OUR TARGETSINTRO TO COGNITIVE

PSYCHOLOGYVIDEO TAKE NOTES

• HOMEWORK• COMPLETE

ASSIGNMENT ON KOGNITY

• Psychology SL Assignment #1

• DUE BEFORE FIRST PERIOD TOMORROW

OUR TARGETSCognitive lecture

HISTORYCognitive psychologyAn approach to psychology which focuses on the relationship between cognitive or

mental processes and behavior.

WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW• Theorists that contributed to CLA

Targets of the Cognitive analysisGeneral learning outcomes• Outline principles that define the cognitive

level of analysis.• Explain how principles that define the

cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories

and/or studies).• Discuss how and why particular research

methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.

• Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of

analysis.Cognitive processes• Evaluate schema theory with reference to

research studies• Evaluate two models of theories of one

cognitive process with reference to research studies

• Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Cognitive processes• Discuss how social or cultural factors affect

one cognitive process• With reference to relevant research studies,

to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

• Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Cognition and emotion• To what extent do cognitive and biological

factors interact in emotion• Evaluate one theory of how emotion may

affect one cognitive process

SOURCE JOHN CRANE PSYCH-IB SYLLABUS

General theorists to know • Hermann Ebbinghaus,

Tversky and Kahnemann, Jean Piaget, Leon Festinger, Frederic Bartlett, Aaron Beck, Albert Ellis.

• Memory Research (some is biological): Atkinson & Shiffrin, Craik & Lockhart,  Flourens & Lashley, Thompson, Brown & Kulik, Milner, Morris, Cole & Scribner, Elizabeth Loftus.

SOURCE JOHN CRANE PSYCH-IB SYLLABUS

IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT GAVE RISE TO THE COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

•Theorists did not agree with behaviorism (stimulus and response)Cognitive Perspective involves the following:1. Computer Technology and Artificial Intelligence

Norbert Wiener-created the term cybernetics to refer to anysystem that has built-in correction mechanisms, i.e. is self-steering. John Crane

Also the terms feedback, input and output. Alan Turing- The Turing Machine idea which is a computer.(1936) Considered

the father of Computer Science.Ludwig von Bertalanffy- “Modern Theories of Development, where he

introduced the question of whether we could explain biology in purely physical terms”

2. LinguisticsNoam Chomsky-generative grammar-create new sentences which never been spoken before. Interested in the organization of language, mental structure and

“believed that language was species-specific(human only). All these make him truly “cognitive”.”-John Crane

IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT GAVE RISE TO THE COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

3. Studies on the develop of knowledgeJean Piaget-known as the creator of cognitive psychology.

Creator of the term “genetic epistemology-meaningthe study of the development of knowledge.”-John Crane

“Infant explored his or her environment and so how they gained more knowledge of the world and more sophisticated exploratory skills.

These skills he called schemas (e.g. assimilation, accommodation).”4. Famous theorists of Cognitive Psychology

• Hermann Ebbinghaus-meaningfulness of syllables, memorization and relearning old material.

• Tolman-cognitive maps animals have an internal representation of behavior.• Kohler-insight learning with apes-problem solving

• Bartlett-existence of schemas• Bandura-observation learning

IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT GAVE RISE TO THE COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

5. First Cognitive Psychologists•Donald Hebb – “Finding of the Hebb synapse,Hebb cell assembly which is called. consolidation theory, and is the most accepted explanation for neural learning today.

Thinking is what happens when complex sequences of these cell assemblies are activated. He humbly suggested that his theory is just a new version of

connectionism.”-John Crane•George A. Miller- limits to short-term memory could only hold about seven pieces

called chunks.•Ulric Neisser –” research interests include memory, especially

memory for life events and in natural settings; intelligence, especially individual and group differences in test scores, IQ tests and their social significance; self-concepts,

especially as based on self-perception.”-John Crane

HOMEWORKKOGNITY ASSIGNMENT #2 THESE ARE GOING IN THE GRADEBOOK AS CLASSWORK

OUR TARGETS• Information Process Model Lecture• Complete Kognity Assignments

Success Criteria• Know the foundation of Cognitive

Psychology• Know the Information Process Model

The Cognitive Level of AnalysisMain focus and assumptions• Cognition- is the mental act or process by which

knowledge is acquired.Focus on the following• humans process information, looking at how we

treat information that comes in to the person (stimuli) and how this treatment leads to responses.

• interested in the variables that intervene between stimulus/input and response/output.

• Perception, Attention, Memory and Language. – Perception acquiring knowledge– Attention concerned with acquisition.– Memory deals with organizing and

retaining knowledge– Language –how we use it for knowledge

Information Processing Model• work with models of the human mind• study processes that are not directly observable

BASIC INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

INPUT PROCESSES• Concerned with perception & sensory registrationSTORAGE & RELATED PROCESSES• Concerned with elaborating, manipulating, selecting & storing infoOUTPUT PROCESSES• Concerned with production of appropriate responses

InputOutput

Information Processing

STIMULUSINPUT

PROCESSES

STORAGE RELATED

PROCESSESOUTPUT

PROCESSES RESPONSE

• Broadbent’s (1958) idea that much of cognition consists of a sequence of stages (input/attention/perception, storage, retrieval)

One application of the information processing model: Artificial Intelligence

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science of making machines do the sort of things that are done by human minds (Boden 1987).

• Computer metaphor involves viewing the brain as being like a computer.

• “AI models assume the human mind functions in an analogous way to the computer and so in AI, computers are tools that are used to try and understand how information is processed by the human mind”- John Crane

MISUNDERSTOOD LYRICSOur Targets

Selective listening Activity

• Write as many lyrics down

• Take your lyrics and come up with the meaning

• Are you correct?Success CriteriaKnow the following theories:• Selective Attention• Feature Extraction• Review Short term

and long term memory

Outline one key concept from the cognitive perspective and show how it can be used to explain behaviour

SELECTIVE ATTENTIONIs your ability to pick and choose among various available inputs.

SELECTION THEORY(1960)–DONALD BROADBENT ARGUED THAT WE ATTEND TO ONLY ONE OF THE MANY CHANNELS OF INFORMATION REACHING US AT ANY TIME BECAUSE THESE CHANNELS ARE LIMITED. –DICHOTIC LISTENING TASK, SUBJECTS COULD REPORT HEARING THEIR NAME IN THE CHANNEL THEY HAD BEEN INSTRUCTED TO IGNORE. OTHERS WERE TOLD TO IGNORE ONE CHANEL BUT WERE ABLE TO REPORT THE FLOW OF A COMPLETE STORY EVEN THOUGH THE STORY WAS SWITCHED WITHOUT WARNING TO THE IGNORED CHANNEL.

ATTENUATION THEORY(1964)–ANNE TREISBENT’S FILTER SHE TOOK BROADBENTS STUDY AND SUPPRESSED OTHER CHANNELS BUT DID NOT ELIMINATE THEM. ACCORDING TO HER STUDY INFORMATION WAS STILL BEING PROCESSED.

Outline one key concept from the cognitive perspective and show how it can be used to explain behaviour

RESULTS FROM THESE STUDIES– SELECTIVE ATTENTION DOES NOT BLOCK OUT ALL STIMULI.– ASSUME THAT YOU WILL FIRST ANALYZE THE VARIETY OF

INFORMATION AND YOU WILL THEN FOCUS ON A SELECT FEW AND DIRECT MOST OF YOUR CONSCIOUS ATTENTION TO THEM.

What makes one input more important than another?1. INFORMATION THAT LEADS TO MORE SATISFACTION TO AN URGENT

NEED SUCH AS HUNGER2. PRIORITY TO INPUTS THAT ARE STRANGE OR NOVEL. EXAMPLE IF

YOU ARE AT A FORMAL PARTY AND SOMEONE COMES IN NUDE.3. PRIORITY TO INTEREST SUCH AS HEARING YOUR NAME. OR WHEN

YOU BECOME INTERESTED IN A HOBBY YOU START TO NOTICE IT EVERYWHERE.

Outline one key concept from the cognitive perspective and show how it can be used to explain behaviour

FEATURE EXTRACTIONIs your way of deciding which aspects of the selected channels you will focus

on.

• Extract the significant features of an input helps a person to identify it and compare it to other inputs.

• Feature extraction depends on experience on knowing what to look for. • Example-Looking for the “juicy” parts in a book.

Outline one key concept from the cognitive perspective and show how it can be used to explain behaviour

STORING INFORMATIONWe call this memory.

• Sensory storage only holds information for only a second.• Short term memory keeps it in mind as long as you repeat it.

• Long term memory can store it indefinitely.

SHORT TERM MEMORY• Ways to move items from short term memory to long term

memory.• Rehearsal

• REPETITION

CIAMTVFBINATOUSASAT

CIA MTV FBI NATO USA SAT

• Chunking- breaking up items. Grouping them in how they are related.

HOW MANY DOTS DO YOU SEE!!!!!!

• WE REMEMBER NEW PHONE #’S IN TWO TO THREE CHUNKS

• 2535717339 OR 253-571-7339

• FOR THIS TO MOVE INTO LONG TERM WE NEED TO REHEARSE

LONG TERM MEMORY• This is where we store

information for future use.

Identify one research method used by psychologists working within the cognitive perspective and describe how this method has been applied in

one empirical study OTHER MODELS OF MEMORYENDEL TULVING(1972)• SEMANITIC MEMORY- OUR OWN KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE, RULES

AND WORDS. WE SHARE WITH OTHERS WHO SPEAK OUR LANGUAGE.• EPISODIC MEMORY- MEMORY OF OUR OWN LIFEL.R. SQUIRE(1987)• DECLARITIVE MEMORY-(EXPLICIT MEMORY) INCLUDES BOTH SEMANITIC

AND EPISODIC MEMORY. YOU USE THIS WHEN YOU NEED IT. (CONSCIOUS)

ROEDIGER (1990)• PROCEDURAL MEMORY- (IMPLICIT MEMORY) DOES NOT REQUIRE

CONSCIOUS RECOLLECTION TO HAVE PAST LEARNING OR EXPERIENCES IMPACT OUR PERFORMANCES.

• PROCEDURAL MEMORY INVOLVES SKILLS LEARNED AS WE MATURE SUCH AS DRIVING A CAR OR LEARNING TO TIE YOUR SHOES.

• AS WE GAIN SKILL WE WILL LEARN THE ABILITY TO DESCRIBE WHAT WE ARE DOING. IT WILL ACTUALLY SLOW US DOWN.

• ANOTHER FORM OF PROCEDURAL MEMORY IS PRIMING.

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HOW LONG DID IT TAKE YOU TO GET THE PUZZLE RIGHT?

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HOW LONG DID IT TAKE YOU THIS TIME?

Our Targets• Cognitive lecture• More on memory• Intro to Language

Success CriteriaKnow the following :• Priming• Retrieving-Storing-

Improving information

• Memory and the brain

• Thinking and problem solving

RETRIEVING INFORMATION• Recognition provides insight how information is stored

in memory. • Recall is the active reconstruction of information.• deals with attitudes and personal knowledge.• Eidetic memory-photographic memory only 5% of us

has that.• Relearning• Forgetting-inputs fade away and disappear.

IMPROVING MEMORY• 1. Associate items with things you know.• 2. Don’t over learn or over study. Study a little at a time. • 3. Mnemonic devices are techniques using associations to memorize information.

THINKING• Changing and

reorganizing the information stored in memory in order to create new information.

• Units of thought• Image a mental

representation of a specific event or object.

• Symbol a sound or design that represents an object quality.

• Concept is when a symbol is used to label a class of objects. Ex: animals. Concept helps us chunk large information.

• Directed thinking is a systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal.

• Non directed thinking has no order and tends to random.

PROBLEM SOLVING

• Strategies-specific methods.• Set-when a particular strategy becomes

a habit. Creativity• Is the ability to use information in such a

way that the result is somehow new, original and meaningful.

Flexibility• The ability to overcome rigidity.• Recombination when the elements of the

problem are familiar but the solution is not.

Insight• Occurs when the problems have proved

resistant to all problem solving efforts and strategies. Frustration happens and you stop and temporarily abandon the task but recombination happens at the unconscious level. And you have an “AHA” experience.

• An epiphany happens and you solve the problem.

MEMORY AND THE BRAIN

SOME PSYCHOLOGISTS THEORIZE IT IS CHANGE IN THE NEURONAL STRUCTURE OF NERVES.

OTHERS CONTEND THAT LEARNING IS BASED ON THE MOLECULAR OR CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE BRAIN.

PROCEDURAL MEMORIES- INVOLVES ACTIVITY IN YOUR BRAIN CALLED THE STRIATUM, DEEP IN THE FRONT PART OF YOUR CORTEX.

DECLARATIVE MEMORIES RESULT FROM ACTIVITY IN THE HIPPOCAMPUS AND AMYGDALA. (MISHKIN & PETRI 1984)

IT IS NOT CLEAR HOW NERVE CELLS (NEURONS) ESTABLISH CONNECTIONS WITH ONE ANOTHER WHEN LEARNING OCCURS.

COMPLEX PROCESS OF CHEMICALS PRECEDES THE FORMATION OF NEW CONNECTIONS OF NEURONS.

INCREASE LEVELS OF CALCIUM, PROTEIN AND LEVELS OF GLUCOSE. HAVE BEEN EVIDENT WITH NEW BRAIN RESEARCH. (KALAT 1992) WHAT TYPE OF FOOD WOULD HELP WITH MEMORY ACCORDING TO THIS STUDY?

HOMEWORK• WATCH ON YOUTUBE

• Genie (Secret of the Wild Child) https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA• COMPLETE WORKSHEET AND TURN IN ON

TUESDAY

OUR TARGETS• BRIEF DISCUSSION ON GENIE

• TURN IN HOMEWORK• THEORIES OF PERCEPTION

SUCCESS CRITERIA • DEFINE AND EXPLAIN PERCEPTION• CONNECT THEORISTS TO PERCEPTION• OPTICAL ILLUSIONS AND THE BRAIN

THEORIES OF PERCEPTION• Each sense organ is part of a sensory system which

receives sensory inputs and transmits sensory information to the brain.

• A major theoretical issue on which psychologists are divided is the extent to which perception relies directly on the information present in the stimulus.

• Some argue that perceptual processes are not direct, but depend on the perceiver's expectations and previous knowledge as well as the information available in the stimulus itself.

EXPLAINING PERCEPTION - A TOP-DOWN APPROACHHelmholtz (1821-1894)-founder of perceptual research.• sensations and our conscious perception of the real

world there must be intermediate processes.• believed perception is more than direct registration

of sensations, but that other events intervene between stimulation and experience.

PERCEPTIONS AS HYPOTHESES - R L GREGORY (B 1923)• signals received by the sensory receptors trigger neural events, and appropriate knowledge interacts

with these inputs to enable us to makes sense of the world.• we respond to certain objects as though they are doors even though we can only see a long narrow

rectangle as the door is ajar.• Perceptions can be ambiguousPERCEPTUAL SET• "a perceptual bias or predisposition or readiness to perceive particular features of a stimulus".

Allport 1955• Perceptual set is a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and

ignore others.• According to Vernon, 1955 set works in two ways:

– (1) The perceiver has certain expectations and focuses attention on particular aspects of the sensory data: This he calls a 'Selector'.

– (2) The perceiver knows how to classify, understand and name selected data and what inferences to draw from it. This he calls an 'Interpreter'.

• Factors that influence • Expectations• Emotion• Motivation• Culture

EMOTION/ MOTIVATION THEORYBRIEF BIO HISTORY• Genetics – evolutionary theory• Homeostatic drive theories (Cannon 1929)

– Hypothalamic theory– Glucostatic theory (Tardoff, 82)– Lipostatic theory

• Drive-reduction theory (Hull, 1943)– physiological needs + psychological drives.

• Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954)• Cognitive theories of motivation

– combine with social motivational needs or desires

• Curiosity (need to explore), cognitive consistency (to think and act in consistent way - Festinger), need for control (to assert control over one’s life – otherwise, e.g. learned helplessness), need for achievement (MacClelland – Thematic Appreciation Test). (Crane 2013)

Expectation- Bruner & Minturn, 1955

MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONAllport, 1955 has distinguished 6 types of motivational-emotional influence on perception:• (i) bodily needs (eg physiological needs)• (ii) reward and punishment• (iii) emotional connotation• (iv) individual values• (v) personality• (vi) the value of objects.STUDYGilchrist & Nesberg• 1952, found participants who had gone without food for the longest periods were more likely to rate

pictures of food as brighter. This effect did not occur with non-food Pictures.

CULTUREDeregowski• perceiving perspective in drawings is in fact a specific cultural skill, which is learned

rather than automatic• Several cultures prefer drawings which don't show perspective, but instead are split

so as to show both sides of an object at the same time

OUR TARGETS• FEATURE

EXTRACTION LECTURE

• GENIE THE WILD CHILD

OUR TARGETS• MEMORY, MEMORY

OUR TARGETS• Models of memory

• RETRIEVING INFORMATION LECTURE

Answer 1. Wrapping Paper (rap + ping + paper)

2. Tinsel (tin + sell)

3. Nutcracker (nut + cracker)

4. Mistletoe (Miss + ell + toe)

5. Fruitcake (fruit + cake)

6. Chestnuts (chest + nuts)

7. Reindeer (rain + dear)

OUR TARGETSNOTES ALL DAY• Cognitive labeling theory • Cognitive appraisal theory • Role of brain structures• Optical Illusions

(perception)Crash Course• Perceiving • Sensation Perception

Cognitive labeling theory – Schachter and Singer (’62) • all emotional experiences are preceded by a generalized state of arousal. The nature of the subjective

experience is determined (“labelled”) by the individual’s cognitive assessment based on external, situational cues or internal ones such as imagination. – the study

• emotions are learned, as an emotional label is derived from previous experiences of emotion in similar situations.

Cognitive appraisal theory – extension of the above – Lazarus (’91) – • the experience of emotion is related to how one appraises it – his study: participants who viewed a film

of industrial accidents experienced less stress if told that the characters were actors (denial condition) or were asked to consider the film in terms of its value for promoting safety at work (intellectualization) than when given no instructions.

EMOTION/ MOTIVATION THEORYJames-Lange theory of emotion (1880’s)• bodily changes come first and form the basis of

an emotional experienceCannon-Bard theory of emotion – (1927)• changes of emotional state and changes

in ANS occur simultaneouslyRole of brain structures• The Papez circuit (’37) – hypothalamus

(emotional expression) + limbic system (emotional feeling); (-) it is oversimplified;

• Papez-MacLean limbic model (‘49) – improvements to Papez, increased emphasis on the hippocampus and amygdala (:aggression). (-) the model deals mainly with high-intensity emotions, such as rage and fear.

• LeDoux’s modified limbic theory (‘95) – two separate brain circuits involved in emotion: rapid

• emotional response (thalamus – amygdala) and slower emotional response (thalamus – cortex,

• thereby affected by higher mental processes)

the limbic system is a network of structures in the forebrain, including the hypothalamus,

thalamus, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex.

Optical Illusions• An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by

visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. • The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a

percept that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source.

• Physiological ones that are the effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation of a specific type (brightness, tilt, color, movement)

• Cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make unconscious inferences. They can also be known as "mind games".

• Changizi, Mark A. et al. (2008): Perceiving the Present and a Systematization of Illusions. Cognitive Science 32,3 : 459-503.

OUR TARGETS•  COGNITIVE

LECTURE– EYEWITNESS

TESTIMONY– Relapse-

Prevention Training

– Changing recollection

EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY• In 1976 the Devlin Committee analyzed all the identification parades held

in England & Wales during 1973 and found that when a suspect had been picked out 82% were subsequently convicted (Baddeley, 1993)

• Nickerson & Adams (1975) also found that people are very poor at recalling the appearance of objects seen every day. They asked subjects to draw what was represented on each issue of a US penny. They found that on average people could only remember around three out of eight critical features and even those features recalled were often placed wrongly.

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESAttentional Focus• evidence suggests that memory of a violent event is stronger than that

for a neutral event (Baddeley, 1993). For example, Loftus (1975) found that subjects tend to focus on the weapon rather than on the appearance of the assailant.

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESRelapse-Prevention Training• eyewitnesses are often asked leading questions.LOFTUS• one study people watched a film of a car crash and one group were then

asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” Other groups were asked the same question, but the word hit was replaced with either smashed, collided, bumped or contacted. She found that speed estimates were highest (40.8 mph) when the word smashed was used, lower with collided (39.3 mph) and lower still with bumped (38.1 mph). The lowest estimates were from hit (34 mph) and contacted (31.8 mph). Added to this, when the same subjects were contacted a week later and asked about whether there had been any broken glass, those who had been presented with the word smashed were consistently more likely to report (incorrectly) that glass had been broken.

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESChanging recollectioneyewitnesses are often asked leading questions.LOFTUS• it is possible to change a witness’s recollection by subtly introducing new

information during questioning. Subjects were shown a series of slides representing a traffic accident in which a pedestrian was knocked down at a pelican crossing. A green car drove past the accident without stopping, a police car arrived, and a passenger from one of the cars in the accident ran for help. Subjects were asked 12 questions about the incident. Question 10 made reference to the blue car that drove past the accident. When asked 20 minutes later to recall the colour of the car that drove by without stopping who have been given the false information tended to choose blue or bluish-green rather than green!

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESTheoretical Interpretation LOFTUS• “false memories” were not due to social pressure, lack of confidence or failure to

notice important information in the first place. She argues that it is the actual memory trace itself that is changed by subsequent information. It appears that what we remember is a combination of what we see and what we subsequently think.

Bekerian & Bowers• argue that the original trace survives and can be retrieved given the correct

retrieval cues.• Morton (1995) who makes a distinction between primary memory records and

secondary memory records. He suggests that primary records are the way in which particular events are represented in the brain and are laid down at the time of the event itself (like episodic memory). When you then try to recall an event you create a secondary record. The secondary record results from the retrieval of primary records. Therefore, there will be two records: the event itself and the recall of the event subsequently. The secondary record may well be distorted by leading questions and by information from semantic memory, but the primary record will not be altered at all: given the correct retrieval cue, therefore, it could be recalled intact.

OUR TARGETS•  COGNITIVE LECTURE

– FALSE MEMORIES– FACE RECOGNITION

OUR TARGETSIntroduction to

Cognitive Project

IB Cognitive Psychology Project Requirements

•  Creating a 5 slide PowerPoint on your study• You need to include the following:• A video that represents your study• What was the aim or hypothesis of the study• Who conducted the study, materials,

participants, method and design of study• Brief bio on the researchers• One specific new study that relate to yours• Why is this study relevant to Cognitive

Psychology? Look at Cognitive Targets• Small replication of the study and example• Each person in your group will have to teach

a slide.•  Presentations of this study will start

December 15. You will receive class time to work on this project but use your time wisely.

• WORK PLAN-DUE TOMORROW B. PERIOD

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESTheoretical Interpretation • Are you likely to claim “I never forget a face”? How justifiable is such a claim?

Woodhead & Baddeley (1981) carried out a study in which 100 Cambridge housewives were shown a series of unfamiliar faces and then asked to recognize them when they were re-presented together with a series of similar, but new faces. These housewives were also asked how good they thought their memory of faces was. There were huge differences between how well they performed in the recognition test and how good they though their memory was.

• memory for faces depends on a particular system located in a special part of the brain

Accuracy of face recognition• Penry invented the Photo-fit, which comprises a box containing sets of features

(chins, noses, eyes etc.) which can be put together to form a face. Penry believed that in order to perceive and remember a human face one has to abstract the various features and categorise them systematically.

• the perception of a face depends on processing the pattern of features, paying attention to the way in which each feature is related to another, rather than isolating individual features.

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESAccuracy of face recognition• Penry invented the Photo-fit, which comprises a box containing sets of features

(chins, noses, eyes etc.) which can be put together to form a face. Penry believed that in order to perceive and remember a human face one has to abstract the various features and categorise them systematically.

• the perception of a face depends on processing the pattern of features, paying attention to the way in which each feature is related to another, rather than isolating individual features.

Identity Parades• the suspect is presented together with a number of non-suspects who look

broadly like the suspectsubtle influences:• criminal as good-looking it would be important to find out what was meant by

“good-looking”• bias in recognition in an identity parade is clothing. This issue was studied by

Thomson (1983) who showed that the clothing worn by a criminal could cause someone else wearing similar clothes to be identified as the perpetrator of the crime.

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESIdentity Paradessubtle influences:• Thomson (1983) also reported a case that actually happened to him. He was

arrested and placed in a line-up, identified and charged with rape. He said that at the time the rape had taken place he was taking part in a television discussion (on, strangely enough, the unreliability of eyewitness testimony!) and could not have committed the rape. It turned out that the woman had been 7 raped while watching the program and had correctly recognized his face but had incorrectly assigned his face to the crime. This is called unconscious transference.

• identity parade includes the criminal. Since this may not be the case, then there is clearly a danger that that false identifications will be encourage. Witnesses will assume the criminal is in the line-up and may feel pressured to come up with a

• positive identification. One way of avoiding this is to present the people in the line-up one at a time, without telling the witness how many people will be presented to them. Lindsey et al (1991) tried this and found that this kind of sequential presentation reduced the occasions on which subjects identified an innocent person.

SOURCE-DIRECTLY FROM-http://cranepsych.edublogs.org/files/2009/06/eyewitness_testimony.pdf

THE RELIABILITY OF WITNESSESPerson Memory• Memory for people and events is thought to be of two types: episodic and

semanticMemory for people seems to fall into three categories (Fiske & Cox,1979)1. memory for appearance: what the person looked like and was wearing. This is

the first thing that people tend to recall and is directly retrievable from episodic memory because it can actually be observed.

2. memory for behavior: what the person was doing. This is the second thing that people tend to recall and can also be retrieved directly from episodic memory.

3. memory for traits: what kind of person they were. This is the last think that people recall and, because it involves inference, is usually the least reliable. It is not directly observable and may involve information from semantic memory.

Memory for personality traits tends to be of two types (Rosenberg & Sedlak, 1972)

• (a) social desirability-(b) competence characteristics• remembering the assailant in an attack then you will tend to be swayed by your

assumptions about their social desirability and competence.• Another thing that seems to improve person memory is encouraging someone to• imagine themselves in the other person’s shoes (Havey et al, 1980); doing this

helps them recall more about the other person.

STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES

(+)Cognitive psychology uses the laboratory experimental method.(-) laboratory experimentation seems culture-biased and gender-biased.(+) scientific based(+) uses humans in their experiments(+) brain scanning techniques for memory, attention, problem solving (: the

field of cognitive neuropsychology(+) case studies on damaged brain patients (-) poor representativeness, poor experimental controlMore Methods Used• field experiment (+) natural conditions, (-) poor control of extraneous variables, not verbal protocol – people reporting on how they solve a problem(-) problem of introspection – subjectivity;• verbal reportobservation • questionnaires

OUR TARGETSCOGNITIVE REVIEW• READ ARTICLES AT YOUR TABLES• AS A GROUP CREATE A STUDY GUIDE

SUMMARY OF ARTICLE. YOU WILL DO THIS ON POSTER PAPER

• CONNECT ARTICLE TO ONE OR MORE OF THE COGNITIVE TARGETS

• DUE AT THE END OF THE PERIOD• KEEP ARTICLE REFERENCE

THIS WEEK INFO• TOMORROW YOU WILL RECEIVE

ARTICLE TO PREPARE YOU FOR SOCRATIC SEMINAR ON WED

• THURSDAY COGNITIVE REVIEW• FRIDAY COGNITIVE TEST