commitment prompts local and international grants and effective mobilisation

(compare ANC, 1994:278; French, 1992:81). A new directorate of ABET was created with structures at provincial

and district level to provide a national focal point for the DoE's commitment to the field, to undertake research, to

develop norms and standards, and to liaise with provincial structures and the Department of Labour (DoL)

(NABETCC, 1995:5). An ABET Council, with provincial and district sub-structures, representative of ABET interest

groups is also envisaged in an advisory capacity to the Minister. An education information management system

(EMIS) for ABET is also being set up. The EMIS is ultimately intended to provide a wealth of ABET related data

and insight, particularly to inadequately trained educators committed to improving their skills by consulting the

EMIS for available resources or courses (compare NEPI, 1993:17).

However, the national and provincial structures have not yet formed into "one articulated system" (Bhola, 1996:13;

Essop, 1996:18) and ABET structures in some provinces and districts are not well established as yet. The

instability and lack of personnel can have a negative impact on progress in ABET issues. Perhaps, the

consolation lies in the fact that many officials, particularly at the DoE, hail from the NGO ranks and have been

involved in education policy development (compare Bhola, 1996:12).

2.10 THE NATIONAL ABET POLICY FORMULATION

After April 1994, the ABET interest groups (see 2.8) crystallised into the National Stakeholders Forum (NSF) but

became more representative including other sectors of civil society and all levels of government. The NSF built on

the policy proposals made by the interest groups (see 2.7.1), other commission-related or ad hoc policy work and

submissions (compare Bhola, 1996:12). Through vigorous processes of debate, consultation, collaboration and

18

evidence gleaned from empirical studies in the field, two key outcomes were achieved: a common vision and

curriculum goals for ABET (DoE, 1997:2) This was a milestone for a sector that was historically fragmented. In

September 1995 the Minister of education declared the Interim Guidelines as policy for ABET (DoE, 1995:ii).

2.10.1 Ithuteng (Ready to Learn) Campaign

To test the curriculum outcome statements of the Interim Guidelines, the Ithuteng Campaign was launched

nationally in February 1996. This national campaign was two pronged as a partnership had been constructed

between the State and the NLC (Dickenson, 1997:18). The Ithuteng programme run by the state targeted 100 000

new learners in each province at ABET levels 1 and 2 (DoE, 1997b:iv), and the Thousand Learner Unit (TLU)

project run by NLC targeting 1 000 new learners, and was accomplished by 1997 (Bhola, 1996:12). This co-

ordinated and integrated effort by the state and an organ of civil society 'may have been the first in the history of

adult education' (Bhola, 1996:12). The experiences gained from the implementation of Ithuteng enriched and

informed the ongoing policy work, which culminated into the launching of the Policy Document on ABET and a

Multi-year Plan in February 1998.

2.10.2 Principles and values that underpin ABET provisioning

The ABET Policy is grounded within the broader tenets of the RDP; the National Education Policy of 1996; the

SAQA Act of 1995 and the White Paper of 1995. (DoE, 1997a:1997:8-9). The core values of ABET are interpreted

in the following way:

The Policy ensures access to quality ABET provision for all who seek it, without any form of discrimination (see

3.5.2.3). ABET would form a basis for lifelong learning which will facilitate social participation and economic

enhancement in SA. To integrate ABET into lifelong learning it is located within the NQF as a 'sustainable level of

literacy, numeracy, basic, general education and certificated career paths' (DoE, 1997a:v). This implies that ABET

should link to development programmes that create opportunities for progression from General Education and

Training (GET), employment, and pave career pathways. The NQF permits flexibility, which grants learners the

opportunity to progress, move or transfer across levels or institutions or contexts, providing access to nationally

recognised qualifications (see 3.9.2). This mobility, portability and progression is facilitated along a continuum of

learning opportunities manifested in the NQF as discussed in 3.5.2 (DoE, 1997a:1-9; compare 2.7.2 and 2.7.3).

2.10.3 ABET Implementation Plan

The Multi-Year Plan (MVP) is an investment plan for ABET over four years and unpacks the Policy to generate a

19

comprehensive national system for ABET. The state, NLC and other stakeholders embarked on a partnership to

impact significantly upon one of the most visible legacies of apartheid: adult illiteracy (Dickenson, 1997:18). The

overall objective of the Plan is to increase the quality and quantity of relevant and appropriate services to adult

learners. The key performance indicators of improvement in the educational foundation of all citizens are: a

significant increase of learner enrolments and achievements, usage of learner services and a substantial decrease

in the dropout rate (DoE, 1997b:86). As in Ithuteng, success is measured by the numbers reached and the impact

that the learning experiences will have on the individual and society at large (Sparks, 1994:26). However, I do not

agree with the implementation strategy of cascading (see below) as the course content can be 'watered down' by

the time it reaches the final tier, especially as constructive support systems have not been strategised. The next

sections will focus on the latest regarding the practitioner development and curriculum framework.

2.10.3.1 Implementation of the first phase: Practitioner Development (PD)

The first in a series of five of the DoE's envisaged cascading model to train the ABET trainers with the knowledge,

skills, attitudes and values required to implement an outcomes-based model of ABET programmes, took place in

January 1998. Ten officials per province attended a resident 'train the trainers' course in Pretoria forming the first

of four tiers of the cascade. Algorithmically the training is to be filtered through as follows: 10 X 5 X 10 X 20 X 9

provinces and accrues to 90 000 practitioners, officials and learners country wide. The algorithm means that in

each of the nine provinces, the 10 core trainers, who form the first tier of trainers, will train five trainers each

(district officials and principals), and ten multiplied by five is equal to fifty. Next, each of the fifty trainers will train

10 practitioners, (which accrues to 500), who in turn, will practice OBET at ABETCs among 20 ABET learners.

Thus, the target per province is 10 000 learners.

Owing to ABET structures not fully established in some provinces, and a delay in funding from donor agencies

only two provinces qualified for the available funds to continue the cascade model. The Gauteng core training

team believed that the hiatus was negative for the zest, interest and positive vibes that was created for OBET at

our local AET forums at District levels. We felt that PD was imperative if OBET was to succeed, hence consulted

the ABET forum comprising of officials (districts and province) and principals, which led to a decision to proceed

with the project. It needed some convincing because costs were kept to the minimum, but they agreed to attend

the training sessions conducted by the ten core trainers to the second tier of 50 delegates in July, 1998.

The outcomes of the project will be determined by the degree of confidence with which they cascade the OBET

model to the next tier, but if we can gauge the success by the enthusiasm to conduct the workshops in August,

then the outcome is positive. Most of the districts completed the third tier training by September. However, I

generally found that knowledge of the NQF and OBET was scant, thus, it can be speculated that practitioners

20

simply did not read the material that was disseminated or the advocacy campaign was ineffective as the

information did not reach the target group.

2.10.3.2 Implementation of the first phase: A curriculum Framework

Draft unit standards have been written and adopted for the eight learning areas agreed upon by the ABET NSF.

The learning outcomes for two learning areas, Language, Literacy and Communication, and Mathematical

Literacy, Mathematics, Mathematical Sciences at ABET sub-levels 1 and 2 were piloted through the lthuteng

Campaign (see 2.10.1) at selected ABET centres in the province during 1997. In 1998 all the new learning area

outcomes at the ABET levels 1 and 2, and the above learning areas at ABET level 3 were to be phased in

according to local needs, practitioner capabilities and the capacity of the learning programme. According to the

MYP (DoE, 1997b:103) the exposure and experience gained from the Ithuteng campaign (see 2.10.1) would

enable ABETPs to offer the respective learning areas at ABET level 3. However, a verification with my colleagues

from other districts in Gauteng reveal that Ithuteng has not generally made an impact at their centres. I believe

that this is the result of a lack of systems in evaluating implementation and support programmes for practitioners.

Despite practitioner development being highlighted in the White paper (1995:15) as "one of the central pillars of a

national human resource strategy" it appears that in reality, inadequate emphasis is given to practitioner

preparation, development and support systems seem to be lacking (see chapters 4 and 5).

2.11 PROVISIONING BY OTHER STATE DEPARTMENTS

Even though the MYP is a product of intensive deliberations with ABET stakeholders, it is not owned by the DoE

exclusively (compare Bhola, 1989:486) thus, State departments are beginning to take collective responsibility.

The Departments of Correctional and Police Services and South African Defence Force have endorsed and

contributed to the implementation of actions set out in respect of the objectives and outcomes for the Plan (DoE,

1997b:239-40). The notion of an integrated education and training system and the establishment of SAQA and its

associated NQF is in the first place, a result of the liaison between the Ministries of Education and Labour

(NABETCC, 1995:4). Thus, the green paper on Skills Development Strategy of DoL complements the formal

education system and links to the NQF to meet the demands of the formal economy. It extends ET to people

within and outside of the formal economy (Briston, 1997:10).

While the DoE is the major supplier of ET services in so far as they manage the public providers, other state

departments are vital players on the "demand side" (DoL, 1997:55). To illustrate, Public Works provide training in

the context of civil and building job creation programmes and Agriculture and Land Affairs is addressing the needs

of small farmers (Malala, 1996:8). While the DoL accedes to the NQF supporting a single coherent system they

21

propose a National Skills Authority (NSA) to replace the National Training Board to facilitate links between ET and

the labour market (DoL, 1997:18). The NSA will play an important role in ensuring that ET programmes are

relevant to industry's, development needs (DoL, 1997:60). However, it must ensure that all training that is offered

will turn out qualifications within the NQF (compare Briston, 1997:10), and links between the two ministries be well

structured. Moreover, it is critical that the structures are developed on the principles of the NQF, for example,

Education talks of ET Councils, whereas Labour refers to Human Resource Development (HRD) councils. Marock

from COSATU (Anon, 1997:14) argues that the "challenge is to design an HRD strategy that addresses peoples'

education and training needs."

In addition, problems are starting to arise because the Ministries of Education and Labour are not integrating their

work sufficiently. An example of this is in the information and technology (IT) area where Education and Labour

each have a pilot project (Marock as quoted by Anon., 1997:14). This lack of co-ordination has implications for

adult learners as a worker may not be able to use IT credits towards a general qualification, which undermines an

integrated system. Perhaps, South Africa should replicate the integrated involvement of all stakeholders as

depicted in the Cuban experience in dealing with its literacy problem .

2.12 A LESSON FROM THE CUBAN EXPERIENCE

The Cubans stimulated commitment, intensity and active and integrated involvement of all stakeholders and

achieved their desired outcomes of abating illiteracy in "one short, sharp year" (Jeffries, 1967:66), while we seem

to be tinkering with ET reforms in ABET. Moreover, the Cuban experience (Jeffries, 1967:65-8) could be a lesson

to consider as it included social, political and economic will. "Unpaid' volunteer instructors (not qualified teachers)

underwent intensive training and worked under the "technical guidance of professional teachers" and resources

were made available. The course content was both "practical" (relevant to the lives of adult learners) and

"ideological" (the need to empower the nation). This resourceful, focused, committed and active involvement of all

in pre-empting their literacy problem was driven by an intensive advocacy campaign that I believe need to be

emulated by us, and the qualities that stimulated the process should be inculcated in all our practitioners (compare

Gordon, 1997:391). Hence, SA needs to plan ongoing PDPs that will motivate ABETPs to manage change

(compare Turkington, 1998:5) in order to effect the desired transformation at ABETCs to combat illiteracy.

2.13 CONCLUSION

In this chapter a historical overview was presented aimed at highlighting the roots of current ABET practice within

the socio-economic and political context and the impact that the dominant powers of the different eras had on AE.

This chapter also sketched the processes that led to the shift from literacy education to the present ideological and

22

political notion of ABET, which was influenced by the policy initiatives of various stakeholders, particularly

COSATU and affiliate organisations.

However, the implementation of new policies is a lengthy, uneven process and Sebidi (as quoted by Hofmeyer &

Buckland, 1992:17) reminds us that "there are no educational coup d'etat" Some structures, like the Education

and Training Quality Assurers for ABET are not in place, and others are still in process, e.g. EMIS and learning

area outcomes are still being piloted. Despite the dire need to implement, if ABETPs do not have a thorough

understanding of OBET, we will not succeed.

Though, Essop (1996:16) claims that ET systems are "remarkably resilient to change," Auerbach (as quoted in

Hofmeyer & Buckland, 1992:37) evinces that South Africa has a history of authoritarianism, and many cultures

reveal strongly entrenched "authoritarian child rearing patterns." International experience reveal that people do not

readily try innovations except "those renegades who thrive on change and risk-taking" and they are few (Gordon,

1998:391). Thus, a shift in developing a participative culture among the education stakeholders to seize the

opportunity of engaging reflectively with the new system and ideology will take time for a well structured strategic

plan (compare Essop, 1996:17; see also 4.2). Eberlein (Briston, 1997:10) warns that the type of ET system that

we want to effect in our institutions can only actualise over two decades.

Developing human resource (see chapters 4 and 5) is key to successful implementation of OBET thus, ABETPs

are obligated to espouse optimism, faith, tenacity and commitment to change and transformation at ABETCs

(compare Briston, 1997:4). We have the tremendous task of expunging the ravages of the inherited legacy of the

past. Finally, ABET is on the National Agenda which signifies putting ABET on everyone's agenda, and this

means putting education on everyone's agenda. If ABET is to be integrated into lifelong learning, social mobilising

needs to be constant and consistent. People need to be convinced of the power of ABET. We need to build a

regular subsistence for ABET so that interest of learners and other stakeholders do not wane (compare Torres in

NABETC, 1993:15; Rothman, 1997:273).

In order to understand the merits of OBET and whether it is appropriate for a developing society, like ours, that has

gross social and economic imbalances, chapter 3 will focus on OBET and the implications thereof on adult

learners.

23

CHAPTER 3

THE NEW VISION TO EDUCATION AND TRAINING:

OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET)

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter focused on the past to present of ABET provisioning and accreditation culminating into

discussions on the ABET Policy. This chapter opens with the focus on some of the most compelling factors that

contributed to the need for a change in curriculum in SA. Next it explores the OBET system and reviews the

controversies that surround OBET for the purpose of developing a finer conception of OBET in ABET. The link

between OBET and the NQF, how ABET fits into the picture, and the implications thereof for ABET learners and

practitioners is also explicated.

3.2 WHY A CURRICULUM CHANGE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

Professor Bengu, the National Minister of Education, persuasively declares the major reason for the change in

curriculum was ". . a crisis that lasted for more than forty years. The way education was segregated, . . . poorer

disadvantaged people were given inferior education, all the restrictions, the way education was taught (Rantao,

1998:13). Apartheid education has resulted in the juxtaposition of 'the most developed and well resourced system

of education and training in Africa (DoE, 1995:18), with a bankrupt necrophillic system that was generally low and

ill-resourced (see 2.3.1). The gradation between poor and rich; educated and illiterate, and skilled and unskilled

(see 2.3) mirrors SA's complex racial and ethnic hierarchies (DoE, 1995b:17) in the socio-economic spheres.

Therefore, transforming the legacy of the past is the fundamental incentive for the change in our education system

(DoE, 1995: 17). The curriculum change is primarily political and aims at socio-economic reform (Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997:6), but other issues that are outlined below and have been debated by various sectors in SA, as

well as, internationally are also contributing factors to change in the South African broad curriculum framework

(Mahomed, 1998:4).

Issues of educational relevance, equality and quality were questioned by movements in SA such as italtemative

education," People's Education," (Christie, 1985:261) and `Education for liberation" (2.3.1) during the apartheid

era. Business interests world-wide have often questioned the relevance and effectiveness of formal schooling in

preparing learners adequately to take their place in the world of work (Hartshorne, 1992:332; Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997a:10; compare O'Neil, 1994:3). The tension between academic and applied knowledge, theory

and practice or mathematics and science and the technology of their application in the outside world, existed in SA

24

as elsewhere, but in SA such distinctions in curriculum and career choices have been intensified by discrimination

and segregation on the basis of colour and class (Hartshorne 1992:9; Hofmeyer & Buckland, 1992:19). Hence, the

need for an integrated education and training system (see 2.7.1).

The Western ideal of liberal education was internationally debated during the 1970s (Bhola, 1989:486). People

questioned the purpose of education that did not liberate them from poverty, oppression and unemployment (Cross

& Chisholm: 1990:63). In SA, it was vocalised as 'Education for liberation' in 1976, which resulted in the onset of

boycotts and of a creeping and continuing disintegration of the learning environment in African schools, and the

subsequent high dropout rates and high illiteracy rates (Mahomed, 1998:5; see 2.4.2).

It has also been argued that Bantu education had failed to provide adequate initial education, political and

technical skills crucial to organising production and society in a fully democratic way (Hofrneyer & Buckland,

1992:19), nor did it encourage analytical, creative, independent problem solving skills ( DoE, 1997d:1; EIC & IEB,

1996:5). Hofmeyer and Buckland (1992:32) assert that Bantu Education aggregated to an anomaly between what

the school produced and what the formal economy required resulting in a high rate of unemployment and abject

poverty. The DoE (1997c:10) identified the deficiency of skills as having major implications for employment

patterns as people could not meet the demands of work force competency levels, which disabled SA from building

a strong economy to compete in the world market (Samuel, 1992:110).

Moreover, Hartshorne (1992:9) asserts that the authoritarian system of education created a false divide between

academic knowledge and its application by encouraging rote learning that resulted in learners being passive

recipients of knowledge (compare Pahad, Cohen, Marsh & Tema 1998:8). To keep abreast with the phenomenon

of globilisation, which is dominated by information via communication networks and rapid technological change

(Jeffries, 1967:9), SA needs an informed society in which its individuals are independent, analytical, creative

problem solvers who can compete in the global markets (Pahad, et al. 1992:10; Samuel, 1992:110; Hayes,

1994:42).

The above captures some of the most compelling factors that contributed to the need for a change in curriculum in

SA. To address the above issues, pertaining to concerns of access to education and training (ET) opportunities

and career paths, quality and redress and recognition of what has been learned outside the formal systems, led to

national and provincial commissions, proposals, debates and discussions among various organisations for the

establishment of an integrated national framework for learning achievements (Anon., 1998c:8). The NQF,

proposed by COSATU (see 2.3), was adopted in principle by the new education dispensation (Anon, 1997:13) to

reconstruct and develop ET into a system that reflects an integrated approach and conciliates the learners' and

nation's needs (DoE, 1997c:14). Isaac (as quoted by Briston, 1997:4) maintains that 'discussions about what

25

atugueacud SuFiggri j atuulluSaid

Statues?' yk. Summar"

satuurrAoid 2upura-1 do a w sSll snolivA

Jemmenb opoN &IRWIN 3.10 spurn's Run

ONINIVILL (INV NOLLV31141a

itvainnia , OMNI-Val (INV mouvaima

(

1 3J20 IcgslutPuMS Iran Jo uopeumulop

--*_i sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn g 9

L

9

sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn

sat:warms 11N11 S13A31 ION

nuommid cog (SIICIMID)

srauPutIS

DiaD mgsimuPutIS Jo uopruNtuoV

n sn sn sn sn sn sn sn n

sn sn sn sn n

I

p

S113A31.138V

n sn sn sn 'n Sl

sn sn

sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sue- sn sn sn sn sn sn sn sn

z

ativaNvis linin NV AO 310A3-3A17 3H1 aingE1

ounuctikud

Law 103 nos in 2-3 Plagues 'ad EDS ou0 sPlog-cIns agl JoJ sImPurIS 31-6IM 12i

Spoil Sugeisua9 spiepums :gos

211.1111y.11, pee eope3npa

spit:purls Truopru mtm 7St 'OVUM .dm salroulp00 Jam° lumuanappr

0311MITISSV SUOLICJWIErio Journal mtre 7s, .1011UOILI

vOi

suopronunb pur SJOSSaSSE .13)S1.12301\

(c?Ars of suoiriromunb spumuumzu 1111SNO3 sPmPurts qs!Icitlso -ad

4-- Nag Supfurgio goes Joj Otto 4.1 Spun sparpurlS IguoDuN

EISN

(says 9)10 sPePuels JelsOai -01 suopolluenb 13 Lisncielso

6u New uoppap angelinsuoo puu lensuasuo0 - dON 9146 aasiano Al!Joinnv suopeowieno ue3p111 glnoS

VMS

CINVONVIS lINfl NV dO 310A3-3d11 3111

SNOLLV31A11V110 Saia03 NV 210A sativaNvis min AO ONM3191110 meld

SNO11V3Idl1Vii0 SAC133 NV 2101 sauvaNvis 11Nf1 dO onuaisnio

learning achievements actually are resulted in many of these bodies becoming advocates of an outcomes-based

education and training system.'

The next section focuses on the relationship between OBET, SAQA and its associated NQF, and the implication

hereof on ABET provisioning and accreditation.

3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABET AND THE NQF AND OBET

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is a statutory, yet representative structure that espouses an

outcomes-based approach to education and training and is responsible for the development of the NQF through

consensual and consultative decision-making. It is through the NQF that the integration of education and training

and increased access to lifelong learning is articulated (DoE, 1997a:16). The NQF provides guidelines on the kind

of learning that should take place and how this lemming will be assessed (Clarke, 1997b:20). Exactly where and

how ABET is accommodated in the overall framework is demonstrated by way of a case study (see 3.9.1).

The integrated approach to ET, linked to the development of an NQF, is based on a system of credits for attaining

learning outcomes, irrespective of where and when they were attained (DoE, 1997d:1; see figure 3.1). This implies

that learners should be able to move ahead on the basis of achieving particular learning outcomes rather than

through age or achievement in formal examinations. Thus, to understand how the NQF works one has to

understand what an OBET system entails. In the traditional approach to education a syllabus indicated what

learners ought to know to pass to the next ABET level. In OBET, the syllabus is replaced by learning programmes

(see figure 3.2). Learning programmes are elected from a broad curriculum framework that has eight learning

areas and is written in terms of 'clearly defined outcomes' (Clarke, 1997a:21). The outcomes are developed into

unit standards in each of the learning areas. The learning areas serve as guidelines for determining courses or

learning programmes for ABET. Learning programmes are designed to facilitate learners to achieve the agreed

upon outcomes or they can get recognition for their prior learning (refer to figures 3.1 and 3.2). The emphasis is

on what learners know and can do and not on memorising content (EIC & IEB, 1996:8, 22-3).

As outlined in chapter 1 (1.6.1.1), an outcome is the point of departure to learning as opposed to the content. An

outcome signifies the understanding, knowledge, skills and attitude that a learner is supposed to demonstrate at

the end of an instructional process. Learners can achieve agreed upon learning outcomes through a learning

programme, which refers to a course or sets of course modules. The ET programmes that are intended to

enhance the quality and extent of ABET provision will be developed and derived from the broad national

curriculum framework and the NQF (DoE, 1997a:18). Briefly, the programmes will be designed to ensure that

learners emerge as critical and analytical problem solvers, who will contribute meaningfully to the socio-economic

26

development of our country (Van der Horst & Mcdonald, 1997a:6; compare Pahad, et al. 1998b:10-11), and is

underpinned by the notion of lifelong learning (see also 2.6.2).

3.3.1 Lifelong Learning

ABET aims at inducting learners with the idea of a culture of learning as it provides them with a basis for acquiring

and applying knowledge, skills and attitudes required to realise their full potential. It is envisioned to initiate them

on a continuum of lifelong learning as an integrated system of education and training presented on the NQF (DoE,

1997a:16). This would, when in place, afford them the opportunity to progress from non-literacy through to

accessing general, further and higher education and training and sustaining to link training for income generation

(compare 3.9).

For ABET to acquire authenticity in the context of lifelong learning the ABET levels are articulated within the

General Education and Training (GET) band on the NQF to provide a learning path into the ensuing bands,

namely, Further and Higher Education and Training bands. Provision must also be made for the continuous

application of knowledge and skills acquired by those learners who do not choose or do not have access to

continuing education pathways, and the Institutes for Lifelong Learning, both at National and Provincial levels, are

envisaged to oversee research to give form to this developmental notion (DoE, 1997a: 16).

3.3.2 Résumé

The NQF moves away from a content-based curriculum to an outcomes-based learning programme (DoE,

1997c:24). An outcomes-based approach to ET addresses the fundamentals, 'what is worth knowing and the

purpose of education' (McTighe as quoted by Neil, 1994:7). The bases of curriculum design, content and delivery

on the assessment of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed by both learners and society presupposes

the formulation of agreed outcomes (Pahad, et al. 1998b:10-11).

3.4 WHAT IS OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET)?

It is a well-publicised fact that the DoE has drawn heavily on ideas from Australia, Canada and New York in

conceptualising the NQF, the matching outcomes-based education system, as well as, the eight new learning

areas (Monyokolo & Potenza, 1996:29). Bill Spady's model of OBE is quoted extensively in national and provincial

documents and he was consulted with regard to Curriculum 2005 (SA's version of OBE for formal schooling), on

two occasions at provincial level (October 1997 and August 1998, both of which I attended). However, I have not

come across an official document that clearly states that SA has adopted or adapted Spady's model.

27

OBET is SA's 'home-grown' (Potenza, 1998:52) version of a transformational approach to ET (Pahad, et al. 1998:

20) that treats subject matter as 'enabling outcomes' related to the 'performance roles' learners will play in the

future (Spady, et M. 1994:18). It is an outcomes driven approach as opposed to the traditional content driven

approach. An outcomes-based approach to ET has been chosen as it is believed that it will best serve the

transformation and integration of the education and training system in SA (DoE, 1997a:18). The 'T in OBET

emphasises an integrated approach to ET aimed at eliminating the artificial divide between theory and practice,

which subsumes all education and training under the concept of learning that develops knowledge, skills and

attitudes which may be vocational, technical and / or academic (Foks, 1998:130) and underpins the notion of a

national human resource strategy (DoE, 1995b:15).

3.4.1 Outcomes

Outcomes have been defined in chapter 1(1.6.1) and have to be clearly understood before one can understand

what OBET is about. However, the NQF differentiates between critical and specific outcomes.

3.4.1.1 Critical Crossfield Outcomes

The type of critical outcomes that SA has chosen manifest the broad vision of the kind of education that the nation

wants and the type of society that it envisages (Pahad et al. 1998a:8; compare Neill, 1997:36). Thus, the critical

crossfield and developmental outcomes (see below) that have been endorsed by SAQA are intend to ensure that

learners would be prepared to cope with the changed local and global demands and contribute to the development

of the individual and the Nation (Pahad et al. 1998a:1998:10). These outcomes are the general capabilities or

competencies that the NQF envisages to promote regardless of the learning field or content of learning and are

outlined below (DoE, 1997a:19-20).

'-' DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES

1. Reflecting on and exploring a variety of

strategies to learn more effectively.

2. Participating as responsible citizens in the life

of local and global communities.

3. Being aesthetically and culturally sensitive

across a range of social contexts

4. Exploring education and career opportunities

SEVEN CRITICAL CROSS-FIELD OUTCOMES

Identify and solve problems by using critical and creative thinking

Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group or community.

Organise and manage oneself and one's activities responsibly and effectiv e

Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information.

Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and 1 or language skills

in the modes of oral and 1 or written presentation.

Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility

towards the environment and health of others.

Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems

y recognising that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolatio

and

5. Developing entrepreneurial opportunities.

28

Clarke (1997:21) explains that these outcomes guide methodology in the learning situation but Spady, at the

seminar held on 8 August 1998, (see also Curriculum, Teaching and Development Unit (CTDU), 1998:5-7)

expressed the opinion that they are all embracing and as such should form the nucleus of our ET system. He

suggested that for convenience and easier understanding the twelve critical outcomes could be clustered as role

performance requirements and essential skills.

According to Spady (1998) role performance refers to what real people do in real-life with their learning and for

people who believe all learning is in the a text book, this is a radical idea. Because learners are prepared for life

and not just more schooling, they will need to demonstrate learning in real life context of the following outcomes: 1)

responsible self-management; 2) responsible civic action; 3) develop entrepreneur opportunities; and 4) exploring

education and career opportunities. Spady (1998) deliberates that almost all real-life performance roles require

complex applications of many kinds of knowledge and all kinds of competence as people confront the challenges

surrounding them in their social systems. These underlying abilities involve a high degree of generalisability and

are higher order competencies, which sit above content, that is above the specific nature of specific things. They

refer to general things that people can do and understand and that are essential to all learning areas. Hence the

term crossfield, which connotes abilities that are generic and transferable to all facets of life, which are: 1)

problem and data based decision-making; 2) effective learning; 3) effective communication.

Spady (1998) refers to the essential skills as 'thinking enablers' as they make life role applications happen and

these are the mental orientations that learners bring to whatever they do. These outcomes are: 1) effective

learning strategies 2) broad systems thinking 3) cultural and aesthetic sensitivity. Spady, (CTDU, 1998:6) stresses

that the above outcomes are not content dependent as they pertain to competencies, that is, they are things

people can do with content, regardless of what the content is. He is of the opinion that the nationally formulated

critical outcomes drive the ET process ( compare Miller, 1996:95) and if SA succeeds it will be unmatched in the

world, but he argues that in other countries where OBE is implement teachers design their own outcomes for their

schools (compare Jasa & Enger, 1994:32; Parkyn, 1994:36; Menem), 1994:44). Although, the process of

outcomes formulation was consultative and consensual in SA, the critical outcomes are predetermined and

teachers would find it difficult to 'develop a sense of ownership' (Spady, 1994:19) to outcomes designed by a

representative, yet small group of people. Hence, SA could end up doing CBO, that is, content bound objectives,

curriculum based outcomes, convention bound orientation and calendar based objectives and not OBE which, to

me signifies back to zero-base.

While I agree with Spady and feel challenged by the latitude that OBE permits teachers, it would be too demanding

considering teacher work ethics presently (see 4.2), to expect ABETPs to implement a sophisticated ET system

and still have them design their own outcomes for their particular learners. I believe that OBET will come of age

29

and ABETPs will, I hope, request for the above but first, they need to come to grips with the OBET system.

Moreover, I believe that the predetermined specific outcomes, which pertain to the learning areas and are

embedded in the unit standards will encourage a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning at ABET

centres and advance the idea of a National ABET curriculum.

3.4.1.2 Specific Outcomes (S0s)

Specific outcomes express intended results of a particular learning programme and reflect the exact skills and

understanding that need to be developed by the learner in a specific learning area (Anon, 1997:14; Pahad, et al.

1998:8). ABETPs will use SOs to determine the content or learning experiences, which are embedded in the unit

standards (Clark, 1997a:21; Van der Horst & Mcdonald, 1997a:49).

3.4.1.3 Unit standard (US)

Unit standards are nationally recognised (Briston, 1997:7) statements of outcomes and their associated

assessment criteria including administrative and other necessary data (Isaacs, 1996:28; compare Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997:72). USs are registered by SAQA at a defined NQF level and provides guidance to the learner

and ABETP on what outcomes are to be assessed and the assessment criteria (DoE, 1997a:22). Hence, a learner

would have to complete a specified combination of unit standards at an NQF level to receive a qualification (see

Figure 3.1). The purpose of a US is to guide the ABETP to prepare relevant learning programmes to assist the

learner reach the outcome (Clarke, 1997a: 21).

3.4.1.4 Learning Programmes

A group of unit standards combined to make a coherent ET programme is called a learning programme. It is a set

of plans for a course or a set of course modules through which learners can achieve learning outcomes

established in the unit standards. A set of alternative learning programmes may complement each other to cover

the specific outcomes needed by a learner to achieve a qualification (DoE, 1997a:19; Van der Horst & Mcdonald,

1997a:49). Presently, the unit standards for ABET are in the draft stage and has not yet been adopted by SAQA

(DoE, 1997a:21) as a pilot study is being conducted.

To put into practice the assumptions that underlie the OBET system (listed in 1.6.1) the key guiding principles,

discussed in the next section, must be "consistently, creatively simultaneously and systematically" (CTDU, 1998:6)

applied in the formulation, design, decision-making and delivery of an OBE curriculum (Spady, 1994:30).

30

3.5 THE PROCESS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF TRANSFORMATIONAL OBET

First, ABETPs must have a clear focus on agreed outcomes that are of importance to learners and that they

ultimately need to be able to do successfully (DoE, 1997c:15). Assessment criteria, which are also pre-determined

will assist ABETPs in ascertaining whether the outcomes have been achieved. However, ABETPs need to

communicate the learning outcomes and assessment criteria to learners so that they have a shared view of the

outcomes they are working towards and the relevance thereof (refer to 3.6; 4.7). It provides learners with a 'road

map to success" (Wlodkowski as quoted by Gravett, 1994:20) as they can anticipate the outcomes of their learning

and ensures that efforts of both, learners and ABETPs will focus towards achieving those outcomes (compare

Litwin as quoted in Gravett, 1994:20).

The next step is to 'develop the curriculum from the outcomes you want students to demonstrate, rather than

writing objectives for an existing curriculum' (Spady, 1998:6). Despite this °backward mapping strategy" (Spady, et

al. 1994:31) being more difficult than traditional curriculum texts, it gives learners and ABETPs a clear path to the

ultimate outcomes and ensures that the curriculum will focus on what it takes to get there.

With these outcomes as a guide a programme is constructed to provide expanded opportunity, support, and

guidance to all learners to achieve each outcome. Hence, each learner will have an equal opportunity for

continued learning and improvement and the emphasis is on student learning rather than on time (Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997a:21-22). Time must be used as a flexible resource in programming for OBET rather than a

constraint to learning (Killen, 1996:5). Because the learning rate and pace of learners differ among individuals,

timing and methods of instruction will need to cater for this difference. Some may argue that this implies dropping

of standards. Nevertheless, high challenging standards of performance must be set for all learners and each

learner should ultimately be expected to actualise those high levels. Faster learners may proceed to more

challenging tasks and do not have to be bogged down to the pace of others who need more time (Spady, et al.

1994:31). This has implications for the way in which learners are assessed and this will be discussed next

3.6 OBET AND ASSESSMENT

The ABET Policy document (DoE, 1997a:25) stresses that 'essential, ongoing instructional and formative

assessment to provide continuos feedback to learners had been overlooked in the past, hence assessment

practices in all their dimensions need to be a central component of educator training and teaching.' Good

assessment, according to the DoE (1998:3), cannot be conjured up at the end of a process of learning, but must

be integrated from the beginning and the scope of assessment practices includes diagnosis, guidance, motivation,

evaluation, prediction, grading, selection and standard maintaining. In OBET, assessment becomes not only a

31

final judgement but developmental in its intention thus, formative and summative modes of assessment are

important, unlike in the past when assessment was often regarded as synonymous with tests and examinations,

hence the stress on the summative mode of assessment (Clark, 1997b:23).

3.6.1 Core Principles of Assessment in OBET

3.6.1.1 A transparent and participative approach

OBET envisages a more transparent and participative approach to assessment. This implies that the

articulation of outcomes - what is it that learners must know and be able to do - should make explicit the

performance that is required of learners in an assessment situation (DoE, 1997a:25). OBET hopes to include

learners more closely in the assessment process by making the outcomes and assessment criteria explicit to them

at the onset. Moreover, they will be invited to suggest ways in which evidence of their competence might be

collected, and be part of the discussion of what constitutes evidence or how their efforts, both as an individual and

the group can be improved. It may well be argued that this is the goal of all good educational practice. Perhaps

the difference is that OBET intentionally makes the process more explicit, transparent and participative (DoE,

1998:4). Gordon (1998:393) describes the assessment process as one in which learners join the experts (e.g.

ABETPs) to examine, reflect and assess their products, processes and levels of understanding against the pre-

determined outcomes. The learning experience of this phase is connected to the ensuing learning experiences as

learners review what they have learned and what they need in order to proceed. They verbalise how they can

improve and address skills and knowledge they need to develop further as they move on to other challenges.

Notably, they also give considerations to the status and needs of their learning community. They address issues

that arose during the work and develop strategies for future work to improve the learning of their community.

Hence, assessment is suppose to furnish results that learners and ABETPs can use as part of a developmental

process to improve performance of learner (DoE, 1997a:25).

3.6.1.2 Criterion-referencing

In outcomes-based learning, a learner's progress is measured against agreed criteria, this implies that formal

assessment will employ criterion-referencing (DoE, 1998:7) as opposed to norm-referencing. The latter assumes

that some learners would excel, others would fail, while most will cluster around the 'average' mark (Parkyn,

1994:35). The emphasis is on how learners are ranked against one another rather than on what they 'know and

can do' (DoE, 1998:4). This shift from the traditional approach to assessment suggests that given the time and

flexibility, all learners can succeed and demonstrate specific achievements as they master concepts (Parkyn,

32

1994:34). Hence, assessment should focus on skills, knowledge and values that are relevant to the learning

outcomes and are appropriate to the needs of the learner. Also, methods, instruments and processes should

be fair and free of various forms of bias and discrimination, such as cultural values and language (DoE, 1997a:44).

3.6.1.3 Outcomes-based assessment

The ABET Policy (DoE, 1997a:44) also stipulates that assessment be based on learning outcomes, range

statements and assessment criteria stated in the USs. The definition of outcomes assumed by the DoE quotes

Spady (DoE, 1998:4; see 1.6.1), which affirms that outcomes are "high quality, culminating demonstrations of

significant learning context." The word demonstration indicates that an outcome is not a score or a grade, but the

°end product of a clearly defined process." However, outcomes of themselves do not guarantee quality although

they have the potential to deliver learning of high quality. To achieve this the involvement of stakeholders is

imperative in the development of standards and the "creation of the system of belief which is implied" (DoE,

1998:4).

3.6.1.4 Validity and Reliability

Assessment methods must be valid and reliable. Validity implies that it must accurately measure what it is

intended to measure, for example, an essay alone would not be an appropriate method of assessment for

measuring practical skills. Reliability implies that it has to produce similar results consistently, regardless of

assessor or context (DoE, 1997a:44; DoE, 1998:9).

3.6.2 Synopsis

In OBET, the emphasis is on the desired end results of each learning process. These desired results are called

the outcomes of learning and learners need to demonstrate that they have attained them (Potenza, 1998:52).

Learners will also be expected to apply their knowledge and skills in new and different contexts (DoE, 1997a:18).

They will, therefore, continuously be assessed to ascertain whether they are making any progress and the type of

support that they require (Clarke, 1997b:23). The focus will be on the instructive and learning processes that will

guide the learners to these end results. Practitioners are required to use the learning outcomes as a focus when

they make instructional decisions and plan their lessons (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a:7).

One wonders why a system which, "on its face, appears so sensible, proved to be so controversial" (O'Neil,

1994:9). The next section focuses on some of the issues raised by opponents and proponents of OBET, locally

and internationally. Various literature sources and media reports have been consulted to substantiate the debates.

33

Although the term OBET is particular to SA, OBET and OBE will be used interchangeably in the discussion that

follows.

3.7 CONTROVERSIES THAT SURROUND OBET

Spady (et al. 1994:31) exhorts that the principles, discussed in 3.5, can be applied in "incomplete or inappropriate

ways" and the probable conclusions that people reach is that OBE "doesn't work" or "helps only some students at

the expense of others." OBE has generated heated controversy since its introduction in schools both

internationally and locally (Van der Horst and Mcdonald, 1997a:16). In SA, OBET has been vociferously doomed

to failure by some and acclaimed as "a pathway to success" by others (Mahomed, 1998:4). Isaacs (quoted by

Briston, 1997:6) asserts that the NQF and OBET are 'social constructs and should be exposed to intellectual

scrutiny.' I agree and add that it should also be debated in every home, particularly staffrooms so that South

Africans venture into the new system the OBET way, critically, analytically and reflectively, so that we develop a

clear vision and understanding of what we want to achieve from our education system (compare de Wet & Jordaan

as quoted by Briston, 1997:27).

3.7.1 Language or terminology of OBET

Some people maintain that the language of innovation is too complex, diverse, shifting and confusing (Jansen,

1997:2). However, Mohamed (1998:9) argues that the shift in meanings of terminology in the policy-making

process should be considered a positive factor because it reveals the dynamic and flexible nature of the process.

With regard to the complex nature of OBET language, Killen (1996:1) reckons that teachers do not always make a

concerted effort to understand the concepts and underlying principles associated with OBE, secondly, he blames

those who explain the new ideas "through abstract jargon." On the other hand, it could be argued that the

terminology is indeed complex and should be made 'user-friendly.' Also, if high quality ET is to be realised,

practitioner development programmes (PDPs) must actively engage ABETPs in constructing an understanding of

the new concepts (Mohamed, 1998:9; see 4.4.2). Hence, I strongly believe that PDPs must be constructivistic,

ongoing, supportive and developmental learning experiences (see chapter 5).

3.7.2 OBET drops standards, hence, `dumbs the nation'

In my opinion, the claim that OBE creates success for all learners by lowering standards, thus "dumbing down" the

curriculum and narrowing the opportunities for more advanced students (Mulholland, 1997a:10; Wiggins quoted by

O'Neil, 1994:9) is not founded on facts as people base this on their own connotations of OBE (Briston, 1997:6). It

34

would be a gross mistake to conclude that this approach benefits only historically disadvantaged or low achieving

learners. Some proponents of OBE (Neill, 1997:36; Spady, et al. 1994:31) endorse the view that it allows students

with different ability groups and at different developmental stages to progress side by side. They claim that too

often, 'different' has meant 'lesser' but not so with OBE as high standards and expectations are set for all learners

but each learner is given an equal opportunity to attain the outcomes. Despite the difference in rate that

individuals learn, the outcomes that have to be attained are the same for all learners (see 3.5).

Ultimately, OBET seeks the emergence of analytical problem solvers with competence that meets the rigorous

requirements of the chosen field of work or profession, including generic skills at the appropriate levels of

qualification. This will ensure development of learners who will contribute to a stable democracy and growing

economy in our developing country. Thus, there is scope for intellectuals too (compare Briston, 1997:26; Pahad,

et al. 1998a:27-8).

Others dispute the above, alleging that the "new education system will produce confident illiterates" as OBET

permits learners to progress at their own pace and stresses self esteem at the expense of basic skills (Mulholland,

1997:10). I think this argument is superficial because positive self-esteem is essential for learners to participate in

learning activities and to assign meaning as it enables a learner to take risks and to explore. Moreover, a negative

self-esteem can inhibit learning (Canfield as quoted by Vrey, 1976:4). OBET does not negate the basics of

education, in fact, the practitioner nor learner is considered "done" (Spady, et al. 1994:29) until the learner can

confidently demonstrate the intended outcome (see 1.4.2). Thus, the focus is not only on the learner's knowledge

and ability to apply this knowledge but the confidence and motivation in carrying out the demonstration is also

deemed important (Neill, 1997:39). Hence, the stress on self-esteem which OBET brings to education has its

merits, particularly in the case of illiterate adults, who tend to feel 'incompetent and stupid' (Turner, 1997:31-2) and

`when we reflect on the battered self-worth of millions of South Africans in the past" (Mohamed, 1998:6) and the

subsequent need for redress.

OBET is also censured for stressing group work at the expense of individual initiative, therefore failing to

encourage habits of hard work in the learner (Mulholland, 1997:10). While I agree that these important habits

should be inculcated, group work does not only accrue gains in academic achievement but also promotes the

development of interpersonal and verbal skills and self-esteem in learners (Abrami, Chambers, Poulsen, De

Simone, Apollonia & Howden; 1995: 191-2). I believe that if group work is used efficiently it can promote a

supportive peer climate and be an effective way of engaging learners with meaningful learning tasks, hence,

enhances learning (Rogers, 1993:153). Moreover, group dynamics is necessary in the workplace and relevant in a

society that experienced a history of segregation and discrimination and that needs everyone to work together as a

team at nation building (compare Hofmeyer & Buckland, 1992:36). I, therefore, infer that the critical outcomes

35

highlight individual self-management and organisation, including teamwork.

3.7.3 The implementation plan of OBET is poorly conceived

It is claimed that OBET will not succeed because it is being introduced in an environment which has poor human,

material and physical resources (Jansen, 1997:14). This statement is well founded, but ironically, OBET

successes have been reported in the most under-resourced areas: in the rural area in District N5 (Anon, 1997:11)

and in an informal settlement in District S5, a school housed in a bus (Pretorius, 1998:16). Thus, I agree with

Mohamed (1998:11), who argues, 'will we ever reach a point when all the resources will be available?" However,

Dr Rensburg of the DoE, admitted to "the introduction of Curriculum 2005 suffering as a result of inadequate

teacher training" and funds have been allocated for re-training (Pretorius, 1998:16). I believe that it is not a case of

resources but of resourcefulness that can be engendered if practitioner development programmes (PDPs) facilitate

deep approaches to understanding OBET in ABETPs (compare Ramsden, 1992:40; chapter 5.). Because deep

approaches to learning elicit flexible and adaptive skills and 'an active search for meaning' (Entwistle & Entwistle

as quoted by Graven, 1995:4), re-training will not be necessary. Instead, I believe deep approaches to learning

will equip ABETPs with a finer understanding of OBET (compare Ramsden, 1992:40), thus enable them to "control

and clarify" (Ramsden, 1992:60) OBET in ABET practice, which in turn, will benefit their learners.

Jansen (1997:14) contends that 'introducing sophisticated curriculum innovations into under-prepared education

environments" will also 'breed a policy of cynicism among teachers." It is true that the new education system is

complex, but I do not believe that it is insurmountable (see 3.7.1) nor the cause of demotivation among teachers

as numerous reports have described them as uncommitted and even incompetent prior to the introduction of

OBET (Kobokoane, 1998:21; Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a:5; NEPI, 1993:19). Despite the DoE's efforts to

create a culture of learning and teaching acid services (COLTS), there is not much change in teachers' attitudes

(compare Reeves, 1998:11). I applaud Mr Mbeki's public chastisement of irresponsible teachers but wonder if it

will make an impact on them and agree that those who do not practice sound work ethics and lack accountability

should be expelled from among the ranks of the organisations (Anon., 1998d:1) and the teaching profession

(Anon., 1998c:20; see 4.2.2). Despite this quandary, practitioners are the main resource and the DoE must begin

to invest in them (DoE, 1995a:15) in terms of consistent, continuos and deliberate support and training. °Scattered

training" (Guskey, 1994:53) will not equip ABETPs to implement OBET fruitfully, and will "keep most teachers

frozen in virtually the same instructional patterns that they had before" the system.

It is instructional to remember that the OBET rationale is transformation on the premises of distributive justice,

equity, access and quality for the benefit of all South Africans (compare Mkhatshwa as quoted by Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997a). Adding to its credibility is that it has been successful in lower-middle class socio-economic

36

communities with limited English proficiency where it was introduced as an °empowering, participatory and non-

coercive" transformation process and was highly effective (Evens & King, 1994:13). South Africa relates well to

this social and ideological context

In conclusion, OBET proponents argue that OBET opponents have their own definitions of OBET (Spady, et al.:

1994:31) and say that it has failed in other countries, hence it will fail in SA, but they do not examine the social

context of our country, nor do they provide alternatives (Isaacs, as quoted by Briston, 1997:6; Mohamed, 1998:10).

However, criticisms should not go unheeded and some are well founded, for example, OBET terminology is

intimidating and it can be distorted in the implementation stage; and poor resources can be an inhibiting factor.

Thus, "teachers require extensive training and support" (Jamentz, 1994:44) in understanding and experiencing the

epistemology underlying OBET and the NQF (compare chapter 4 and 5), which is a policy framework that forms

the bedrock of the new curriculum.

3.8 THE NQF BUREAUCRACY

The NQF is designed in terms of learning outcomes and all learning focuses on the achievement of these

outcomes, which are embedded in the unit standards. ABET learners can 'cluster' unit standards (figure 3.1) in a

meaningful way according to the rules of combination and accumulate credits towards a qualification (Ries &

Johnstone, 1,3; Isaacs, 1996:39). In short, the NQF is a directory of all the qualifications available in SA which

comply with requirements set out by SAQA (Isaacs as quoted by Briston, 1997:7). The work of SAQA in

developing the NQF forms the basis upon which the OBET curriculum, programmes and qualifications for ABET

will be built How SAQA operates will be outlined below.

3.8.1 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)

An extensive infrastructure has been created to manage the NQF. The Ministers of Education and Labour

appointed the SAQA Board to supervise the development and implementation of the NQF including the registration

of national standards and qualifications (SAQA, 1995:2). It is instructional to note that SAQA and the NQF aim to

establish an integrated national framework to enable people to be formally assessed and credited for learning and

skills acquired through experience, on-site training or self education towards certificates that will facilitate access

to further ET (De Villiers, 1997:5).

One of the many structures that SAQA will oversee is the Standards Generating Bodies (SGBs). They will be

responsible for drafting unit standards in particular fields at particular levels and ensure, for example, that ABET

stakeholders will be involved in developing ABET unit standards (Briston, 1997:7). Another structure, the Ev\Ittfoncill

37

Mandnado Bodtzo (E3Bo) will facilitate the establishment and recognition of SGBs and ensure that they comply

with SAQA principles (Isaacs, 1996:36-7). CSC are also responsible to ensure that unit standards dose the gap

between knowledge and skills, and define requirements and mechanisms of moderation to be applied across

Educagon and! Treinfing Qualilky Assurer (EICIAz) (De Villiers, 1997:11). The ETPAs are accountable for

monitoring the quality of the ET provided by an organisation in every field of learning. They will review and audit

achievements in terms of the standards or qualifications; accredit education and training providers in terms of the

quality of their management; register assessors and evaluate assessment and confer certificates to learners. The

ETC/Az will collaborate with the SGBs and M8Bo in their proposals to SAQA (De Villiers, 1997:13; Ries &

Johnstone, n.d.:2-3). See figure 3.2.

3.9 HOW DOES ABET FIT INTO THE BIG PICTURE?

As mentioned (3.3.1), the NQF outlines how the whole of education and training system will be restructured to take

into account that learning occurs in formal institutions and also in other places. What must be learnt rather than

what must be taught is pivotal (Clarke, 1997:22). The NQF provides guidelines on the kind of learning that should

take place and how this learning will be assessed. Anyone who so wishes is enabled to learn on an ongoing basis

irrespective of their race, age or gender. For the first time in SA, ABET levels will be standardised and recognised,

hence the NQF will open vast opportunities for ABET learners (Ries & Jonhstone, n.d.:2-4; Miller, 1996:95). Next,

the implications of the NQF for ABET learners will be discussed in the context of a case study.

3.9.1 Implications of the NQF for ABET Learners: A case study

THE EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PRACTITIONER (ECDP)

Zoleka Mbata, known as Ma Zole, is a fifty two year old granny, who is an early childhood development practitioner (ECDP) and has a group of thirty, 4 to 6 year olds at her home-based ECD centre in an informal settlement. Her little

shack is over crowded; a few do not pay fees often and six do not pay at all, but she keeps them because she empathises with their dilemma. Her centre is known as a sanctuary for children in her community.

The children love her because she is warm, caring and she tells such wonderful stories. They enjoy their daily trips to the communal tap to fetch water because Ma Zole talks with the them about the things they see on the way. They take delight in measuring how many of their little buckets fill her big container that she alternates daily. She encourages self-expression and is a good listener.

On one of our visits, a trainer from an NGO and I explained to her that she qualified as a trainee on the Impilo Project, which aims at testing a long term vision for ECD and targets the neediest At first, she was reluctant She confided her anxiety and embarrassment to be found out by other trainees that she was illiterate but was soon persuaded when she was assured of support, guidance and that the courses would be conducted in the vernacular.

After four group debriefing sessions on the pilot the pre-assessment was conducted by the trainer. Ma Zole is receptive „sr} and excited to commence the training. Six months hence, she is actively involved and eagerly implements what she

leams. She is very grateful for being on the course and is excited to become literate as she wants a certificate that "says I am a practitioner."

38

The above case study depicts the plight of many ECDPs that I have the honour of interacting with. Despite the

impediment of illiteracy, they provide safe and stimulating learning environments for the children of their

communities. They function on the principles of tender loving care and are extremely keen to learn. Many have

acquired their skills through experience and some informal training through NGOs. The training focuses on the

practical aspects and is done in the vernacular, but I fail to understand the reason that these NGOs did not

introduce the ECDPs to adult basic education and include a financial management component as it would have

empowered ECDPs to manage their centres more efficiently and effectively. All NGOs award certificates on

completion of the courses but in the past, very few were nationally recognised by an accreditation body, thus

ECDPs were not accredited and could not enrol at colleges. Many are reluctant to receive further training as it is a

duplication of what they were taught and already know and do with their children. This implies that their prior

learning and experience gained through practice was not recognised. The NQF promises to eliminate the above

concerns and empower people like Ma Zole towards further education and training.

3.9.2 Principles of the NQF

Principles of the NQF will be discussed in the context of Ma Zole's predicament to demonstrate the benefits of the

NQF to people who did not have access to education for some reason or other.

3.9.2.1 An Integrated Education and Training System

The NQF aims to create an integrated ET system to promote a process of lifelong learning. This implies that Ma

Zole is allowed to move from the lowest level of the system to the highest (Anon, 1997:10). The NQF aims to

integrate the education and training system into a coherent framework comprising of the general - (GET); further -

(FET) and higher education and training (HET) bands. Ma Zole can earn her GET certificate by enrolling at an

ABETC in ABET sub-levels one to four, which constitutes the first NQF level. These levels articulate with formal

schooling and because outcomes are the same, enable an adult and a child to enter an institution of further

learning with both having acquired the same basic knowledge, albeit via separate routes. To illustrate, Ma Zole

would need credits at NQF levels 2 to 4 in order to achieve the FET certificate and some credits at level 5 in order

to qualify for a certificate for an ECDP (refer to figure 3.1), and can enrol at a technikon, technical or teachers

training college or an NGO. A discussion document exists on the development of a qualifications framework that

will provide access and recognition of an ECDP within the NQF. Proposals on the credits required, division of

these credits and the learning areas that constitute the fundamental, core and elective learning are included (IAC,

1997:1,5,17; compare Miler, 1996:95).

Learning areas that could be included at NQF level 1 in Ma Zole's case could be Communication and Language

39

Studies field and Mathematics and Numeracy sub-field, but for NQF levels 2-4, the electives could be Accounting

and Business Management sub-fields as she owns the ECD centre and would require those skills for effective

management. Core knowledge will include courses relevant to ECD However, to meet the NQF requirements the

rule of combination must be adhered to (DoE, 1996:36; IAC, 1997:19; compare Ries & Jonhstone, n.d.:2-4).

3.9.2.2 Credibility and Coherence

The NQF is flexible in terms of career pathways, this implies that Ma Zole can enrol at any institution that offers the

Accounting sub-field as she will be accredited against the internationally comparable National standards (compare

Anon, 1997:13). Learners will receive recognition for their learning irrespective of where it takes place through

formal or informal learning situations (Briston, 1997:7; Miller, 1996:95).

3.9.2.3 Recognition of Prior Learning

For adult learners the recognition of prior learning (RPL) is an invaluable feature of the NQF. RPL refers to the

recognition for accreditation of skills and knowledge that adults have gained through formal training, work and/or

life experiences (DoE, 1997a:25). Hence, the NQF will open doors to learning for those who have been historically

denied access to education. The skills that Ma Zole has acquired through experience to stimulate and develop

children effectively and manage the ECD centre will be recognised (compare Anon, 1997:13; Ries & Johnstone,

n.d.:4) according to the National norms and standards set for ECDPs.

3.9.2.4 Equality of Opportunity

Ma Zole will be allowed to work at her own pace and will be assessed when she is ready. Hence, flexibility in

terms of time will not bind her to a rigid time-frame in which to complete her diploma for an ECDP (Anon, 1997:13;

see 3.5; 3.7.2).

3.9.2.5 Portability

Should Ma Zole desire a change in career paths the principle of portability will apply (Miller, 1996:95; Ries &

Johnstone, n.d.:3). The integrated approach to ET enables learners to move through the different levels by

accumulating appropriate combinations of credits to gain a qualification which can be transferred from one learning

context or place of learning to another without restrictions from any starting point in the ET system (DoE,

1995a:15). If she wants to manufacture school uniforms instead, and has obtained a GETC, it will form the bases

for lifelong learning and enables her to qualify for entry to additional education and training (De Villiers, 1997:5).

40

She may use the acquired credits to build a qualification towards the newly chosen career. This implies that

learners in the industry will not be bogged down with company oriented training acquired at a workplace (see

2.2.3). Nor will learners be subjected to a school based curriculum as the NQF is learner centred and stresses

relevance. They will be assessed in a number of different ways including the written and oral form, but also on

practical work (Clark, 1997a:21). Thus, the NQF can be described as an empowering instrument that opens doors

to ET for all learners (Ries & Jonhstone, n.d.:1-3).

3.9.2.6 A Résumé

The NQF will bring about transformation in ABET (De Villiers, 1997:2) provided ABET stakeholders, especially

ABETPs, acquaint themselves with the objectives and principles underlying the NQF and OBET (compare

Jamentz, 1994:44). ABET stakeholders are key to the process of generating standards and ABETPs can play a

major role (see 3.8.1) in planning and co-ordinating standards and qualifications at levels and areas that have

relevance to the lives of their learners (see 3.3.5). Flexibility underpins the NQF, thus, it is not prescriptive

permitting practitioners to programme to meet the needs of their learners and communities (De Villiers, 1997:4).

Below is an example of what ABETPs can do to achieve this.

3.10 AN EXAMPLE OF THE INTEGRATING NATURE OF THE NQF

Kromdraai, which is located in District N5, is in the process of being awarded a license for a Casino. This brings

about a host of job opportunities. ABET centres, in conjunction with the technical colleges and agricultural school

(the Bekker Schools) that are located in District North 5 (where I am appointed as an official) could develop the

hospitality industry, personnel and business management or technology learning programmes (compare Van der

Horst & Mcdonald, 1997a:49), based on the registered standards and qualifications for those industries (Eberlein

as quoted in Briston, 1997:8). The notion of Education with Production could be invested in this project as well.

In order to facilitate the learning of adult learners, ABETP could write outcomes for short courses in the above

mentioned fields to count as credits towards a qualification in these fields, but they would have to be registered

with SAQA (see 3.8.1). This is empowerment and a means to break free from the poverty cycle as Kromdraai is a

rural community where subsistence is marginal. It will prepare the community for opportunities in their

environment. This could be considered a strategy to curb the creation or influx of informal settlements on the

periphery of urban areas, where people squat with the prospects of job opportunities in the cities.

Cognisance must be taken of organised labour's lament during the inception of the NQF to providers of education

and training, ". . you must provide what we need, not what you want" (Briston, 1997:10). This highlights a

41

"demand-led system" as opposed to one that is induced by a "supply-driven" model of ET (Eberlein as quoted by

Briston: 10). It means that we need to interpret the ABET curriculum and develop ET methods that that do justice

to our learners. In fact, the NQF and the OBET system affords ABETPs the professional status (Van der Horst &

McDonald, 1997b:25; compare Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:332) to develop individuals who will impact on the social

and economic growth of our country BUT thorough understanding of both, the NQF and OBET is imperative for

practitioners to apply it in ABET practice (compare Jamentz, 1994:55).

3.11 CONCLUSION

This chapter focused first on the need for a change in the curriculum. Next the OBET system was explored and

the critical and specific outcomes were outlined. Controversies around OBET were reviewed in order to suggest

ways in which some of the barriers that would prevent a finer understanding of OBET in ABET practice. The link

between OBET and the NQF, and how ABET fits into the picture and the implications thereof for ABET learners

and practitioners was also investigated.

In conclusion, I argue that OBET can succeed if, education can be on everyone's agenda. Particularly, the foot

soldiers, that is the ABETPs, should take ownership of OBET and the ideals underpinning it so that they have a

dear vision of what they want to achieve. Innovative educators, locally and abroad, have shown that it can be

done successfully, but it requires rigorous training and support (Brandt, 1994:5; Pretorius, 1998:16; Anon,

1997:11). Astute research and thoughtful implementation of OBET are imperative on the part of the DoE and

practitioners (compare 4.4).

King (Cooks, 1997:8) admits that there are "bound to be muddles when dealing with something as complicated as

this (OBET)," but adds, '100 years could be spend on planning and preparing' and "quick movement into the new

system needs to be balanced against the cost of leaving things as they are" (compare Mohamed, 1998:14).

However, world experience has it that it takes twenty years to make the major shifts in ET that SA envisages

(Briston, 1997:11). My fear is that the political rush to impress voters of delivery is going to create chaos (compare

Kramer as quoted by Cooks, 1997:11). This implies that more time is needed to prepare the practitioners

thoroughly before implementing OBET (see 4.4). The proverbial saying, haste makes waste comes to mind

because there is already talk of 'retraining owing inadequate teacher training and new budget allocation'

(Pretorius, 1998:16), which could have been used for further training or resources. Are we going to be picking up

the debris of the failure of a potentially good system ten years hence, simply because the implementation period

was one big scramble to beat the election deadline of 1999? I believe that it is not the OBET system and all its

complexities (see 3.7) that will 'breed cynicism in teachers' (Jansen, 1997:14) and nip COLTS right in the bud, but

the quality of the practitioner development programmes that are offered to ABETPs.

42

Phobia for the unknown breeds a multitude of other negative elements that is detrimental to the quality of teaching

and learning (DoE, 1997c:7). Commitment to teaching and learning can only evolve out of the development of

skills and understanding of OBET. This change in attitude is essential for successful implementation, hence, the

dire need for practitioner training and support (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a:16). But, what must the ABETPs

exactly know and be able to do to implement OBET successfully in the ABET learning situation?

Chapter four focuses on some of the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that practitioners will need to acquire

in order to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice.

43

CHAPTER 4

IMPLICATIONS OF OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OBET) FOR ABET

PRACTITIONERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will focus on some of the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that practitioners will need to

acquire in order to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice. It will not be possible to outline everything that

ABETPs ought to know and able to do to implement OBET successfully thus, I will only highlight aspects that I

consider imperative for ABETPs to approach their teaching creatively and reflectively.

As mentioned in chapter 3 (3.7), media reports and literature sources claim that OBET is controversial and can fail

for various reasons. I have argued that practitioners are key to ultimate educational transformation (see 3.9), and

that the successful implementation of a curriculum based on the OBET tenets rests on preparing practitioners

adequately to meet this challenge (refer to 3.8.3; 3.9; 3.10). I will firstly discuss the mindshift that ABETPs need to

undergo so that they can construct a deep understanding of the epistemological underpinning of OBET in order to

avoid the use of formulas and recipes prescribed by an 'expert.' That is, for ABETPs to implement the knowledge,

skills and values associated with OBET in a reflective way they need to experience the principles underlying

OBET. This will be followed by an overview of the type of understanding that ABETPs should have of outcomes,

assessment procedures, and the notion of learner-centredness in the context of OBET for effective and reflective

practice.

4.2 A SHIFT IN PARADIGMS

From the discussions in chapter 3, it is apparent that the challenges that OBET engenders deviates dramatically

from established expectation patterns of the education system. According to Salisbury and Conner (1994:12),

large-scale change efforts result in disorientation and emotional disequilibrium, which can produce disabling

consequences for both individuals and organisations. This implies that existing ways of thinking have an

overbearing tendency to cloud our vision of the benefits of the new as it threatens our comfort zone (DoE,

1997c:6). Thus, ABETPs need to be supported and guided in developing behaviours and attitudes leading to the

transformation of the education system (see 5.3). If ABETPs can experience that OBET does for learners what it

is proposed to do (compare 5.2), that is, guarantees success and higher order thinking it will facilitate an

acceptance of the OBET philosophy. This, in turn, will prepare them for a shift in their 'total frame of reference' of

44

how they perceive learning and the way it is currently organised in ABET (compare Khun, 1973:8). However, a

change in paradigm does not mean throwing the baby out with the bath water. In the past, there were good

practitioners and progressive teaching within institutions that ensured that their learners were developed with

adequate knowledge and skills and the appropriate attitudes (Isaac as in quoted in Briston, 1997:4; Pahad, et al.

1998:24; Van der Horst & Mcdonald, 1997b). Nevertheless, I argue that good practitioners under the old system

can become better without the constraints (Holland, 1997:268) in the new system.

However, there are also other negative paradigms that currently co-exist and need to be transformed concurrently

(Banks & Lynch, 1986:10). These are related to the approach to learning and teaching, work ethics among

practitioners (Sylvester, 1998:2) and the way that PD is conducted (NEPI, 1993:14; see chapter 5). What has to

occur is that the OBET paradigm has to become dominant and replace the old paradigm, something akin to 'a

scientific revolution" (Kuhn, 1973:10), so that ABETPs and trainers transform their outlook to ET. This notion was

endorsed in Thabo Mbeki's recent address to a teacher organisation when he appealed to teachers to align

themselves with the "revolutionary challenge of the education of our youth and masses" (Anon., 1998e:25). As

'revolutionaries' or "change agents" (Mkhatshwa as quoted by Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a) their role in the

transformation of education is crucial (compare Gravett, 1993:106).

4.2.1 A paradigm shift in the approach to learning and teaching

I agree with Mkhatshwa (as quoted by Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997a) that "it is what teachers know, what they

think, believe, value and do at the level of the classroom that will ultimately shape the learning our learners are

exposed to." Thus, successful implementation of OBET demands practitioners to view and interpret teaching and

learning from a different perspective, which implies a paradigm shift from a rigid and traditional approach to the

flexible OBET system (Killen, 1996:15). I believe that ABETPs must be subjected to a constructivistic learning

experience (see 5.2.4) as the mere transmission of knowledge about OBET will not guarantee this shift. It is vital

that ABETPs experience OBET. This implies leading ABETPs towards an understanding of the epistemology

underlying OBET in an outcomes-based mode. Consequently, PDPs must be structured to actively engage

ABETPs in programmes that will promote their understanding and enable them to give meaning to the concepts

and underlying principles of OBET. This is illustrated in chapter 5, but first, the difference between OBET and the

traditional approach to teaching and learning will be sketched to realise the shift that ABETPs need to experience.

OBET is a comprehensive system of focusing, designing and organising all aspects of an instructional and

credentialing system in terms of outcomes where learning is the constant and time the variable (see 3.5). It also

entails the creation of learning contexts that meet the individual's learning rate and needs, and constantly

facilitates successful learning and progress as opposed to failure (see 3.7.1; 4.3.3). According to OBET,

45

programming is not done from prescribed curriculum texts, instead, practitioners do backward mapping which

implies that they begin with outcomes related to the role performance learners will play in future and they work

their way backwards to build the curriculum (see 3.5). Thus, ABETPs will need to focus on a shift from teacher

inputs, syllabus expressed in terms of content, to learner outputs, outcomes that the learner must achieve (DoE,

1997c: 6).

Conversely, the traditional approach to education is often criticised as being a time-bound, a content laden

syllabus" (Pahad, et al. 1998:25) where "teachers teach, learners learn" (Simpson, 1997:16) and learners' recall is

only assessed (Marzona, 1994:44). Thus, much 'academic learning has no link with real-world challenges and

opportunities learners face' (Ramsden, 1992:39;60). Parkyn (1994:35) claims that OBET generates intense

controversy because it is so different from what people were used to (see 3.8). While I concur with Parkyn and am

aware that the transition from the traditional approach to education to the OBET system will not be easy, I believe

that if all teachers changed their attitudes about their work and approach teaching as a calling that demands

commitment, dedication and tenacity, SA can experience an educational renaissance (Ramogale, 1997:11).

4.2.2 A Paradigm Shift in Practitioner Work Ethic

A significant section of the teaching force is described as lacking competency, commitment, discipline (compare

Kobokoane, 1998:21; Nepi, 1993:14; Rees, 1996:18; Essop, 1996:16) and even 'not deserving employment in our

education system' owing to unethical behaviour, such as contravening rules of punctuality, regularity, and sobriety,

inadequate preparedness and incompetent presentations of unsuitable lessons (as discussed in 1.2; compare

Anon, 1998a:20; Rohan, 1997:4). Thabo Mbeki's highly publicised speech confirms that the situation prevails

albeit, more prominently in certain sectors than in others (Anon., 1998e:25).

I strongly believe that unless the 'linchpins' of the educational endeavour, that is, practitioners, are disciplined and

motivated to dislodge themselves from their apathy and lethargy, any attempt from the Government to bring about

an educational renaissance will not succeed. For example, the success of the COLTS campaign does not depend

solely on its inherent logic, but also on the attitudes of the people who are expected to drive it. In the final analysis

the success of any educational process depends on the soundness of the ideas that teachers and learners bring to

bear on it. Thus, I argue that the greatest impediment to educational renewal in SA is attitudinal. Consequently,

any educational renewal strategy must place strong emphasis on the transformation of attitudes. This implies that

commitment, dedication, a love for teaching and self-development pertinent to the field of work should be

inculcated in ABETPs, and I believe that this can be achieved through ongoing, rigorous PDPs that are

underpinned by constructivistic learning experiences (see chapter 5). ABETPs also need to be motivated to take

responsibility for their own learning, which in turn would nurture the idea of life long learning. I am also of the

46

opinion that ongoing PDPs that guide and support them to plan and deliver learning programmes, relevant to the

needs and experiential world of the learner so that both, learning and teaching is not a drudgery, can have an

offshoot in promoting a professional teaching ethic at ABETCs. The kind of PDPs that I envisage could lead to

teacher renewal, promote classroom research and reflection and allow ABETPs to develop as professionals,

hence, eliminate complacency and moral bankruptcy that have developed among certain ABETPs. However, if

they are not given a reason to make a personal investment in development and knowledge about OBET, they

simply will not. Moreover, they can digress to what they were used to. This implies that many ABETPs will wait to

be spoon-fed like they were in the past, and follow plans of work and workbooks for learners from cover to cover,

which they were supplied making hardly any personal impact on the teaching nor the learner (compare Van der

Horst & McDonald, 1997b:25).

Furthermore, adult learners have the right to learn and be taught by qualified practitioners with professional work

ethic. If the laws of sobriety, attendance and punctuality are contravened it should not be tolerated. Thus,

principals at AETCs should begin to exercise the power invested in them by the Employment Educators' Act and

begin to recommend dismissal of those ABETPs who are guilty of such misconduct (compare Ramogale,

1997:11). It is also time that adult learners demand their right to quality education in accordance with the principle

of Education for All (see 2.7.3) and not endure unethical behaviour of undisciplined ABETPs.

In essence, ET leaders would need to review their role and their environment to determine how they can launch

ABET in to the 21st Century. The days are gone when they existed in isolation and did the bare minimum for their

learners (Holland, 1997:267). For so long have teachers been told what to teach that they may experience

difficulty in getting a grip of the freedom and flexibility that OBET allows (compare Eberlein as quoted by Briston,

1997:10). No more will a teacher be expected to implement a prescribed curriculum as democracy endows this

wonderful opportunity to participate in curriculum formulation (see 3.6).

Perseverance and diligence is demanded from practitioners, but hard work has to be rewarded as it enhances

teacher work ethics and serves as an incentive to others (Njobe, Sangar & Gallie, 1997:7; Holland, 1997:268).

4.2.3 A Shift in Teacher Appraisal System

An envisaged system for rewarding teachers, who put special effort into teaching and educational transformation,

is termed Performance Related Pay (PRP) but is still under discussion. Teacher organisations debate that

development precedes evaluation, which the State is obligated to fulfil (Njobe, et al. 1997:6), particularly in terms

of the new curriculum (Nxesi, 1996:35), hence the delay. ABETPs cannot wait for this system to eventuate. If we

are to become a learning nation they will also have to subscribe to the principles of lifelong learning (compare

47

Wineburg & Grossman, 1998: 353 & Briston, 1997:8). Practitioners must become self-directed learners and take

responsibility for their own learning and performance in the teaching and learning situation (Rees, 1996:18). They

need to make a personal investment and must be prepared to invest time and money towards self-development

(compare Isaac; Eberlein as quoted in Briston, 1997:6,10).

Eberlein (in Briston, 1997:11) argues that teachers should be assessed on effectiveness and efficiency. If

acknowledgement of hardworking ABETPs can be an incentive to make others better (Holland, 1997:268)

legislature should create a boost, not only in pay, but prestige for ABETPs who help learners to soar through

appropriate performance and delivery (Nxesi, 1996:35). Conversely, punitive measures should be in place for the

uncommitted such as, public exposure or dismissal (Anon, 1998:20; Holland, 1997:266-7). This will ensure quality

ET as it will serve as an incentive towards self-development in the appropriate direction and end the futile paper

chase: studying soft or irrelevant courses to obtain a qualification (compare Rees, 1996:18). Hence, not only will

knowledge be rewarded but also the application of the knowledge in increasing learner performance. ABETPs will

assume accountability for learner performance (Holland, 1997:267), which in turn will reflect on teacher

performance. On the other hand, if jobs depended on performance it may shift the focus on raising test scores

rather than teaching aimed at addressing individual learner needs (Jones & Whitford, 1997:277).

Legislature can enhance practitioner development concomitantly work ethics by introducing incentives like paid

days for PDPs where ABETPs are released once a month or engage in summer retreats to learn new things or

refine their understanding of Er aspects (Holland, 1997:266, see 5.2.3). Many practitioners would like this idea

started on a national level (Smith, 1998:5) as in America (Wineburg & Grossman, 1997: 351; Gordon, 1998:392).

However, Wineburg and Grossman (1997:353) warn that practitioner network (see 5.2.4) is a simple yet radical

idea and it requires courage to allow teachers the time and space to come together to work on common needs and

interest in a community of peers. The 'professional renewal' that the network strategy has yielded among our

overseas counterparts is crucial to "restore a sense of professionalism and responsibility to all our (SA) teachers"

(Rees, 1996:18) but one wonders if the DoE have the courage and will (see 5.2.3).

The above section focused on the need for change in practitioners' attitudes towards the approach to learning and

teaching and work ethics, which can be augmented by a shift in the way which the DoE conceives the teacher

appraisal system. The discussion that follows focuses on the knowledge and skills, which in my opinion are

imperative for ABETPs to construct in order to implement OBET successfully in ABET practice. However, I

strongly believe that for ABETPs to approach teaching and learning creatively, reflectively, and effectively they

need to experience principles and concepts underlying OBET in a constructivistic mode.

48

4.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM

I consider the quality of interactions between teacher and learner to be at the heart of student learning. A good

deal of theory, research, documented practice suggests that thinking and learning are enhanced in constructivistic

classrooms (see 5.3.4), in which practitioners know their learners well and have the expertise to diversify

instruction to meet learner needs, to accommodate learner interests, to offer appropriate learner choice in

curricular decisions, to encourage social interaction and collaborations, and to foster problem solving and inquiry

(Jones & Whiford, 1997:279). It follows that if ABETPs experience their learning in a constructivistic mode it will

empower them to transform their classrooms into constructivistic environments.

Jansen (1997:14) is correct in saying that 'a teacher will have to grapple with many diverse concepts to make

sense of OBE' but learning is a complex process (Guskey, 1994:51) and practitioners need to be actively involved

in constructing understanding of the new concepts (Mohamed, 1998:9). This implies a conceptual change, which

is a qualitative change in the way that ABETPs understand, interpret or experience OBET. From a constructivistic

view, learners' (in this case, ABETPs) existing conceptions serve as an interpretative framework for constructing

an understanding of OBET and its underlying principles and concepts. When learners (ABETPs) can connect new

information to their existing conceptual framework and they can construct new, meaningful interconnections so

that their existing conceptions are transformed, than conceptual change occurs (Graven, 1995:2-9; see also 5.3.4).

Principles underlying OBET is pivotal in interpreting OBET in ABET practice and have been highlighted in various

sections of this study (outlined in 1.6.1; discussed in 3.5 and contextualised in 4.3.2 and 4.3.3). The next section

will focus on the construction of understanding outcomes; assessment procedures and learner-centredness, which

I consider the essence of OBET.

4.3.1 Constructing Understanding of Outcomes

To understand what OBET entails ABETPs have to have a thorough understand of what outcomes are. However,

learners are not passive recipients of knowledge as they construct their knowledge in the light of their existing

knowledge and interaction with the world around them (Gravett, 1995:2). Thus, to begin with what ABETPs ought

to know to be able to implement OBET, 'experts' (see 5.3.1) should help practitioners to understand outcomes by

beginning with their existing knowledge of terms such as aims and objectives. ABETPs know that despite their

difference in specificity, they are statements of intent of some educational process. (compare Gravett, 1995:2,7).

Therefore, rather than using abstract jargon to explain the new concepts (see 3.8.1) experts need to guide

ABETPs' activities in a dialogic-co-operative instructional process enabling learners the opportunity to grapple with

understanding (Gordon, 1998:393) and cohesion between outcomes and associated assessment criteria (see also

5.2.4).

49

4.3.2 Constructing an understanding of Assessment

OBET assessment procedures form an integral part of planning and as such is not something that practitioners

conjure up at the end of a unit of work (Jones & Whitford, 1997:277). Assessment is pivotal in determining

whether or not learners have achieved each outcome and to what level these outcomes are demonstrated. The

old mode is said to narrow the curriculum and diminish validity of the information gathered about learners (Guskey,

1994:51) hence, summative, diagnostic and formative assessment is espoused to provide consistent and ongoing

feedback to learners (Neill, 1997:40). Based on the importance of assessment to determine learner achievement

and progress, practitioners need a thorough understanding of assessment procedures.

To determine a holistic account of learner performance ABETPs need to integrate a range of assessments

activities that allow learners multiple ways to demonstrate their learning (Clark, 1997b:23). During workshops,

examples and analogies must be provided of structured and spontaneous observation; formal and informal

interviews; collection of work samples; demonstrations; use of extended projects; performance examinations; and

various forms of short answer testing, and how these are recorded and filed (Guskey, 1994:51; Neill, 1997:35,

Marzano, 1994:4; Rothman, 1997:275).

Practitioners need to understand that the evidence of learning can be kept in portfolios, which in turn can be used

by individual learners and ABETPs to reflect on and evaluate learner progress. This enables learners to be

evaluated in the light of their own goals and previous attainment thus, help them to understand and further learning

(Neill, 1997: 35 & Crooks, 1988:28). As such, standards for a learner's learning emerge from their own work not

just from external sources. Even though assessments are made against set standards, it is done on an individual

basis permitting each learner sufficient time and multiple ways to demonstrate understanding (Gordon, 1998:393).

It becomes critical for ABETPs to communicate assessment agendas to learners (Crooks, 1988: 24) and present

'rubrics used to score the task' prior to the task (Marzano, 1994:46). Feedback has to be immediate, specific and

developmental to promote self-directed learning (Neill, 1997:35 & Jones & Whitford, 1997: 280).

Research indicates that assessment and teaching are 'seamless.' What we teach and how we teach is

determined by the way in which we assess learners. This suggests that learners' perceptions of assessment

procedures impact on their approach to learning, if handled prudently and accountably, assessment can be used

as a positive force to improve teaching practice and inculcate deep approaches to learning in adult learners. Thus,

learner achievement is not the only focus. At the heart of assessment is a continuing flow in which ABETPs, in

collaboration with learners, use information to guide the next step to learning. (Guskey, 1994:51; Ramsden,

1992:63-5; Elliot, 1996:24; Neill, 1997:36; Gordon, 1998:393).

50

Without valid and reliable assessment procedures the ABETP will not know whether or not the learners have

achieved the outcomes that were the focus of the programme, nor will the learner (Guskey, 1994:51). Because

adult learners have diverse needs, interest and backgrounds, the ability to assess all learners fairly, accurately

and comprehensively becomes a thorny issue. Also, the more open-ended and performance-based assessment

is, the more variety in responses and the more judgement is needed in scoring, hence the lower the reliability

(Neill, 1997:4.0; Jones & Whitford, 1997:278). It needs more than that ABETPs be unbiased, they must understand

their learners and the learning records noted above can give them potent insights in each learner's learning

processes and style of learning (Neill, 1997:36). Thus, it is imperative that PDPs provide opportunities to

practitioners to develop an appropriate system for recording the progress of individual learners and guidelines and

criteria for the different modes (Jones & Whitford, 1997:278).

These assessment practices are not common, substantial PD and restructuring of organisation practices are

needed if this kind of assessment is to flourish (Rothman, 1997:273). If PDPs reflect that OBET assessment

permits learners to 'accept confusion, patience, honest attempts and wrong outcomes as important elements of

learning' (Udall & Rugen, 1997:406; compare Gravett, 1995:12) ABETPs will grasp the emphasis that is placed on

continuous and formative assessment in OBET (Pahad, at al. 1998:28), and enable learners to learn from their

successes and failures, and carry these lessons with them to their future work. The emphasis is in ABETPs

experiencing this process in order that they may be able to practice the skill in their classrooms (see 5.3).

However, all learners do not learn equally well from the same experiences (see 3.5), thus ABETPs must consider

alternative methods and experiences to meet the needs of individual learners. OBET programming requires

ABETPs to reflect constantly on content, methods and assessments, and how they can be integrated to influence

to meet individual needs (Killen, 1996:9). Equally important, account should be taken of the need for ABET

learners to have access to and cope with the demands of continuing and further education. Therefore,

programmes must have the flexibility and potential to provide the foundation and core concepts that learners need

for their future education and training (DoE, 1997a:19; compare Gordon, 1998:390-3).

OBET emphasises looking at learning from the learners' perspective, hence ABET centres need to be transformed

into places where ABET learners do the things that make sense to them (McAdoo: 1998:366). It becomes

imperative for learners to be consulted for their inputs in the programme and assessment procedures (Crooks,

1988:24; Neill, 1997:36).

4.3.3 Learner-centredness

A learner centred philosophy is reflected in OBE's two formal purposes that is, ensuring that all learners are

equipped with knowledge, skills and qualities they need to be successful in real-life; and structuring and operating

51

the learning sites so that all learners can achieve those outcomes (see 1.6.1). Refinement of skills and knowledge

of ABETPs in all facets of the OBET system, need to be considered for systematic and systemic individual and

organisational transformation (see 5.2.3; compare Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:333).

OBET demands that learners are given equal opportunities to succeed, thus the knowledge, skills, preconceptions,

interests and anxieties that learners bring with them to the teaching situation must be considered (Marzono,

1994:44; Dickenson, 1997:20). ABETPs have to take cognisance of the enriched experiences and expertise,

specific learning needs and developmental levels, and other factors that influence the rate at which ABET learners

can learn (see 3.5). Learner-centredness implies that practitioners will plan programmes that will reflect and

comply with these needs to ensure learning success for all learners (compare Gravett, 1994:1, 24; Killen, 1996:7).

Because all learners do not learn at the same rate a clean break will have to be made from the time and subject

dominated programmes, where time is divided into periods and allocated to each subject area (Holland, 1997:267).

ABETPs would have to reconceptualise and restructure their programmes in a way that learning is not time bound

and that a learning experience is only over when learners have achieved something meaningful (Killen, 1996:4). It

follows logically that the current time frames (see 1.2; compare 3.5) at ABET centres will need to be constructively

structured in integrating learning areas in a way that enables learners to perceive it as integral towards their

preparation for lifelong learning. It is inconceivable to teach numeracy in isolation as a certain literacy is key to

understanding mathematics concepts. Nor can teaching and learning of literacy be isolated from life experiences

as one cannot listen, speak, read or write in a vacuum, thus, teaching and learning of literacy has to be about

something (Bhola, 1989:485; compare Ramsden, 1992:40). This permits ABETPs flexibility to select content that

is useful to the learners; provide learning experiences that will enable learners to successfully achieve each

specific outcome and adopt meaningful assessment procedures that will inform both, the learner and the

practitioner, at what level of competency can a particular learner demonstrate these outcomes (Gordan,

1998:397).

All learners do no learn at the same rate and can be grouped according to their learning stages, but these

groupings must be flexible allowing learners to move according to the progress in their level of understanding

(Killen, 1996:10). Thus, classrooms must be restructured so that learners are given meaningful context for

interdependent work throughout the learning cycle (Gordan, 1998:396). However, those who have achieved all the

required outcomes in a focus area should be allowed to proceed to other aspects in which they have not achieved

all the outcomes or they can be given enrichment activities (Slavin in Evans & King, 1994:14). Notably, faster

learners gain proficiency by having to explain lessons to someone else (Holland, 1997:268). Also, learners are

encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning and continued support from the ABETP becomes

contingent upon the learners' acceptance of this responsibility (Gordon, 1998:394).

52

4.4 CONCLUSION

This chapter focused on the shift in paradigm in the domains of teaching and learning and teacher appraisal

system, as well as some of the skills and knowledge that are essential for ABETPs to implement OBET

successfully. The need for ABETPs to experience OBET in a constructivistic learning environment and to prepare

them adequately to meet the challenge of OBET in ABET practice was highlighted and regarded as crucial for the

transformation of ET.

While some ABETPs and learners have the innate capacity to change to teaching undertakings that OBET

demands, 'all teachers and learners can develop such capacity' (Gordon, 1998:393; Spady, 1994:30). However,

ABETPs should not wait for experts to tell them how, they need to model lifelong and self- directed learners.

OBET recognises their status as responsible professionals and grants them a large degree of freedom to select

the content and methods through which they will have their learners achieve the desired outcomes (noted in 3.6).

However, dedication, commitment, effort and tenacity is required to plan and structure an OBET learning

environment. Thus, to enhance professional work ethics it is imperative that the hard work of effective ABETPs is

rewarded, but I am of the opinion that effective ongoing PDPs that inspire co-operation among teachers can

revitalise their commitment and give them a shared sense of purpose and direction, which in turn will promote

excellence in the system (compare Njobe, et a1.1997:7).

The next chapter sketches guidelines to ongoing, intensive and supportive PDPs that I envisage will empower

ABETPs to approach their teaching and learning creatively and reflectively.

53

CHAPTER 5

GUIDELINES FOR PRACTITIONER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOR ABET

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter focuses on guidelines for practitioner development programmes (PDPs) that I argue will develop

attitudes, values, skills and knowledge needed by ABETPs (echoed in 3.4.1.1) for effective, efficient and reflective

practice. Thus, I envisage PDPs that are driven by the critical outcomes in learner-centred and constructivist

learning situations, which will provide ongoing support and guidance, and encourage ABETPs to approach their

teaching reflectively, solve problems analytically and creatively, and to be self-directed, lifelong learners. I

furthermore envisage that the PDPs will also nurture peer group development, inculcate collegiality and empower

ABETPs to restructure ABET centres to facilitate improved performance by learners and the staff. These

programmes will aim at ensuring a systematic and systemic shift in the way that understanding of OBET is

constructed and implemented in ABET centres.

5.2 ADDRESSING THE NEEDS OF ABET PRACTITIONERS

5.2.1 Introduction

°Reflective practitioner orientation is a national priority" (Mkhatshwa as quoted by Van der Horst & McDonald,

1997a), and according to Imel (1998:1) reflective practice involves thinking about and critically analysing one's

actions with the goal of improving one's teaching practice (see 5.2.3). This demands consistent and deliberate

support and training but recent media reports indicate that it has evidently not been the practice (Pretorius,

1998:16). Furthermore, the state's efforts to improve the quality of teaching and learning through campaigns such

as COLTS, teacher attitudes have not changed much (Reeves, 1998:11). However, the DoE (1995a:15,21)

acknowledges the link between quality ABET services and ABETP commitment and capacity, and practitioners as

the most vital education resource, but an affirmation is not sufficient. To inspire commitment, I believe that that

PDPs must also improve (Njobe, et al. 1997:7; Jones & Whitford, 1997:281; Guskey, 1994:53). Besides,

practitioners need and want ongoing PDPs that will assist and motivate them to cope with change and augment

their professional status (Turkington, 1998:5). However, a review of international and local ABET programmes

reveal that PDPs have not been integral to ABET planning, and is often "ad hoc and unsystematic" (NEPI,

1992:41) in which 'experts' tell practitioners how to teach and leave them to fend for themselves (Pennel &

Firestone, 1997:354) resulting in confusion and a need to re-train (see 3.8.3). I agree with Jansen (1996:21) who

54

argues that there might be exceptions, but the kind of training practitioners need to make permanent and skilled

adjustments is not in place in our ET system yet. For PDPs to bring about transformation in ET and facilitate

ABETPs to manage change reflectively and efficiently, I envisage PDPs that are driven by outcomes and systems

thinking underpinned by constructivism.

5.2.2 Outcomes-driven PDPs

OBET judges success by what learners know and can do, and not by the reproduction of facts or the grades that

they achieve. This requires a change in the notion that grades should be based on the bell curve, (an assumption

that some learners will excel and others fail) (Parkyn, 1994:35) to the notion that all learners can succeed provided

they are given sufficient time and appropriate support (see 3.7.1; 3.5). A matching PDP will not determine success

on the number of ABETPs attending courses or how they perceive its value, but by the impact it has in altering

instructional behaviour that benefits learners (Sparks, 1994:28). This implies that ABETPs must be able to apply

the acquired knowledge and skills in new and varied contexts to meet the needs of learners.

Thus, to empower ABETPs to make things work in real learning situations with real learners, PDPs need to include

experiential learning cycles. At the heart of the experiential learning cycles are outcomes-driven problems or

challenges that need to be solved (Gordon, 1998:390; Winebrug & Grossman, 1997: 352; Guskey, 1994:53). I

believe that if ABETPs are expected to be analytical, creative, problem solvers and decision makers, these

experiential learning cycles will permit ABETPs to engage actively in activities that will promote their understanding

of approaches to learning in a group context (compare Inlet, 1998:1).

Moreover, research on teaching adults indicate that they are interested in the immediate usefulness of the new

learning (Wedepohl, 1988:37; Vella, 1994:16) and their reasons for enrolling at ABETCs has specific and personal

manifestations (Lyster, 1992:17; see 1.2). Thus, to enable ABETPs to address the needs and interests of adult

learners facilitators of PDPs need to plan summits in the context of networks, which were introduced in the United

States of America (USA) during the 1980s (discussed in 5.2.3). In these projects practitioners engaged in

challenges relating to real-world problems so that they could directly experience the power of this mode of

learning. Gordon (1998:390) maintains that these challenges stimulate many of the elements of the real world as

they can be actual problems in need of real solutions by real people, where learners (ABETPs) move outside the

classroom, take action on issues and have tangible impact in their communities. For example, ABET learning

programmes should offer adult learners that which is useful for problem-solving in their daily lives (Wedepohl,

1988:37). That is, if adult learners current interest is 'improving the quality of life in the informal settlement', PDPs

should prepare ABETPs to structure the learning activities as a problem that focuses on the knowledge, skills and

qualities that adult learners will need to be equipped with in order to manage the processes and procedures

55

combating pollution, installation of taps and electricity, health and other related issues. For example, adult

learners will need skills in negotiation and communication in the written and oral modes, mathematics and other

focus areas. Thus, actual problems provide an entry point into problem-based learning as they are structured as a

problem arising directly from one or an integration of learning areas (Gordon, 1998:392-3).

Research indicates that authentic real-world problems in a constructivistic environment is conducive to active

construction of learning as it promotes opportunities for learners (ABETPs) to collect, analyse and think critically

about particular data, communicate and work collaboratively, organise, manage themselves as individuals and in

the group context, focus on standards of quality and grapple with essential questions (Jones & Whitford, 1997:

279; Gordon, 1998:393; compare Pahad, et al. 1998:23). The skills delineated above parallel many of those

described in the critical crossfield outcomes (see 3.4.1.1), thus, it can be argued that this strategy is also

conducive to developing in learners (in this case ABETPs) many of the outcomes that underpin OBET. Moreover,

it eliminates the divide between theory and practice and links learners' work to real-life experience (see 3.2) as

knowledge, skills and attitudes are simultaneously involved and are developed in the context of actual work and

real-life skills, such as decision-making and problem solving.

Thus, I am of the opinion that outcomes-driven, real-world problems modelled in constructivistic learning

experiences (see 5.2.4) can be fruitfully implemented in ABET PDPs in the SA context. First, I believe that this

strategy is an appealing contrast to the `decontexualized rote learning' or mere transmission of knowledge of the

traditional approach to PDPs as it can empower ABETPs to pursue interests, construct understanding, reformulate

ideas and reach unique conclusions. Second, the experiential learning cycles will enable ABETPs to emulate their

learning experiences in practice as the emphasis of this strategy is to learn by doing, which is congruent with

OBET. This implies that ABETPs will be empowered to create stimulating, intellectually challenging experiences

for their learners in which their learners can construct understanding of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values

needed for success in the classroom and in real-life. Besides, in real-life situations, you use your organisational

skills to manage resources to make decisions about how to solve problems using the knowledge you possess to

produce a result that meets your internalised sense of quality and not worksheets (Gordon, 1998:390; Udall &

Rugen, 1997:406).

In light of the above discussion it can be argued that, outcomes-driven PDPs aimed at empowering ABETPs to

improve their practice and restructure ABET centres, to facilitate improved performance by learners and the staff,

implies that practitioners must do more than raise the achievement bar for learners (see 3.6.2). This, in turn,

entails a systematic and systemic shift in the way that understanding of OBET is constructed.

56

5.2.3 Systems Thinking

OBET is a comprehensive approach to focusing, designing and organising all aspects of an instructional and

credentialing system of a learning institution (see 3.7). Thus, PDPs from the OBET perspective demands a

systemic and systematic approach. An important principle of systems thinking is that change in one part of the

system can have a notable effect on other parts of the system, which signifies the interdependent relationship

among the various parts of the system (Sparks, 1994:27).

A systemic approach to PDP stresses that development of individual practitioners and organisational changes

must be addressed simultaneously to effect ET reforms that benefit learners at ABET centres (compare Sparks,

1994:27). Thus, envisaged success for all learners depends on both the learning of individual practitioners and

improvements in the capacity of the organisation to restructure itself to meet the needs of adult learners (see 3.5).

This entails the involvement of all ET stakeholders in PDPs (Rothman, 1997:273; Pahad, et al. 1998:24).

Since systems thinking demands a systematic approach to PDP as opposed to the "one-shot" (Sparks, 2994: 27)

or 'scattered, one-day workshops that have no link to previous or follow up workshops' (Guskey, 1994:53) or the

"quick-fix culture" of traditional PDPs (Wineburg & Grossman, 1997:350), a possible route that SA could follow is

the one taken by facilitators of PDPs in the USA during the 1980s. They have realised the futility of the

conventional training mode and have initiated state sponsored networks as a suitable alternative, which entails an

integrated stakeholder effort involving tertiary institutions, state and practitioners provide opportunities for

practitioners to learn about innovative methods and materials (Pennel & Firestone, 1997:355). Networks aim to

restore the nexus of teaching and learning, and rests on the tenet that learning institutions cannot be exciting

places for learners until they become exciting places for practitioners (Pennel & Firestone, 1997:354; Winebrug &

Grossman, 1997: 356). It is also believed that educational opportunities for learners improve when teachers are

empowered to determine their own professional growth and development via the team spirit of collegiality (Krovetz

& Cohick, 1993:333). The networks bring practitioners together to address issues on education through an

exchange among members and focus on specific subject areas that give members a common purpose. It can be

argued that the collaborative and integrated approach embraced by networks pays dividends to "whole-school

change and individual transformation" (Winebrug & Grossman, 1997:351), which is exactly what I envisage the

outcome of PDPs should be, but SA will need to reconceptualise PDPs.

For example, the USA projects vary in time span, but teachers meet monthly for an entire day while their classes

are supervised by substitutes. The monthly meetings are supplemented by fortnightly after-school meetings and a

five-day summer retreat (Winebrug & Grossman, 1997:351; Pennel & Firestone, 1997:355). However, these time-

frames and the notion of 'substitutes' could create a bureaucratic hassle in the SA context, particularly in Gauteng

57

as the GDE dissuades the idea of releasing teachers for an entire day despite the view that a constructive day at a

PD session could energise teachers and send them back to the classroom with fresh ideas to the benefit of both,

the ABETPs and learners (compare Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:331; Holland, 1997:267). While, it can be debated

that adult classes are offered in the evenings, thus ABETPs are free to attend PDPs during the day, cognisance

must be taken of the practising formal school teachers amongst them. Therefore, there needs to be a change in

the ABET provisioning system. That is, PDPs would be more effective if the DoE's proposal of reconceptualising

ABET provision into multi-functional Public Adult Learning Centres, which are envisaged to be operational during

the day and evenings, can become a reality as ABETPs could be employed in a permanent capacity (DoE,

1997b:125). It could solve the retrenchment of temporary teachers, hence, appease teacher organisations

(Kobokoane, 1998:21), provided PDPs do not 'paint broad brush strokes' of ET issues as this does little to help

practitioners develop attitudes, values and skills needed for effective and efficient delivery (Gordon, 1998:390).

While the American teachers have remarked that the projects have brought fun back into learning and teaching

(Pennel & Firestone, 1997:357), they also admit that the process is not easy, but I agree with them that it is

"painfully necessary" (Winebrug & Grossman, 1997:353), particularly in our present climate of poor work ethics

(see 4.2.2). Furthermore, I also agree that participation should be voluntary as one cannot impose change on

another, thus, ABETPs should opt for these projects because they believe in the potential benefits of such projects

to themselves as professionals and to their learners (compare Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:332).

Nevertheless, research indicates that networks in USA succeed because they respond to participants' professional

needs and that a significant part of the leadership for the above efforts come from the practitioners themselves

(Pennel & Firestone, 1997:355-7; Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:331). Those practitioners served in every capacity of

the project sharing it with state officials and experts from tertiary institutions and co-operatively planned and

prepared agendas and courses that match the skills and interest of practitioners (Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:332).

Hence, it is a learner-centred' approach to PD (Winebrug & Grossman, 1997:352).

Continuity in training is imperative (NEPI, 1992:44) and the USA network projects have provided ongoing support,

which enabled practitioners to become researchers in the practice context, as such, learners of their own actions

(Peters, 1991:91; Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:332; compare Gravett, 1993:105; Richardson, 1994:8). This implies that

they experiment with ideas from the projects then return to reflect, explore, troubleshoot, imagine alternatives and

refine them. According to Peters (1991:95) reflective practitioners are involved in "sustained inquiry into the

relationship between thought and action" and the study of these actions is conducted in a systematic analytic

manner. Thus, reflective practice involves critical thinking and learning, both of which are processes that can lead

to significant self-development and the actualisation of critical outcomes among ABETPs in SA. Furthermore, I

believe that ongoing support keeps teachers abreast with new world-wide trends, thus, networks can be effectively

58

used to engage and keep ABETPs informed of state policy and procedure changes making compliance and

commitment more likely (Pennel & Firestone, 1997:356; compare Essop, 1996:19). Networks could provide

opportunities for practitioners to engage in inquiring and interactive learning environments, hence, promote peer

group development.

On the basis of the above discussion, I argue that PD for reflective practitioner orientation cannot be business as

usual where practitioners sit passively while an expert exposes them to new ideas or trains them in new practices

(Killen, 1996:1; Falk & Ort, 1998:59). If a paradigm shift from a content-based to an outcomes-based system is

expected in ABETPs, then it is imperative that a shift in PD must also focus on the tenets of OBET (Sparks,

1994:26) and ABETPs model lifelong learners (Udall & Rugen, 1997:406). A good starting point is to determine

the things ABET learners need to know and able to do and work backward to the knowledge, skills and attitudes

required of ABETPs, if these learner outcomes are to be actualised (Sparks, 1994:28; compare Franke; Carpenter;

Fennema; Ansel! & Behrend, 1998:67). Because the critical outcomes (see 3.4.2) manifest the broad vision and

epitomise the education system that SA wants, and the type of society that it envisages, PDPs must also be driven

by these outcomes. These outcomes are the general competencies that the NQF wishes to promote regardless of

the learning field or content of learning. If we want ABETPs to help learners develop the skills manifested in the

critical outcomes, PDPs need to incorporate these skills so that ABETPs can perform effectively. In addition,

Cervero (as quoted by Intel, 1998:3) maintains that the essence of effective practice in adult education is the ability

to reflect on teaching practice. This implies that when ABETPs engage in reflective practice they use their

repertoire of past experiences to make sense of the current situation, which can facilitate the transition from inept

practice situations to those that are congruent with OBET practice. Similarly, constructivists believe that learners

build knowledge structures rather than merely receive them from teachers (see 4.3), thus I discern the need for

PDPs to provide constructivist learning experiences for ABETPs.

5.2.4 Constructivist Learning Experiences

To 'enculturate' (Graven, 1995:3) practitioners in OBET, facilitators of PDPs need to create climates that are

conducive to learning. This implies inter alia that to facilitate conceptual understanding of key principles and ideas

in OBET, and how they interconnect, ABETPs could be invited to explore and express their conceptions in small

groups. For example, ABETPs need to grapple with understanding of the essence of OBET, hence, they can be

asked to discuss, in small groups, their understanding of learner centredness or the notion that OBET is not time

bound and the implications thereof in ABET practice. The small group's view can be reported to the larger group

by a representative of the small group; which is less intimidating than an individual presenting a personal view

(compare Gravett, 1995:17). Discussion in small groups also allows ABETPs to articulate their ideas about

teaching practice, which helps them to identify and examine the values, assumptions and strategies supporting

59

their current ideas about what constitutes good teaching. It also permits ABETPs to measure their views against

those held by peers and experts and serves to eliminate misconceptions held by individual (compare Gravett,

1995:17; Imel, 19982). In turn, this procedure enables the facilitator to guide and support the construction of

understanding, encourage learners (ABETPs in this case) to reflect on their learning (Winebrug & Grossman,

1997:352) and create a sense of ownership of OBE (Spady, 1994:19; Anon., 1996:1). This process reduces the

facilitator's role as an authority and source of knowledge and curbs an imposition of the 'expert's' (see 5.3.1) view

and permits learners to own their successes and failures (Gordon, 1998:393). It is instructional to note that simply

telling or directing ABETPs what to do will not guarantee a conceptual change in practitioners regarding teaching

practice. Nor does conceptual change occur easily as ABETPs may be averse to change the established

conception of what good teaching entails (compare Gravett, 1995:3,9,11; Pennel & Firestone, 1997:356; Sparks,

1994:27).

It must be borne in mind that learners (ABETPs, in this case) do not simply assimilate knowledge. They will

construct interpretations of the principles of OBET in the light of their existing knowledge. Thus, PDPs must

provide a learning environment in which ABETPs can build on their existing ideas to create continually evolving

organising frameworks of OBET in the context of ABET (Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992:3; compare Franke, et al.

1998:67; Gravett, 1995:9; see 4.3). For example, before the ABETPs can grasp the notion of 'outcomes-based' it

is necessary for them to have a thorough understanding of an outcome in the context of OBET. With this

understanding it is possible to fruitfully explore how outcomes-based programming can be a useful guide for

practitioners.

Because assessment plays a crucial role in successful implementation of OBET, opportunities should be created

for ABETPs to experience and grasp the association between outcomes and assessment criteria. Thus, it

becomes imperative for facilitators to clearly communicate outcomes of a particular workshop and jointly map

assessment criteria with ABETPs at the onset of that workshop. For example, if the focus of the PDP was to

review the learner portfolios that ABETPs brought with them to the workshop, then ABETPs can join the facilitator

to examine, reflect and assess their levels of understanding of, for example, what constitutes learner portfolios,

against the jointly formulated assessment criteria (see 4.3.2). This process allows for ongoing support as it

enables the facilitators and ABETPs to link prior and subsequent learning experiences as they review the extent to

which their attempts at compiling learner portfolios meet the assessment criteria. They also gauge what they have

learned and need to do so that learner portfolios presents authentic evidence of learning and learner progress.

ABETPs discuss and interact as they verbalise how they can improve and address skills and knowledge they need

to develop to help adult learners compile portfolios as tools for reflection, growth and advancement (Hebert,

1998:583). In turn, this interaction among peers stimulates deep approaches to learning among ABETPs,

promotes peer group development and collegial sharing (compare 4.3.3; Gordon, 1998:393).

60

Moreover, according to Vygotsky (as quoted by Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997:506), interaction with peers provides

opportunities of expanding each others conceptual perception, which means that more capable ABETPs can

provide peers with alternative view points (Gravett, 1995:17). This mutually beneficial process can also lead

learners to discover missing information, gain new insights through interactions and develop a qualitatively

different way of understanding an aspect. Interaction or discussion can further encourage higher order learning,

such as critical thinking skills (Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997:509), which is expressed in the critical outcomes that

underpin OBET (see 3.4.1.1).

The above section focused on what I consider strategies that can be incorporated and implemented for effective

PDPs. The discussion that follows outlines guidelines for ongoing, rigorous PDPs.

5.3 GUIDELINES FOR ABET PRACTITIONER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

5.3.1 Introduction

The new curriculum for ET draws on the view that knowledge evolves at a rapidly accelerating pace thus, learning

by rote and skills that are not transferable to other learning contexts are not favoured as learners need to acquire

new knowledge that can be adapted so that it serves as a basis for solving problems and acquiring new knowledge

(compare 3.2; 4.2.1). Similarly, practitioner change cannot be conceptualised as the acquisition of a fixed set of

teaching skills or learning how to use a particular programme of instruction. The kind of change I envision involves

ABETPs changing in ways that provide a basis for continued growth and problem solving (compare 5.2.5), what

some authors refer to as self-sustaining, generative change (Franke, et al., 1998:67). This involves ABETPs

making changes in their basic epistemological perspectives, including their knowledge of what it means to learn,

and their conceptualising of classroom practice. It means conceptualising practitioner change in terms of ABETPs

becoming lifelong learners. However, recent media reports indicate that the kind of training that ABETPs will need

to make permanent and skilled adjustments is not in place in our ET system yet (see 3.8.3), thus PDPs need to be

re-conceptualised to facilitate this change in ABETPs.

While there were teachers in the past who practised progressive teaching strategies, OBET is new to SA and

different to what ABETPs practised at ABETCs, thus, cognisance should be taken of the fact that currently there

are no experts (among the officials at all levels), despite the term having being used to refer to trainers (officials) of

ABETPs. Although, trainers have undergone training and engaged in literature study on OBET, nobody has the

practical experience of implementing OBET and everybody is in the process of learning, thus the so called experts

and practitioners could be classified as co-learners. Besides, successful change involves learning how to do

something new, thus, the process of implementation is essentially a learning process for the facilitator (of PDPs)

61

and the practitioner. Constructivist theorists maintain that learning is a constant reinterpretation, 'reweaving of the

map of meaning and reconstruction of experience' as people consciously evolve new practices to meet human

needs, to adapt and transform their environments (Vygotsky, 1978; Dewey & Russel, 1993 as quoted by Nyikos &

Hashimoto, 1997:507). As mentioned above, Vygotsky assumes that interaction in the collective is a necessary

precondition for learning and cognitive development. Crucial to the growth of thought during a collaborative group

project is that members arrive at a mutual understanding of the topic. This requires a reciprocal assertion of ideas

and opinions, implying that members explore their topic from various angles, share opinions and justify their

analyses in order to make joint decisions. Vygotsky (quoted by Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997:508) argues that

learners' development occurs as the result of joint problem-solving activities and this involves critical and reflective

thinking. That is, knowledge is co-constructed and learning is a social, as well as, individual process. Hence, in

the light of there being no experts, the trainer has to facilitate and not dominate the learning process (Kreisberg as

quoted by Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997:509), and that through interaction with others or their context, learners must

individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own. Accordingly a

constructivist PDPs, in which ABETPs engage in collaborative groups, can create a learning environment that

serves as a catalyst for a qualitative change in practitioners' notion of OBET in ABET practice, and contribute to

'collegial sharing', which can develop into ongoing peer support (compare Gravett, 1993:105).

5.3.2 Peer group development

I am of the opinion that the peer group support that evolves from constructivistic learning environments is a

dynamic PDP strategy that can nurture collegiality inside and across organisations (Krovetz & Cohick, 1993:332).

Moreover, Winebrug & Grossman (1997:352) maintain that the small group discussions, problem solving,

demonstrations by peers, action research and co-operative planning of lessons within institutions, have proven to

be more effective and enduring than a group of officials visiting individual learning sites (Krovetz & Cohick,

1993:331). When ABETPs work in collaboration with colleagues it helps them to learn about their discipline, their

learners and their teaching (compare Falk & Ort, 1998:61). This enables them to identify and develop knowledge

and skills to actively address the challenges of transforming their sites to meet the unique needs of learners

(Sparks, 1994:28; Briston, 1997:6).

Although the network philosophy of peer group support and collegiality (discussed 5.2.3) is laudable many of our

ABETPs will need a paradigm shift from the idea of individual to collective (compare DoE, 1995:17; Njobe, et al.

1997:7). For example, many of us have grown up in classrooms in which individual initiative was the measure of

success and as teachers, we continued to reward independence in our classrooms thus, the transition to collective

responsibility will not be easy for SA practitioners but it is necessary if we wish to adhere to the principle of 'whole

school development (compare Holland, 1997:271; Njobe, et al. 1997:7). This implies that a colleague may not be

62

left to struggle on his or her own while you excel, thus it becomes obligatory on you to share the skill to develop

your peer.

Moreover, 'all learners can succeed' is a principle that underlies OBET, which signifies that no learner should be

left behind (Rothman, 1997:273; see 3.5), thus, every ABETP has a stake in the success of every learner. This

implies that it becomes imperative for them to strive to attain the critical outcomes of working collaboratively and

co-operatively as team players to solve the problems critically and creatively (Njobe, et al. 1997:7; Marzano,

1994:44 ; see 3.7.2). The fundamental collective value system of UBUNTU need to be embraced by all ABETPs

for OBET to be viable (compare Simpson, 1997:17).

5.3.3 Consistent PDPs for ABETPs

As mentioned, OBET is complex because it is different to what practitioners were used to, hence, demands a

change in the way ABETPs conceive the process of ET (see 4.2.1). Thus, I believe that unsystematic, adhoc and

`one-day workshops' (compare Gravett: 1993:113) that have no link to previous or follow up workshops, which

have been the practice in the past and seems to persist currently (compare Jansen, 1996:21; Pretorius, 1998:16),

will not effect the desired transformation in ET. Nor will the mere transmission of information or use of abstract

jargon in explaining the new concepts guarantee an understanding of OBET (see 3.7.1; 5.2.2). The facilitators' (of

PDPs) role is that of change agent, that is, they need to be constantly creating opportunities that will bring about

conceptual change in the way in which ET is perceived by its practitioners (compare Gravett, 1993:106,113; see

4.2). Moreover, I agree with Stallings, (as quoted by Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992:2) who believes that staff

development is linked to teacher practice and in turn, enhances learner achievement. Thus, for OBET to have

systematic and systemic impact at ABET centres (see 5.2.3), PD should be a multi-year effort; driven by the critical

crossfield and developmental outcomes; provide continuous and intensive support, and involve a variety of formal

(workshops) and informal (teacher exchange) components (see 5.2.2; 5.2.3). It is imperative that ABETPs be

thoroughly acquainted with the knowledge, skills and qualities espoused in the critical outcomes as they cannot be

expected to develop skills, qualities and knowledge in their adult learners that they are not proficient with (compare

Vella, 1994:4). I believe that ABETPs must look forward to enjoyable, co-operative, 'unhurried', yet challenging

and stimulating learning experiences that serves as catalysts for self-sustained, generative change and suggest

the following process:

e Twice a year, during the summer and winter vacations, (five year-plan) ABETPs must meet with facilitators for

a five-day, enriching, learner-centred and constructivist session as an orientation to, for example, OBET, then

return to their classrooms to practice the new ideas and skills, supplemented by

e ongoing developmental and supportive workshops aimed at exploring a single concept or theme; directed

reading; newsletters and class visits to assess the impact of the PDPs and also for the purpose of high impact

63

intervention (compare David, et al. 1997:57; Gibbons, et al. 1997:302-3).

In addition to extensive and intensive training right from the onset, ABETPs must be allowed to experiment, gain

confidence and be persuaded to try out the new concepts. Furthermore, I believe that self-sustaining generative

change is only possible if ABETPs are provided with ongoing support and peer interaction that encompasses

"meaningful intellectual, social and emotional engagement with ideas, with materials, and with colleagues both in

and outside the teaching" (Falk & Ort, 1998:58).

5.3.4 Interaction and Ongoing Practitioner Support

To sustain and consolidate the learning experience of the suggested initial five-day session there should be

constructive, continuous follow-up programmes that are conducive to change in beliefs, understanding and

practice of teaching (Huberman & Miles, 1984:273; compare Gravett, 1993:113). Thus, I strongly believe that

ABETPs must actively engage in PDPs that permit them to learn by doing. Workshops are ideal as they are of

short duration, enabling ABETPs and facilitators to explore a single concept or theme. The cornerstones of these

follow-up workshops is to learn by doing, reflecting and solving problems (see 5.2.2; 5.2.3; 5.2.4) in a supportive

environment and I envisage the following process:

ABETPs meet for a day to review, reflect and analyse their learning programmes in an interactive learning

situation which leads to an awareness of the need for improvement.

They suggest ways of improvement and adapt the workshop ideas in their classrooms.

They try the ideas in their classrooms and assess the effect.

They observe in each other's classrooms and analyse their information.

After two weeks they return to the workshop situation to share experiences, troubleshoot and reflect.

They discuss problems and solutions to effective programming for OBET and join the 'expert' to assess the

group or individual effort (see 5.2.4).

This process will enable ABETPs to 'learn in their own way continuity to set new goals for professional growth'

(compare Stallings as quoted by Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992:3; Cardellichio, 1997:788). This implies that it

provides opportunities for ABETPs to take responsibility for their own development and the critical outcomes

endorses the notion of self-directed learners.

The follow-up programmes can be augmented with directed reading in the form of newsletters, excerpts or

complete texts and articles from international and local publications on pertinent issues of focus, which can

encourage practitioners to become self-directed learners (Gibbons, Kimmel & O'Shea, 1998:302; Borko,

1997:302). It stimulates discussions, debates and provides opportunities for sharing ideas and focusing on

64

essentials outside of the PDPs as well, which facilitates deep understanding of concepts (Nyikos & Hashimoto,

1997:508; Falk & Ort, 1998:61). These follow-up processes will not only perpetuate OBET principles, but also

enable ABETPs to innovate and create learning and resource material to enhance their learning programmes and

enrich their assessment techniques, hence engender self-sustaining, generative change at ABET centres.

5.3.5 Self-sustaining, generative change

For change to become self-sustaining, ABETPs must begin to engage in PDPs that incorporate support for the

changes they have made or the changes are inclined to dwindle over time (Franke, et al. 1998:67). In fact, the

success or failure of 'large-scale, change bearing innovations" depends on the amount of quality assistance that

their users receive once the change process was underway (Hubermen & Miles, 1984:273; Borko, 1997:232).

Fullan and Hargreaves (1992:1) advocate that strong support yields considerable long term dividends by

substantially increasing the levels of commitment, practice mastery, consequently, the practitioners' ability to adapt

the practice or institute a similar practice in a new context. However, many would argue that the guidelines for

PDPs suggested above would have grave financial consequences for the DoE.

5.4 BUDGETARY IMPLICATIONS

I am of the opinion that strong support would not only pay dividends to fostering commitment and capacity

building, but it would be a cost-effective practice. It simply means that when practitioners are not given adequate

support there is a great possibility of them reverting to old practices, which in turn implies that there would be a

need for re-training and new and additional budget allocations as experienced with the training for Curriculum 2005

(Pretorius, 1998:16). Moreover, if we were to take the route of establishing networks (discussed in 5.2.3) the

budget cutting and downsizing of government that SA is currently faced with (Kobokoane, 1998:21) can be

ameliorated as networks facilitate the building of capacity of people within state employment. As such the

exorbitant, packaged in-service workshops can be reduced or even replaced (compare Pennel & Firestone,

1997:356). The overseas model has shown that substantial PD can be realised through an integrated effort

among tertiary institutions, state and practitioners, we can add business, civil society and organised labour to this

constructive partnership to alleviate the financial strain. Besides, all teachers will be expected to spend 80

notional hours on self-development according to the 'work load document' that is currently being discussed at

Education Labour Relations Councils (ELRC), thus, it will become incumbent on educators to invest in themselves.

In fact, all ABET stakeholders need to meet the challenge of illiteracy as ABET is the initial building block for all

future economic and social development, thus, ABET is a social responsibility (Miler, 1996:97; Essop, 1996:19).

Moreover, practitioners will not be eligible for performance related pay (PRP) (see 4.2) until they have undergone

development and the teacher organisations hold the state accountable for effective ongoing PDPs, which will

65

encourage co-operation among teachers to promote excellence in the system (Njobe, et al. 1997:7). Therefore, if

the state lacks funding, they will have to 'communicate and collaborate effectively' with all stakeholders in

'reflecting and exploring strategies,' such as the those discussed in this chapter and 'critically and creatively'

devise ways and means so that the envisaged 'national priority' of 'reflective practitioner orientation' (see 5.2.1) is

realised. In other words, the state will have to demonstrate the principles underlying the critical outcomes to

devise blueprints for viable PDPs. In light of discussions in this chapter it is obvious that the state needs to invest

in PDPs that develop the capacity of practitioners to help themselves and their peers to approach instruction

reflectively, creatively and effectively. Without such support for ABETPs, OBET could ultimately prove to have

unintended harmful effects on adult learners (compare 3.7). Moreover, I am of the opinion that the above

suggested guidelines for PDPs would strengthen practitioner development and can produce °a bigger bang for the

buck" (Falk & Ort, 1998:64). In conclusion, I do not believe that successful PDPs depend on the size of the

budget, instead on the resourceful ways in which the funding is used and the consistency and quality of the

programme.

5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

This study commenced with a historical overview aimed at highlighting the processes that led to the shift from

adult literacy education to the present notion of ABET. This was followed by an exploration of OBET, the link

between education and training against the background of the NQF and the implication of OBET in ABET practice.

Next, the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that I consider ABETPs need to be equipped with in order that

they may successfully transform teaching and learning, so that it benefits and equips adult learners with skills,

knowledge and qualities to be successful in the classroom and in their life-worlds was explored.

The concluding chapter of this study suggested guidelines for an ongoing, rigorous and developmental system of

PDP that will empower ABETPs to experience self-efficacy and become self-directed, lifelong learners, which in

essence, forms the cornerstone of our new education system, hence underpins the ABET Policy. For ABETPs to

be able to apply their acquired knowledge and skills in new and varied contexts, to meet the learning needs and

rates of their learners, I emphasised that it is imperative for them to experience OBET in a constructivistic,

supportive learning environment. This implies that a dialogic-cooperative approach is necessary to enable

ABETPs to construct a deep understanding of the OBET epistemology. Research substantiates my argument that

a constructivistic approach to PDPs will also prepare ABETPs adequately to meet the challenge of OBET in ABET

practice reflectively, creatively and effectively. Through ongoing, supportive, constructivist and learner-centred

follow-up programmes I am of the opinion that ABETPs can be persuaded that good teaching requires a continual

refinement of the craft. This implies, an ability to adjust techniques as circumstances and learner needs changes,

which in turn would engender self-sustaining, generative change among ABETPs. The PDPs described above will

66

convince ABETPs to chisel and sculpture a new model out of the old "frozen instructional patterns' (Guskey,

1994:53).

67

LIST OF SOURCES

ABRAM!, PC; CHAMBERS, B; POULSEN, C; DE SIMONE, C; D'APPOLONIA, S & HOWDEN, J 1995:

Classroom connections. Toronto: Harcourt Brace

AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) Department of Education 1994: Implementation plan for education and

training

ANON. 1996: An interview with James Maseko. Speak Out! July 1996:1-4.

ANON. 1995a: Institutionalising ABET: The national diploma in ABE. NLC Update, 1(10), April 1995: 1-4.

ANON. 1995b: 1000 Learner unit: The NLC's plan for mass delivery. Masifundisane, June 1995:1-8.

ANON. 1997: A South African integrated education and training model! The New Teacher: Journal of the South

African Democratic Teachers Union, 4(1), February, 1997:13-14

ANON. 1998a: The wrong man using the wrong tools badly. Sunday Times, 7 June 1998: 20

ANON. 1998b: Education for all - What is Africa's agenda? The Educator's Voice, 2(4), June 1998: 4-5

ANON. 1998c: Education for democracy. The Educator's Voice, 2(1), February 1998: 8;13

ANON. 1998d: Mbeki lashes drunken teachers. The Star, September 1998: 1

ANON. 1998e: Teachers who live by the rules of criminals. Sunday Times, 13 September 1998: 13

AITCHISON, JJW 1998: Literacy and adult basic education and training in SA: A quick survey.

Pietermaritzburg: Centre for Adult Education, University of Natal

BANKS, JA & LYNCH, J 1986: Multicultural education in western society. London: Cassell pp. 2 27

BHOLA SH, 1989 Adult literacy: from concepts to implementation. Prospects, Xix(4), pp. 479-489.

BHOLA SH, 1996 Adult education between the state and civil society: The case of South Africa. Accepted

68

for publication Adult Education 7(13 &14), September 1996

BIRD, A 1984: Adult night school movement for blacks. (Irl KALLAWAY, P ed. 1984: Apartheid and

education. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, pp. 192-218).

BIRKVAD, B 1997: Teacher professional development in Denmark. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(8), April 1997:

611-614

BORKO, H 1997: New forms of classroom assessment: Implications for staff development. Theory into

Practice, 36(4), Autumn 1997: 231-238

BOUD, D & FELETTI, G eds. 1991: The challenge of problem-based learning. London: Kogan Press

BRANDT, R 1994: Is outcomes education dead?: Overview. Educational Leadership, 51(6), Mar. 1994: 1

BRISTON, M 1997: In an interview with Samuel Isaacs: Samuel Isaacs. Executing the NQF. The Education

Link 2(4) October \ November 1997: 4-7

BRISTON, M 1997: In an interview with Dr R Eberlein: Concrete realities of the NQF, Dr R Eberlein. The

Education Link, 2(4) October November 1997: 8-11

BRISTON, M 1997: In an interview With Wim De Wet and Van As Jordaan: Back to basics : Current research

on international trends in OBET. The Education Link, 2(4) Oct.1 Nov. 1997: 26-7

CARDELLICHIO, T 1997: The lab school: A vehicle for curriculum change and professional development.

Phi Delta Kappan, 78(10), June 1997:785-787

CAVERLY, DC; PETERSON, CL & MANDEVILLE, TF 1997: A generational model for professional

development. Educational Leadership, 55(5)November 1997:56-59

CHRISTIE, P 1985: The right to learn: The struggle for education in South Africa. Prepared for SACHED.

Johannesburg: SACHED Trust \ Ravan Press

CLARKE, N 1997a: Curriculum 2005: Introduction to the main issues. The. Education Link, 2(1)

March Apr. 1997: 20-22

69

CLARKE, N 1997b: Assessment and the new curriculum: How will it work? The Education Link, 2(4)

October \ November 1997: 22-24

COOKS, A 1996: Teachers angry over curriculum changes. The Star, 6 Nov. 1996: 8

COOKS, A 1997: Melissa, 'king' of the new curriculum says more time is need, but . . . The Star, 8 May 1997:14

COSATU HUMAN RESOURCE COMMITTEE (CHRC), 1992: COSATU'S approach to literacy and adult basic

education. In McGREGOR, R & McGREGOR, A ed. 1992: McGregor's education alternatives. Cape

Town. Rustica Press, pp. 79-104).

COSATU PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH PROJECT (CPRP), 1993: Consolidated recommendations on adult

basic education and training: Report, August 1993

CROSS, M & CHISHOLM, L 1990: The roots of segregated schooling in twentieth-century S A. On NKOMO,

M ed. 1990: Pedagogy of domination: Towards a democratic education in S A. New Jersey: Africa World

Press, Inc.)

CROOKS, T 1988: Assessing student performance. Kensington, N.W.S: HERDSA

CURRICULUM, TEACHING AND DEVELOPMENT UNIT( CTDU), 1998: Curriculum 2005: Unpacking its

implementation. CTDU Newsletter 6, June, July 1998: 5-7

DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR (DoL), 1997: Green Paper Skills development strategy for economic and

employment growth in South Africa. Pretoria: March 1997.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE), 1995: White paper to education and training: (Notice No. 196 of

1995). Cape Town: Govt. Printers.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE) Directorate of Adult Basic, Community Education and Training, 1995b:

Interim Guidelines: A national Adult Basic Education and Training Framework. Pretoria: Govt. Printers.

September 1995.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE), 1997a: Policy documents on Adult basic education and training. Pretoria:

Govt. Printers March 1997.

70

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE), 1997b: A national multi-year plan for Adult basic education and training.

Pretoria: Govt. Printers. March 1997.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE), 1997c: Outcomes based education in South Africa: Background

information for educators. Pretoria: Govt. Printers.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DoE), 1998: Guidelines for a macro-approach to ABET assessment and

assessor bodies. Pretoria: Govt. Printers.

DE VILLIERS, S ed. 1997: South African Qualifications Authority: SAQA Bulletin 1(1) May - June, 1997.

Pretoria; SAQA Executive Office

DICKENSON, K 1997: The challenge of adult literacy. Reader's Digest, 151(905) Sept 1997:15-20

EDGAR, R 1992: African educational protest in South Africa: the American School Movement in the Transkei in

the in the 1920s.

EDUCATION INFORMATION CENTRE (EIC) & INDEPENDENT EXAMINATIONS BOARD( IEB), i996:

Understanding the NQF: A guide to lifelong learning. Pietermaritzburg: Interpak Books.

ELLIOT, J 1996: How to retain metric. Sunday Times, 1 December 1996:24

ESSOP, A 1996: Can we put the education policies in practice? Education Africa Forum: First edition.

Gauteng: Education Africa, pp. 16-19

FALK, B & ORT, S 1998: Sitting down to score: Teacher learning through assessment. Phi Delta Kappan,

80(1), September 1998: 59-64

FOKS, J 1996: Education and training - Is South Africa in step with the world? Education Africa Forum:

First edition. Gauteng: Education Africa, pp. 130-134

FRANKE, ML; CARPENTER , T; FENNEMA, E; ANSELL, E & BEHREND, J 1998: Understanding teachers'

self-sustaining, generative change in the context of professional development. Teacher and Teacher

Education 4(1), January 1998: 67-80

71

FREIRE, P 1995: Pedagogy of the oppressed. Translated by BM Ramos. New York: Continuum.

FRENCH, E 1992: Adult literacy in South Africa: past and present. (In: HUTTON, B ed. 1992: Adult basic

education in South Africa: Literacy, English as second language and numeracy. Cape Town: Oxford

University Press (OUP), pp. 9-47.)

FULLAN, M & HARGREAVES, A ed. 1992: Teacher development and educational change. London: The

Falmer Press.

GARRUN, T 1997: Building project in Soweto, helping to rebuild lives. The Star, Workplace, 1 Oct 1997:3.

GIBBONS, S; KIMMEL, H & O'SHEA, M 1997: Changing teacher behaviour through staff development:

Implementing the teaching and content standards in science. School Science and Mathematics, 97(6),

October 1997: 302-309

GORDAN, R 1998: Balancing real-world problems with real-world results. Phi Delta Kaman, 79(5),

January 1998: 390-393

GRAVETT, SJ 1993: Onderrigontwikkeling op universiteitsvlak: 'n Leerbegeleidingsperspectief. Jhb.

Rand Afrikaans University. (Unpublished D.Ed. thesis.)

GRAVETT, SJ 1994: Adult learners: Implication for teaching. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.

(Internal Publication Bureau for University Education *33* 94).

GRAVETT, SJ 1995: The adult learners: Educational implications. Johannesburg. Rand Afrikaans University.

(Bureau for University Education).

GUSKEY, TR 1994: What you asses may not be what you get. Educational Leadership, 51(6), Mar. 1994:51-4.

HARRINGTON-LUEKER, D 1994: Inching toward a truce on OBE. The American School Board Journal,

181(11), November 1994: 32

HARTSHORNE, K 1992: Crisis and challenge: Black education 1910-1990. Cape Town: OUP pp. 333-357

HEBERT, E 1998: Lessons learned about student portfolios. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(8), Apr 1998: 583-585

72

HEDBERG, JG 1998 Marketing continuing education programmes: Meeting the needs of Professionals.

Educational Media International, 25(4), 1998: 235-241

HIGGINS, L 1994: Integrating background nursing experience and study at the post-graduate level: An

application of problem based learning. Educational Research and development, 13(1), 1994: 23-33.

HOFMEYER, J & BUCKLAND, P 1992: Education system change in south Africa. an McGREGOR, R &

McGREGOR, A ed. 1992: McGregor's education alternatives. Cape. Rustica Press, pp. 17-51).

HOLLAND, H 1997: KERA: A tale of one teacher. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(4), Dec. 1997:265-271

HOLMAN, K 1998: Teachers less motivated, and many would like to quit. The Saturday Star, May 1998:11

HUBERMEN, M & MILES, M 1984: Innovations up close. New York: Plenum pp. 273-9

IMEL, S 1998: Reflective practice in adult education. Columbus: ERIC Digest, No. 122. ERIC Clearinghouse

on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1998 (ED346319 92) - Microsoft Internet Explorer

INTERIM ACCREDITATION COMMITTEE (IAC) - Technical Secretariat: 1997: Standards for early childhood

development practitioners: A consultative document, May 1997

ISAACS, BAS ed. 1996: Lifelong learning through a national qualifications framework: Report of the ministerial

committee for the development work on the NQF. February 1996. Pretoria: SAQA Exe. Office.

JANSEN, J 1997: Curriculum plan bound to fail. The Star, Trends, July 1997: 14

JEFFRIES, C 1967: Illiteracy: A world problem. London: Pall Mall Press.

JONES K & WHITFORD BL 1997: Kentucky's conflicting reform principles. Phi Delta Kappan, Dec. 1997:

276-281

KHOSA, M 1996 Transform slogans into action. The New Nation: Higher Education Review, 16 August 1996: 15

KILLEN, R 1996: Outcomes-based education: rethinking teaching. paper presented at University of South Africa

(UNISA): Pretoria on 15 October 1996

73

KOBOKOANE, T 1998: Bengu deals Manuel a folding hand. Sunday Times, 21 June 1998 21

KROVETZ, M & COHICK, D 1993: Professional collegiality can lead to school change. Phi Delta Kappan,

Dec. 1993: 331-3

KUHN, TS 1973: The structure of scientific revolutions. 4th impression, Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

LYSTER, E 1992: An overview of debate. (11: HUTTON, B ed. 1992: Adult basic education in South Africa:

Literacy, English as second language and numeracy. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, pp. 9-47.).

MAHOMED, H 1998: The implementation of OBET in South Africa: Pathway to success or recipe for failure?

Education Practice, Number 1, July 1998: 3-15

MALALA, J 1996: Public works ministries give hope to small entrepreneurs. The Star, 24 May 1996:8

MARZANO RJ, 1994: Lessons from the field about outcomes-based performance assessment. Educational

Leadership, 51(6), March 1994: 44-50.

MATABANE, SM 1990: Eliminating literacy. (11 NKOMO, M ed. 1990: Pedagogy of domination: Towards

a democratic education in South Africa. New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc.)

McADOO, M 1998: Buying school reform: The Annenburg grant. Phi Delta Kappan, Jan. 1998: 364-9

MILLAR, CJ 1979: Adult education: Action and theory. Inaugural Lecture: University of Cape Town: 3-6.

MILLER, A 1996: Adult basic education and training: A key factor for all future economic and social

development. Education Africa Forum: First edition. Gauteng: Education Africa, pp. 94-97

MONYOKOLO, M & POTENZA, E 1996: Returning the gaze: Africanisation or intemationalising the

curriculum. Education Africa Forum: First edition. Gauteng: Education Africa, pp. 28-31

MULHOLLAND, S 1997a: Dumbing the Nation. Sunday Times: Business Times, May 1997: 13

MULHOLLAND, S 1997b: New education system will produce confident literate. Sunday Times: Business:

74

Times 8 June 1997:10

MULHOLLAND, S 1998: Bengu should admit he has failed education challenge. Sunday Times: Business

Appointments, 24 May 1998:1

NATIONAL ADULT BASIC EDUCATION CONFERENCE (NABEC), 1993 Coming in from the cold: Putting

Adult Basic Education on the National Agenda. (12-14 Nov. 1993: Johannesburg).

NATIONAL ADULT BASIC EDUCATION CONSULTATIVE CONFERENCE (NABETCC), 1995: A Report.

NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY INVESTIGATION (NEPI), 1993: Adult Education. Cape Town: OUP.

NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY INVESTIGATION (NEPI), 1992: Adult Basic Education. Cape Town: OUP

NEILL, DM 1997: Transforming student assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(1), Sept. 1997: 34-40

NJOBE, P; SANGER, M & GALLIE, M 1997: Rewarding teachers The New Teacher: Journal of the SA

Democratic Teachers Union, 4(1), February, 1997:6-7

NKOMO, M ed. 1990: Pedagogy of domination: Towards a democratic education in South Africa. New

Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc.

NORTON D, 1992: Towards a model of an adult basic education syllabus for Southern African learners.

The Cape Librarian, 36(2) Feb. 1992: 20-23.

NYIKOS, M & HASHIMOTO, R 1997: Constructivist theory applied to collaborative learning in teacher

education: In search of ZPD. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4) 1997:507-516

NXESI, T 1996: Bargaining Round-up 1996: A SADTU perspective. Education Africa Forum: First edition.

Gauteng: Education Africa, pp. 32-37

O'NEIL J, 1994: Aiming for new outcomes. Educational Leadership, 51(6), March 1994: 6-4.

PAHAD, M; COHEN, S; MARSH, R & TEMA, B 1998: Curriculum 2005: Implementing OBE: 4,

Philosophy. Pretoria CTP Books.

75

PARKYN, LR 1994: OBE on board. The American School Board Journal, 181(11), Nov. 1994:35-6

PENNEL, JR & FIRESTONE, WA 1997: Teacher- to-teacher professional development through state-

sponsored networks. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(5), January 1997:354-357

PETERS, JM 1991: Stategies for reflective practice. (Li BROCKETT, R ed. 1991: Professional development

for educators of adults: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,

No. 51, Fall: 1991:89-95)

PRETORIUS, P; GOVENDER, P; ISMAIL, A & LUDSKI, H 1998: Curriculum 2005 fails Grade 1. Sunday

Times, 17 May 1998: 13

PRETORIUS, C 1998: All on board for Curriculum 2005. Sunday Times, 28 June 1998: 16

RAMOGALE, M 1997: Teachers, pupils need to shape up. Sowetan 5 March 1997: 11

RAMSDEN, P 1988: Studying learning: Improving teaching. an Ramsden, P ed. 1998: Improving learning.

New Perspectives. London: Kogan Press, pp. 13-30).

RAMSDEN, P 1992: Learning to teach in Higher Education. London :Routledge

RANTAO, J 1998: I sleep well at night, says Bengu. The Star, 18 June 1998: 13

REES, S 1996: End the rhetoric: We need efficiency. Sunday Times, 7 January 1996: 18

REES, S 1998: Education is the key to African renaissance. Sunday Times, 4 October 1998: 21

REEVES, J 1998: Still fighting for a cause after all these years. The Star, 16 June 1998: 11

RIES, S & JOHNSTONE, M Eds. n.d.: The national qualifications framework: A quiet revolution. Media in

Education Trust and Independent Examination Board: NQF Supplement: 1-4.

ROGERS, A 1993: Teaching adults. Philadelphia: Open University Press.

ROHAN, R 1997: Bengu warns 'drunk' teachers to stop or go. The Star. 24 March 1997:4

76

ROTHMAN R 1997: KERA: A tale of one School. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(4), Dec. 1997:272-5

SALISBURY DF & CONNER DR 1994: How to succeed as a manager of an educational change project.

Educational Technology, July - August 1994:12-9

SAMUEL, J, 1992: The ANC view. (11 McGREGOR, R & McGREGOR, A ed. 1992: McGregor's

education alternatives. Cape. Rustica Press, pp. 107-129).

SIMPSON, L 1997: An outcomes-based approach to curriculum development - Challenges for South Africa.

The New Teacher: Journal of the South African Democratic Teachers Union, 4(1), February, 1997:16-19

SLAVIN RE 1994: Outcome-based education is not mastery learning. Educational Leadership, 51(6)

November 1994:14

SMITH, TL 1998: Lifeline for unemployed teachers. The Teacher, May 1998: 5

SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY (SAQA) ACT (Act, No 58 of 1995). Pretoria: Govt. Printer.

SPADY, W; MARSHALL, K & ROGERS, S 1994: Light, not heat, on OBEs. The American School Board

Journal, 181(11) Nov. 1994: 29-33.

SPADY, WG 1994a: Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership, 51(6): 18-22

SPADY, WG 1994b: An appeal to objective dialogue: A response to Schlafly and LaHaye. The School

Administrator, 51(8): 30-3

SPADY, WG 1988: Organising for results: The basis of authentic restructuring and reform. Educational

Leadership, 46(2): 4-7

SPADY, WG 1994b: Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership, 46(2): 18-24

DR WILLIAM SPADY ON OBE. Gauteng Institute for Curriculum Development (GICD) Seminar: (2nd: 1998:

Norwood) - will be available on video from GICD.

SPARKS, D 1994: a paradigm shift in staff development. Journal of Staff Development, 15(4): Fall 1994: 26-9

77

SPARK, M 1997: Back to school for adults proves worthwhile in spite of difficulties. The Star, 3 Feb. 1997: 2

SYLVESTER, E 1998: Strike could trigger exam crisis. The Saturday Star, 6 June 1998: 2

TURKINGTON T 1998: 'Survival pack' for principals. The Teacher, May 1998: 5

TURNER, G 1997: Dialoog as onderwysbenadering in volwassene basiese onderwys en opleiding. M Ed

Dissertation: Rand Afrikaans University.

UDALL, D & RUGEN, L: 1997: From the inside out: The expeditionary learning process of teacher change.

Phi Kappa Delta, Jan. 1997 78(5): 404-408

VAN DER HORST, H & McDONALD, R 1997a: OBE Outcomes-based education: Teacher's manual.

Pretoria: Kagiso Press.

VAN DER HORST, H & McDONALD, R 1997b: Education littered with the failures of those who forgot the

basics of learning: Counter view. Sunday Times, 22 June 1997: 25

VELLA, J 1994: Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

VREY, JD 1979: Self-actualising educand; second edition. Pretoria: University of South Africa

WEDEPOHL, L 1988: Learning from a literacy project. Cape Town: David Phillips

WINEBURG, S & GROSSMAN, P 1998: Creating a community of learners among high school teachers.

Phi Delta Kappan, 79(5), January 1998:350-353

78