Our work, our Our work, our lives and working lives and working

timetime How the length of working hours, their fit with How the length of working hours, their fit with preferences and self-employment affect work-life preferences and self-employment affect work-life

outcomes in Australiaoutcomes in Australia

Centre for Work and Life, Hawke Research Institute, University of South Australia

In partnership with the Western Australian State Health Advisory Committee on Work Life Balance and SafeWork SA, Government of South Australia. Australian Research Council Linkage Project (LP0776732)

Natalie SkinnerBarbara Pocock

Philippa Williams

Our Work Our Lives Conference, Adelaide, South Australia, September 2007.

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OverviewOverview

Why are work-life issues important?Why are work-life issues important?

Introduction to AWALIIntroduction to AWALI

Research questions: current studyResearch questions: current study

AWALI measuresAWALI measures

Key findingsKey findings

Implications – policy & practiceImplications – policy & practice

Future studiesFuture studies

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Why are work-life issues Why are work-life issues important?important?

Health economics Health economics (Higgins et al 2004)(Higgins et al 2004)

• 2001, Canada, health costs2001, Canada, health costs• High work-family spillover: C$2.8 billionHigh work-family spillover: C$2.8 billion

Mental and physical health impairmentsMental and physical health impairments

Organisational costs (turnover intention, Organisational costs (turnover intention, performance effectiveness)performance effectiveness)

Reduced marital and life satisfactionReduced marital and life satisfaction

(Kossek & Ozeki 1999; Allen et al. 2000)(Kossek & Ozeki 1999; Allen et al. 2000)

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AWALI MethodologyAWALI Methodology

National survey of work–life outcomesNational survey of work–life outcomes

Repeated annually from March 2007Repeated annually from March 2007

CATI interviews conducted by NewspollCATI interviews conducted by Newspoll

1435 randomly selected working Australians1435 randomly selected working Australians

29 Qs + 10 demographic Qs (Newspoll)29 Qs + 10 demographic Qs (Newspoll)

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Overview of AWALI 2007 sample characteristics (%)

MenMen WomenWomen AllAll ABS labour force ABS labour force surveysurvey11

AllAll 57.357.3 42.742.7 100100 54.9 (male)54.9 (male)

Type of employmentType of employment

EmployeeEmployee 84.384.3 91.191.1 87.587.5 81.281.2

Self-employed Self-employed 15.715.7 8.18.1 12.512.5 18.818.8

Work statusWork status

Full-time (35+ hours per Full-time (35+ hours per week)week)

84.284.2 54.754.7 71.671.6 71.971.9

Part-time (< 35 hours per Part-time (< 35 hours per week)week)

15.815.8 45.345.3 28.428.4 28.128.1

TotalTotal 100100 100100 100100

Trade union membershipTrade union membership 24.124.1 26.326.3 25.025.0 20.320.3

Note. Data weighted by Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) data on age, highest level of schooling completed, sex and area. 1ABS Cat. No. 6310.0 November 2006 and Cat. No. 6202.0 May 2007. ABS data for states includes 2.2% from the Northern Territory, and includes 15–24 year olds in first age group.

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The current studyThe current study What makes a difference to work-life interaction?What makes a difference to work-life interaction?

Three common strategies:Three common strategies: Work part-time (esp. for women)Work part-time (esp. for women) Flexible work scheduling (org policy)Flexible work scheduling (org policy) Self-employmentSelf-employment

Good in theory – but effective in practice?Good in theory – but effective in practice?

Lack of studies directly comparing the three strategiesLack of studies directly comparing the three strategies

Gender differences?Gender differences?

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Measurement of work-life Measurement of work-life interactioninteraction

1. Work interferes with responsibilities or activities outside of work

2. Work restricts time with family or friends

3. Work interferes with connections and friendships in local community

4. Feel rushed or pressed for time

1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = almost always

5. Satisfied with balance between work and rest of life

1 = not at all, 2 = not very, 3 = somewhat, 4 = very

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The work-life indexThe work-life index Average of responses across the 5 work–life Average of responses across the 5 work–life

questionsquestions

Standardised scaleStandardised scale

Mean set at 100 and a standard deviation of Mean set at 100 and a standard deviation of

1515

Similar to interpreting a standard IQ scoreSimilar to interpreting a standard IQ score

But – higher index score indicates worse But – higher index score indicates worse

work-life interactionwork-life interaction

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Work schedule flexibility & Work schedule flexibility & work hourswork hours

Flexibility:Flexibility: Average of 2 items:Average of 2 items:

freedom to decide when do workfreedom to decide when do work working times flexible to meet needsworking times flexible to meet needs 4-point scale: strongly disagree – strongly agree4-point scale: strongly disagree – strongly agree

Work hours:Work hours: Full-timeFull-time

Standard: 35-44 hoursStandard: 35-44 hours Long: 45 + hrsLong: 45 + hrs

Part-timePart-time Short: 15 hrs or lessShort: 15 hrs or less Long: 16-34 hrsLong: 16-34 hrs

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Key findingsKey findings

1.1. Work hoursWork hours

2.2. Flexible work schedulingFlexible work scheduling

3.3. Self-employment Self-employment

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Work hours (%)Work hours (%)

MenMen WomenWomen AllAll

Full-time Full-time (35+ hrs)(35+ hrs)

85.885.8 55.555.5 72.272.2

Part-timePart-time(< 35 hrs)(< 35 hrs)

14.214.2 44.544.5 27.727.7

Standard full-time Standard full-time (35-44 hrs)(35-44 hrs)

43.343.3 33.633.6 38.938.9

Long full-time Long full-time (45+)(45+)

42.542.5 21.921.9 33.333.3

Short part-timeShort part-time(1-15 hrs)(1-15 hrs)

5.85.8 14.714.7 9.89.8

Long part-timeLong part-time(16-34 hrs)(16-34 hrs)

8.48.4 29.829.8 17.917.9

**employees only**

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AllAll MenMen WomenWomen SignificanceSignificance

Work statusWork status

Full-timeFull-time 101.88101.88(15.00)(15.00)

101.34101.34(15.00)(15.00)

103.01103.01(14.97)(14.97)

Main effects work Main effects work status (status (pp < .001) and < .001) and gender gender ((pp < .05) < .05)

Part-timePart-time 94.7294.72(13.96)(13.96)

92.9992.99(14.13)(14.13)

95.3595.35(13.81)(13.81)

Work hoursWork hours

Short part-time (15 hrs or less)Short part-time (15 hrs or less) 91.3991.39(12.86)(12.86)

95.2795.27bb

(14.15)(14.15)91.0191.01(12.34)(12.34)

Main effects work hours Main effects work hours ((pp < .001) and gender ( < .001) and gender (p p < .05)< .05)

Long part-time (16-34 hrs)Long part-time (16-34 hrs) 96.7196.71aa

(14.08)(14.08)93.6193.61bb

(14.03)(14.03)97.7497.74cc

(13.99)(13.99)

Standard full-time (35-44 hrs)Standard full-time (35-44 hrs) 98.6298.62aa

(14.09)(14.09)98.2498.24bb

(14.21)(14.21)99.2499.24cc

(13.92)(13.92)

Long full-time (45+)Long full-time (45+) 105.71105.71(15.14)(15.14)

104.41104.41(15.14)(15.14)

109.24109.24(14.91)(14.91)

Index scores - work hours Index scores - work hours

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Flexible work schedulingFlexible work schedulingAllAll MenMen WomenWomen SignificanceSignificance

FlexibilityFlexibility 97.4397.43(14.19)(14.19)

96.3196.31(13.87)(13.87)

98.5598.55(14.56)(14.56)

Main effects Main effects flexibility (flexibility (pp < .001) < .001) and gender (and gender (pp < .01) < .01)

No flexibilityNo flexibility 102.75102.75(15.33)(15.33)

101.39101.39(15.90)(15.90)

104.10104.10(14.61)(14.61)

• No interaction effect with work status (part-time/full-time)

• Flexible work scheduling beneficial regardless of long/short full time/part time

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Self employmentSelf employment No significant difference in index scores employees vs No significant difference in index scores employees vs

self-employedself-employed

Similar patterns as with employees:Similar patterns as with employees: Higher scores for full-time compared to part-time workersHigher scores for full-time compared to part-time workers Women higher scores than men (controlling hours)Women higher scores than men (controlling hours)

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Multivariate analysisMultivariate analysis

Binomial logistic regressionBinomial logistic regression

Poor work-life interaction defined as the highest 33% Poor work-life interaction defined as the highest 33%

of scoresof scores

Separate analyses for men and womenSeparate analyses for men and women

Collapsed work hours categories into part-time and Collapsed work hours categories into part-time and

full-timefull-time

Excludes self-employedExcludes self-employed

Controlled for: Controlled for: age, income, education (university age, income, education (university

education or not) and parental statuseducation or not) and parental status

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MenMen WomenWomen

ßß Odds ratioOdds ratio 95% CI95% CI ßß Odds ratioOdds ratio 95% CI95% CI

Work hoursWork hours

Part-timePart-time -.57-.57 .56.56 .26 - 1.22.26 - 1.22 -.52-.52 .59.59 .35 - 1.00 .35 - 1.00

Long full-timeLong full-time(Base: standard full-(Base: standard full-

time)time)

.52**.52** 1.691.69 1.14 - 2.511.14 - 2.51 .839**.839** 2.322.32 1.33 -4 .031.33 -4 .03

Work flexibilityWork flexibility(Base: flexibility (Base: flexibility

available)available)

.63**.63** 1.891.89 1.30 – 2.741.30 – 2.74 1.04***1.04*** 2.842.84 1.82 - 4.421.82 - 4.42

-2 Log Likelihood-2 Log Likelihood 689.26689.26 513.46513.46

ConstantConstant -1.76***-1.76*** -1.82***-1.82***

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Key findings:Key findings: Importance of capacity and opportunities to negotiate Importance of capacity and opportunities to negotiate

flexibilityflexibility Across part-time and full-time workAcross part-time and full-time work

Part-time work is not the “silver bullet” of negative work-life Part-time work is not the “silver bullet” of negative work-life spilloverspillover

Nor is self-employmentNor is self-employment Long hours have a significant impact – especially for womenLong hours have a significant impact – especially for women

Policy/practice implications:Policy/practice implications: UK: parents’ right to request flexible working practices UK: parents’ right to request flexible working practices

(Employment Act 2002)(Employment Act 2002)

EU: 1993 Directive on working time – max working hours 48 EU: 1993 Directive on working time – max working hours 48 hours weekly (on average)hours weekly (on average)

Policy and practicePolicy and practice

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Study limitationsStudy limitations

Small sample sizes some groups:Small sample sizes some groups: Women working long full-time hoursWomen working long full-time hours Men working part-time hours (esp short part-time)Men working part-time hours (esp short part-time)

Absence of questions on unsocial working times Absence of questions on unsocial working times

Reliance on single & dual-item questions on job Reliance on single & dual-item questions on job characteristics (ie flexibility)characteristics (ie flexibility)

CATI costsCATI costs

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FutureFuture plansplans

Annual data collectionAnnual data collection Next 3 years funded through ARC Linkage Project ‘Work/Life Balance, Next 3 years funded through ARC Linkage Project ‘Work/Life Balance,

Well-Being and Health: Theory, Practice and Policy’Well-Being and Health: Theory, Practice and Policy’

Modification to itemsModification to items Add item(s): eg unsociable work hours, positive spilloverAdd item(s): eg unsociable work hours, positive spillover

Survey of WA health workforce Survey of WA health workforce (ARC Linkage Project)(ARC Linkage Project)

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Further informationFurther information

Pocock B, Williams, P & Skinner N 2007, ‘The Pocock B, Williams, P & Skinner N 2007, ‘The Australian Work and Life Index (AWALI): Concepts, Australian Work and Life Index (AWALI): Concepts, Methodology & Rationale’, Centre for Work + Life Methodology & Rationale’, Centre for Work + Life Discussion Paper 1/07, May 2007. Discussion Paper 1/07, May 2007.

Pocock B, Williams, P & Skinner N 2007, ‘Work Life and Pocock B, Williams, P & Skinner N 2007, ‘Work Life and Time: The Australian Work and Life Index 2007’, Centre Time: The Australian Work and Life Index 2007’, Centre for Work + Life Discussion Paper 1/07, May 2007. for Work + Life Discussion Paper 1/07, May 2007.

http://www.unisa.edu.au/hawkeinstitute/cwl/http://www.unisa.edu.au/hawkeinstitute/cwl/publications.asppublications.asp