O.U.T Presentation SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS: OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES...

7/31/2019 O.U.T Presentation SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS: OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES AN

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*Public Lecture at the Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies

(FSTES)Day, Open University of Tanzania, 1st August 2012

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS:OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES AND ON THE WAY FORWARD.*

John S. NkomaTanzania Communications Regulatory Authority (TCRA)

P.O. Box 474Dar es Salaam

Email:[email protected]

1. INTRODUCTIONThe objective of this paper is to discuss the importance of scientific research in higherlearning institutions (Ref 1 to 10) by looking at the opportunities, challenges and theway forward. The plan of this paper is as follows. In section 2, we shall look at variousaspects of scientific research, the type of research which employs the scientific method,which can be experimental or theoretical, where the experimental method depends onusing scientific equipment in a laboratory or field, and theoretical method depends onusing mathematics as a tool.

In section 3, we discuss about the opportunities of research. One way to discuss thevarious opportunities is to look at the various science subject areas: Biology, Chemistry,Earth Sciences, Mathematics and Physics. In section 4, we shall confine ourselves tochallenges which confront our research capacity, and by understanding thesechallenges we shall be in a better position to mitigate them. We propose strategies andon possible ways forward in section 5. Concluding remarks are made in section 6.

2.Aspects of Science Research2.1 Experimental or Theoretical/Applied or BasicExperimental or theoretical research can be applied or basic, where applied researchrefers to scientific research that seeks to solve practical problems, while basic researchaims to get more understanding and knowledge. This is illustrated in Table 1.

RESEARCH METHOD APPLIED OR BASIC

EXPERIMENTAL APPLIEDEXPERIMENTAL BASICTHEORETICAL APPLIEDTHEORETICAL BASIC

Table 1: Research can be Experimental or Theoretical, and ALSO Applied orBasic. Branches of science subjects are shown in the next Table.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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2.2 Science SubjectsScience is quite broad, but the subject of this paper refers to the following subjects:Biology, chemistry, earth sciences, mathematics and physics as illustrated in Table 2.

BIOLOGY CHEMISTRY EARTHSCIENCES

MATHEMATICS PHYSICS

BotanyZoologyEcologyMicrobiologyMolecularBioloBiotechnologyBiochemistry

AnatomyPhysiologyCytologyEmbryologyMorphologyGenetics

InorganicChemOrganic ChemPhysical Chem

AnalyticalChemNaturalProductsIndustrialChemPolymer ChemNuclear ChemGeochemistryBiochemistry

EnvironmentalScienceGeologyHydrologyOceanographyLimonologyGlaciologyMeteorology

AlgebraTrigonometryCoordinategeometryCalculusLinear Algebra

Abstract AlgebraReal analysysComplexanalysis

Vector analysisTensor analysisTopologyLogicStatisticsNumericalanalysisComputing

MechanicsGroup theory

MechanicsElectromagnetismOptics

AcousticsThermodynamicsElectronicsQuantum MechStatistical MechRelativityParticle PhysicsNuclear Physics

Atomic PhysicsMolecular PhysicsSolid State PhysGeophysics

Atmospheric PhysEnergy Phys

Agricultural phys

Biophysics

Table 2: Some branches of science subjects

2.3 Some research areas in science subjectsFrom the science subjects seen earlier, there can be several research areas asillustrated in Table 3. The choice as to which reasearch is pursued depends on severalfactors, and the methodology can be experimental or theoretical, and the results can beapplied or basic.

BIOLOGY CHEMISTRY EARTHSCIENCES

MATHEMATICS PHYSICS

Local plantsEcologyFood microbiologyGeneticsBiochemistry

Medicinal plantsNatural productsNatural gasAnalytical chemSoil chemistry

GeologyEnvironmentOceanographyWeatherRift Valley

Operations researchEconomic modellingTraffic flowFluid dynamicsAlgebra

CommunicationsSolar energyAtmospherics PhysGeophysicsAgricultural phys


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SeedsLocal insects andtheir controlWildlifeMarine plants andanimals

Food chemistryWater chemistryBiochemistryCosmeticsNew materialsPharmaceuticals

InsecticidesFertilizersDetergentsPetroleum prod

Industrial physMedical physInstrumentationElectronicsSolid state physNew materials

AcousticsOpticsCorrosinOre analysisNuclear radiation

Table 3: Some areas where science research can be carried out in sciencesubjects: Biology, Chemistry, Earth sciences, Mathematics, Physics can becarried.

2.4 Basic Sciences, Classical and High TechnologiesThere is a close relationship between science and technology (S&T). Essentially, scienceis a know-why, while technology is a know-how. The sciences have contributed a lot toagriculture, engineering and medicine, which are classical technologies. In recent years,basic sciences have contributed a lot to energy, communications, microelectronics,computers, space technology, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, fertilizers, molecularbiology, biotechnology, genetics, which are high technologies. This observation issummarised in Table 4. Also, it is worth recalling one of the great physicists (AbdusSalam, 1987) who said:

The science of today is the technology of tomorrow

BASIC SCIENCE CLASSICALTECHNOLOGY

HIGH TECHNOLOGY

Physics Engineering EnergyCommunications/ICTsMicroelectronicsComputersSpace Technology

Chemistry MedicineAgriculture

PharmaceuticalsInsecticidesFertilizers

Biology MedicineAgriculture

Molecular biologyBiotechnologyGenetics

Table 4: Relationship between basic sciences, classical technologies andhigh technologies


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2.5 Experimental ResearchOne of the prerequisites for experimental research is a well equipped laboratory.Scientific equipment is expensive, and there is therefore a need for sharingbetweenusers from different subjects, faculties or research institutions (See Ref 11-12).

Typical examplesof scientific equipment are mentioned below.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (See Figure 1). In a SEM, a beam ofelectrons is used to interact with a sample resulting into a pattern that givesinformation such as surface topography, composition and other properties.The sample can be biological for biological or medical research or material forchemistry, physics, geological or engineering research.

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) machine (See Figure 2). In an XRD machine, a beamof x-rays (photons of the order of wavelength 0.1 to 0.2 nm or 1 to 2 ) hitsa sample as a function of scattering angle, and the resulting diffractionpattern can be used to obtain information such as cristal structure, chemicalcomposition.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) (See Figure 3). In AAS, radiation fluxwithout a sample and with a sample in the atomizer is measured using adetector, and the ratio between the two is used to detect the chemicalelement of a simple.

Mass Spectrometer (MS) (See Figure 4). In an MS, the mass to charge ratioof a charged particle is measured, and thus the structure of a sample can be

determined. MS is used to study physical, chemical and biological propertiesof several varities of compounds, and thus can be used in biology, chemistry,physics and engineering research.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (See Figure 5). In NMR, a magneticmaterial is placed in a magnetic field, and resonanc is observed depending onthe magnetic field strength and magnetic properties of the atoms of themagnetic material.

Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Devices (SeeFigure 6) and the internet in Scientific Research has become fashionable inrecent years. The applications of ICT devices include e-Government, e-Learning, e-Commerce, e-Health, e-Agriculture and others (See Ref. 13).

Supercomputer (See Figure 7). A supercomputer is a computer withextremely high processing capacity and high speed of processing capacity.


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Library (See Figure 8). A modern library with books, journals and internetfacilities is indispensable in scientific reserach.

Figure 1: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Figure 2: X-ray Diffraction (XRD) machine


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Figure 3: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS)

Figure 4: Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS)


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Figure 5: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

Convergenceof

Technologies

Figure 6: ICT Devices


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Figure 7: Supercomputer

Figure 8: Library with books, journals and internet facilities.


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2.6 Examples from Solid State Physics/Chemistry OR Materials ScienceLet us demonstrate what we have seen above to some examples. First, XRD studiesorebodies from the Cu-Ni mine in Botswana show that they contain chalcopyrite,CuFeS2 as the source of Cu, pentlandite (Fe, Ni)9S8 as the source of Ni, and

pyyyhotite, Fe1-xS as the dominant compound. A typical XRD pattern is shown inFigure 9. The structure of chalcopyrite is illustrated in Figure 10.

Figure 9:After Nkoma and Ekosse (1999)

Figure 10: Chalcopyrite structure, CuFeS2, showing Cu, Fe and S atoms.


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Secondly, a typical XRD pattern for studies of clays is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 11: XRD patter of clays showing peaks for quartz (Q), montmorillonite (M),Illite (I) and Kaolinite (K) (After Nkoma and Ekosse, 1999).

Analysis of the clays by XRD showed that they contain:

Monoclinic Kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4 (See crystal structure in Figure 8), withcalculated lattice parameters as a = 5.1587, b = 8.9414 , c = 7.388 and103.740

Illite, Al2(Si,Al)410(OH)2 and Orthorhombic Montmorrilonite, (Na,Ca)0.3(Al, Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O, withcalculated lattice parameters as a = 5.3131, b = 8.9652, c = 14.8535

Figure 12: Strucure of a kaolinite layer.


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2.7 Theoretical Research2.7.1 Mechanics: Newtonian mechanics and Lagrangian dynamics

ma= F

2.7.2 Electromagnetism: Maxwells Equations

2.7.3 Thermodynamics: The Laws of Thermodynamics

0. Two bodies in thermal equilibrium are at the same temperature

1. Energy can never be created or destroyed

E = Q + W

2. The total entropy of the Universe ( = system plus surroundings) MUST ALWAYSINCREASE in every spontaneous process.

STOTAL = Ssystem + Ssurroundings > 0

3. The entropy, S, of a pure perfectly crystalline compound at T = 0 is ZERO (nodiscorder)ST = 0 = 0


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2.7.4 The Wave Equation2E +2E + 2E = 1 2Ex2 y2 z2 c2t2

2.7.5 Quantum Mechanics: Schrodinger Equation

2.7.6 Statistical Mechanics Distribution Functions

Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution

F (E) = ______1_______AE/kB

T

Bose Einstein Distribution

F (E) = ______1_______

e(E )/k

BT - 1

Fermi Dirac Distribution

F (E) = ______1_______

e(E E

F)/k

BT +1

3 OPPORTUNITIES FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHAn opportunity is a chance or possibility which when taken can lead to a positiveoutcome. The opportunity offered by scientific research is to do research in the severalareas which were summarised in Table 3, for example:

In biology, the following are some of the areas: Local plants, Ecology, Foodmicrobiology, Genetics, Biochemistry, Seeds, Local insects and their control, Wildlife,Marine plants and animals

In chemistry, the following are some of the areas: Medicinal plants, Natural products,Natural gas, Analytical chemistry, Soil chemistry, Food chemistry, Water chemistry,


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Biochemistry, Cosmetics, New materials, Pharmaceuticals, Insecticides, Fertilizers,Detergents, Petroleum products

In earth sciences, the following are some of the areas: Geology, Environment,Oceanography, Weather, Rift Valley

In mathematics, the following are some of the areas: Operations research, Economicmodelling, Traffic flow, Fluid dynamics, Algebra

In physics, the following are some of the areas: Communications, Solar energy,Atmospherics Phys, Geophysics, Agricultural physics, Industrial physics, Medical physics,Instrumentation, Electronics, Solid state physics, New materials, Acoustics, Optics,Corrosin, Ore analysis, Nuclear radiation

4 CHALLENGE TO SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHGenerally the status of scientific research in higher learning institutions in Tanzania isweak, and by understanding these challenges we shall be in a better position tomitigate them. The main challenges appear to be the following, summarised in tenbullets:

Low emphasis on science subjects in the education system Human Resources expertise in science R&D is low (lack of critical mass and

capacity) Financial expenditure and investment in science R&D is low Shortage of books and journals Shortage of laboratories and experimental facilities Low numbers of S&T conferences, seminars and workshops Poor organisation of research in science subjects Poor organisation of research in agriculture Lack of research in local industries Lack of research in medicine Lack of properly managed S&T policy

5 ON THE WAY FORWARDIn this section, we discuss the way forward to improve the status of scientific reaserchin higher learning institutions. These are summarised in the following tenbullets:

In the education system (Primary, Secondary, Universities and other Higherlearning institutions), more emphasis must be put on science subjects

Increase the number of Human Resources experts in science subjects Increase Financial resources in science R&D Encourage more authors books in science subjects


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Increase scientific infrastructure: laboratories and experimental equipment Need for profesional associations in Biology, Chemistry, Earth Sciences,

Mathematics and Physics, as well as an umbrella association for all of these Increase the numbers of S&T conferences, seminars and workshops Need for better coordination of research in science subjects Need for improved linkage between reserach in science and researches in

agriculture, local industries, medicine Need for a better managed S&T policy

6 CONCLUDING REMARKSIn this paper, we have discussed the importance of scientific research in higher learninginstitutions by examining the various aspects of scientific research, includingexperimental or theoretical research, applied or basic. The importance of scientificinfrastructure, including the need for well equipped laboratories. We have looked atvarious opportunities offered by science subject areas: Biology, Chemistry, EarthSciences, Mathematics and Physics, as well as challenges which confront our scientificresearch. Finally, we have looked at some possible ways to improve the status ofscientific research.

References

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12.http://www.taec.ac.tz13.http://www.tcra.go.tz14.Abdus Salam, Science, High Technologies and Development, ICTP (1987)15.J.S. Nkoma and G Ekosse, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 11 121 - 128 (1999), X-

ray Diffraction Study of Chalcopyrite CuFeS2, Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8 andPyrrhotite Fe1-xS obtained from Cu-Ni orebodies''

16.J.S. Nkoma and G Ekosse, Botswana Journal of Earth Sciences 4 28 - 33 (1999),X-ray Diffraction Study of Clays used for making bricks at Lobatse, Botswana:Montmorillonite, Illite and Kaolinite''
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