ota.fas.org · Foreword Over the last decade, American education has come to face a number of new...

Informational Technology and Its Impact onAmerican Education

November 1982

NTIS order #PB83-174664

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-600608

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

Foreword

Over the last decade, American education has come to face a number of newdemands that must be met with limited resources. Many of these new demandsarise from the rising dependence of our society on technology as a basis for domesticeconomic growth, international competitiveness, and national security. In October1980, the House Committee on Education and Labor, its Subcommittee on SpecialEducation, and the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology of theHouse Committee on Science and Technology asked OTA to examine the extentto which information technology could serve American needs for education andtraining.

This report documents two basic sets of conclusions:

1. The so-called information revolution, driven by rapid advances in communica-tion and computer technology, is profoundly affecting American education.It is changing the nature of what needs to be learned, who needs to learn it,who will provide it, and how it will be provided and paid for.

2. Information technology can potentially improve and enrich the educationalservices that traditional educational institutions provide, distribute educa-tion and training into new environments such as the home and office, reachnew clients such as handicapped or homebound persons, and teach job-relatedskills in the use of technology.

The OTA report provides an overview of the issues relating to the educationalapplications of the new information technologies. It examines both the demandsthat the information revolution will make on education and the opportunities af-forded by the new information technologies to meet those demands. Rather thanfocusing on a single technology, it examines a wide variety of new informationproducts and services such as those based on the combined capabilities of com-puters, telecommunications systems, and video technologies. Similarly, the reportsurveys a broad range of educational providers, and examines how the applica-tion of information technologies may affect their abilities to provide educationand their respective educational roles.

OTA acknowledges with thanks and appreciation the advice and counsel ofthe panel members, contractors, other agencies of Government, and individualparticipants who helped bring the study to completion.

. .///

Informational Technology and Its Impact onAmerican Education Advisory Panel

Willis AdcockAssistant Vice PresidentTexas Instruments Inc.

Joel N. BloomDirectorFranklin InstituteScience Museum and Planetarium

Colleen CaytonMaxima Corp.

Robert L. ChartrandCongressional Research Service

Mark CurtisPresidentAssociation of American Colleges

L. Linton DeckFairfax County Schools (Virginia)

Sam GibbonBank Street College

Harold Howe, 11Harvard Graduate School of Education

Robert HoyeDirector, Instructional TechnologyUniversity of Louisville

Judith LozanoSuperintendent of Southside School DistrictSan Antonio, Tex.

Maurice MitchellChairman of the BoardNational Public Radio

Sarah ResnickPresidentMedia Systems Corp.

Vic WallingStanford Research Institute

Nellouise WatkinsDirector, Computer CenterBennett College

Joe WyattVice President for AdministrationHarvard University

Informational Technology and Its Impact onAmerican Education Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTAScience, Information, and Natural Resources Division

Stephen E. Doyle* and Sam Hale,** Interim Program ManagerCommunication and Information Technologies Program

Fred W. Weingarten, Project Director

Prudence S. Adler, Assistant Project Director***

Dorothy Linda Garcia, Analyst

Beth A. Brown, In-House Consultant

Susan F. Cohen, Congressional Fellow

Linda G. Roberts, Consultant (Senior Associate, Department of Education on detail)

Elizabeth Emanuel, Administrative Assistant

Shirley Gayheart, Secretary

Teresa Richroath, Secretary

Jeanette Contee, Wordprocessor

Contractors

Christopher Dede, University of HoustonBeverly Hunter, Brian K. Waters, and Janice H. Laurence,

Human Resources Research OrganizationSharon Lansing, ConsultantKathryn M. White, Editor, WriterRenee G. Ford, Tifford Producers, Ltd., Editor, WriterDeeana Nash, Collingwood Associates

OTA Publishing Staff

John C. Holmes,

John Bergling Kathie S. BossDoreen Cullen

Publishing Officer

Debra M. Datcher Joe HensonDonna Young

v

Acknowledgments

The following individuals contributed as contractors or reviewers during the course of this study.

Richard Ballard, TALMIS Corp.Charles Benton, Films Inc.George Blank, Creative ComputingRobert C. Bowen, McGraw-Hill Book Co.Dee Brock, Public Broadcasting ServiceJohn Cameron, Department of CommerceSylvania Charp, School District of PhiladelphiaRichard Diem, University of Texas at

San AntonioSeymour Eskow, Rockland Community CollegeAlbert Goldberg, WCISDJim Johnson, University of IowaValerie Klansek, Upper Midwest Region

Resource Center

Paul Larkin, Prince Georges Community CollegeJoe Lipson, WICATTom Loftis, Office of Personnel ManagementArthur Melmed, Department of EducationAndy Molnar, National Science FoundationRichard B. Otte, National Institute of EducationRichard Robinson, Scholastic, Inc.Worth Scanland, U.S. NavyPatsy Vyner, Close Up FoundationFred Wood, Department of AgricultureAndy Zucker, Department of Education

Photo Credits

All photographs by Ted Spiegel, @1982, except for the following:Pages 17 and 31–IBM Corp.Page 36 (unnumbered) —National Science FoundationPage 150 (unnumbered) –U.S. Department of Agriculture

Contents

Chapter PageI. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4The Information Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Role of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Information Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 6Impacts on Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 7New Needs for Education and

Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Case Studies on Information

Technology, ..,...,. . . . . . . . . . . 8Potential Technological Solutions . . . 9

Policy Issues and Options . . . . . . . . . . . 10Issues. ...,..,...,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Options for Federal Action . . . . . . . . . 11

2. The United States as an InformationSociety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Economic and Societal Impacts of

Information Technology. . . . . . . . . 16Changing Economic Base of the Nation 19

3. Implications for Economic Growthand Human Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Knowledge and Growth . . . . . . . . . 25Education and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . 27Human Capital Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Need for Technical Education . . . . . . . . 29Information Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Information Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Information Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4. Trends in Information Technology . . . . . 37Findings ..., . . . . . . . . . .Communications. . . . . . . . . . .Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Satellite Communication . . . .Digital Telephone Network. .Local Distribution NetworksNew Broadcast Technologies

Direct Broadcast Satellite.Low-Power Broadcast . . . .

Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Desktop Computers . . . .Hand-Held Computers . . . .

Human Interface . . . . . . . . .Storage Technology . . . . . . .Video Technology . . . . . . . .

Video Cassette RecordersImproved Quality . . . . . . . .Filmless Camera . . . . . . . . .Video Disk. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Information Services . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 37

. . . . . . . . . 37

. . . . . . . . . 38

.,.. . . . . . 38

. . . . . . . . . 39

. . . . . . . . 40

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 42

. . . . . . . . . 43

. . . . . . . . . 44

. . . . . . . . . 45

. . . . . . . . . 46

. . . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . . 47

.,.. . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . 48

Chapter PageVideotex and Teletext . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Information Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Electronic Conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Advanced Business Services . . . . . . . . . 52

5. Educational Uses of InformationTechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Functions of Educational Technology, . 55

Passive Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Interactive Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Information Resource . . . . . . . . . . 59Administration and Instruction

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Distribute Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Testing and Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Capabilities of Educational Technology 62Cost and Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6. The Provision of Education in theUnited States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Social Change and Education in

America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Elementary and Secondary Education . 70

Public Schools. ..,... . . . . . . . . . 70Status of the American Public

School System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Future of the American Public

School System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Private Alternatives to Public

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74University and the Four-Year Colleges, 78

Public Role of Higher Education, . . . 78Status of American Colleges and

Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Two-Year and Community Colleges. . . . 83Proprietary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Status of Proprietary Schools . . . . 85Characteristics of Proprietary

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Markets Served by Proprietary

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Applications of Information

Technology in ProprietaryEducation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Future Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Future Uses by Other Industry

Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Education in the Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Status of Education in the Home . . 92Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Education in the Library . . . . . . . . . . . 95Status of Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

vii

Contents—Continued

Chapter Page

7.

Museums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Museum Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Status of Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Business and Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Role of Education in the Workplace .Industry-Based Training and

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Trend Toward Decentralized

Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Training: Investment. Expense. . . .Relationship With Local Educational

Institutions and Industry-SponsoredEducational Institutions

Information Technology in CorporateInstruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors That May AffectInstructional Use of Technology . . .

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Union-Sponsored Training and

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Education Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other Types of Instructional

Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Information Technology inUnion-

SponsoredInstruction . . . . . . . . . . .

State of Research and Development inEducational Technology . :. . . . . . . . .

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Introduction and Background . . . . . . . .Changing R&D Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . .Federal Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Private Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Federal Commitment to Educational

Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982Discontinued and Consolidated

Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Continuing Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .New Grants for Fiscal Year 1982 . . . . .Federal Support for Educational

Research Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . .Educational Technology R&D Support

by Other Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .European Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . .United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Implications of the Present Federal

Role in Educational TechnologyR&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Present and Future Support forEducational Technology R&D . . . . .

Case Studies of Landmark R&DDissemination Efforts inEducational Technology . . . . . . . . . .

97979899

100

100

101102

102

102

103105

105105

106

107

111111111113114114

116

118119121

122

122123123123

124

125

126

Chapter PageCase Study 1: Children’s Television

Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126Case Study 2: Development,

Production, and Marketing ofPLATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Case Study 3: Computer CurriculumCorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Case Study 4: CONDUIT . . . . . . . . . . 135

8. Conditions That May Affect theFurther Application of InformationTechnology in Education . . . . . . . . . .

Available Data on EducationalApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Microcomputers and Terminals Disk .Videocassette Recorders and Video

Cassette Recorders and VideodiskClimate for Use of Information

Technology in the Schools. . . . . . . .Hardware and Educational Software

Vendors: Views of the EducationMarket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conditions Affecting CommercialCourseware Development . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Current Conditions . . . . . .

141

141141

143

143

145

146147

9. Federal Role in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Education Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

The Early Years: 1642-1860 . . . . . . . . 151The Years 1860-1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152The Expanding Federal Role:

1950-1970’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154The Courts and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 157Federal Role in Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Federal Role in Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Effect of Federal Telecommunication

Regulation and Legislation onEducation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Governmental Control ofTelecommunication. . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Governmental Control of Education . 161The Federal Communication

Commission and EducationalTelecommunication Services . . . . . . 162

Instructional Television FixedServices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

The Public Broadcasting Service . . . . 164Low Power Television and Direct

Broadcast Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Cable Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Telecommunication Legislation and

Educational Services . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

. . .Vlll


Chapter PageThe Protection of Information

Software: An Overview . . . . . . . . . 166Types of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Legal Protection for Software . . . . . 167Legal Protection: Issues and

Educational Options. . . . . . . . . . . 172Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

10. Implications for Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177Arguments for Federal Action. ..., . . . 177Arguments Against Federal Action . . . 178Congressional Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Option 1: Subsidize Hardware . . . . . 179Option 2: Subsidize Software . . 180Option 3: Assume a Leadership Role. 180Option 4: Incorporate Technology

Initiatives in General EducationPolicy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Appendix A—Case Studies: Applicationsof Information Technologies. . . . . . . . . . 187

Computers in Education: LexingtonPublic Schools, Lexington, Mass. 187

Computer-Using Educators andComputer Literacy Programs InNovato and Cupertino . . . . . . . . . . 194

Novato Unified School District,Novato, Calif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Cupertino Union School District,Cupertino, Calif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Technology Education and Training,Oxford Public Schools,Oxford, Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Computer Literacy Program: LyonsTownship Secondary SchoolDistrict, LaGrange, Ill, . . . . . . . . . 209

Minnesota Schools and the MinnesotaEducational ComputingConsortium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

MECC: A State Computing Agency . . . 214Instructional Computing, Houston

Independent School District,Houston, Tex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Information Technology andEducation in the State of Alaska . 227

EDUCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233Industry-Based Training and

Education Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 235Information Technology and Libraries . 237Museums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242Military Uses of Information

Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245Direct to the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . 252Information Technology and Special

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Table No. PageIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

TABLES

Table No. Pagel. Percentage Share of the U.S.

2.

3.

274,

5.

6.7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.13.

14.

15.

16,

17.

18.

Economy-by Sector ..., ., . . . . . . . . . .Some Representative Growth Figuresfor the Information Industry. . . . . . . . .Percentage Employment in theBusiness Sector by Sex and Yearsof Education Completed . . . . . . . . .Unemployment Rates by Sex andNumber of Years of EducationCompleted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Achievement Test Score Averages,1972-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Requirements for Computer SpecialistsPercentages of Engineering Graduatesand Trends in Shares of World TradeThe Growth of Cable Television in theUnited States.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Projected Demand for SatelliteCommunications in Number ofTransponders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chief Characteristics of Voice v. DataCommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .U.S. Installed Base of PersonnelComputers by Market SectorMicros in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Number of Public Elementary/Secondary Schools and EstimatedPercentage Distribution, By Level ofInstruction and Grade Span Served:School Year 1978-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

21

28

3132

34

38

38

40

4444

71Revenue and Nonrevenue ReceiptsPublic Elementary and SecondarySchools, By Source, 1977-78 . . . .Number of Postsecondary SchoolsWith Occupational Programs, ByControl and By Type of SchoolAggregate United States, 1980...Number of Postsecondary SchoolsWith Occupational Programs, ByControl and By Type of SchoolAggregate United States, 1980..,Percent Distribution of Men andWomen by Control of School . . . . .

of

. . . . 72

. . . . 86

. . . . 87

. . 89Department of Defense Training andPersonnel Systems Technology R&DProgram Elements and FundingLevels–Fiscal Year 1981-82 . . . . . . . . . 116

ix


Table No.19. Training and Personnel Systems

Technology R&D Program: SelectedProject Topics—Fiscal Year 1981 -82...

20. National Science Foundation R&DBudget, Fiscal Year 1982 for SelectedProgram Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21. Department of Education R&DBudget, Fiscal Year 1982 for SelectedProgram Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22. Department of Defense R&D Budget,Fiscal Year 1982 for Selected Divisions

23. Projected Federal Expenditures forEducational Technology R&D, FiscalYear 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24. Continuation Grants for EducationalTechnology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982 . . .

25. New Grants for EducationalTechnology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982 . . .

26. Federal R&D Funding for EducationalTechnology Fiscal Year 1982 By Typeof Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . .

27. Public School Districts Providing

Page

117

117

118

118

118

120

121

122

Students Access to at Least OneComputer for Educational Purposes:United States, 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

28. Availability of Computers WithinDistricts: United States, Fall 1980 . . . . 142

29. Total Shipments of Microcomputers inPublic and Private Schools Operatingon the Elementary, Secondary, andPostsecondary Levels and Forecastsof Courseware Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

30. The Educational Courseware Industry . 14431. What Are the Industries Competing

for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146A-1. Sources of Funds for Computer

Hardware and Software, 1980-81 . . . . 207

Table No. Page

A-2. Five-Year Breakdown of ComputerHardware Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

A-3. Advantages of On-Line Services . . . . . 240A-4. Number of Students and Cost of

Various Types of Individual TrainingFiscal Year 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-5. Cost of R&D in Training andPersonnel Systems Technology, inThousands of Dollars, Fiscal Year1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-6. Number of Ongoing InstructionalTechnology R&D Work Units ByService and Department of DefenseTotal, April 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-7. Summary of Military Video DiskProjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

FIGURES

Figure No. Page1. Shifts in Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302. Installed Base Micros Total Universe

and School Installed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443. Quality of the Public Schools: Opinions

of Parents With Public SchoolChildren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4. Secondary Schools Providing SpecialPrograms . . . . . . . . ., ... , . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5. Private Elementary/Secondary SchoolTuition and Fees by Family IncomeRacial/Ethnic Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

A-1. Software Development Model . . . . . . . 212A-2. MECC Timesharing System Port

Distribution by User System, 1975-81 217A-3. Sample “Fail Safe” Parent Letter. . . . 224A-4. Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Mean

Composite Scores, HISD, 1971-81 . . . 225

Chapter 1

Summary

Information technology Is proving to be invaluable to people of all ages

Chapter 1

Summary

Modern society is undergoing profoundtechnological and social changes broughtabout by what has been called the informationrevolution. This revolution is characterized byexplosive developments in electronic informa-tion technologies and by their integration intocomplex information systems that span theglobe. The impacts of this revolution affect in-dividuals, institutions, and governments–al-tering what they do, how they do it, and howthey relate to one another.

large degree, by these technological develop-ments, they must adapt through educationand training. Already there is evidence ofdemands for new types of education and train-ing, and of new institutions emerging to fillthese demands. The historical relationship be-tween education and Government will be af-fected by the role that Government plays inenabling educational institutions to respondto the changes created by these technologies.

If individuals are to thrive economically andsocially in a world that will be shaped, to a

BackgroundHistorically, the Federal Government’s in-

terest in educational technology has been spo-radic—rising as some promising new technol-ogy appeared and falling as that technologyfailed to achieve its promise. Attention wasfocused, moreover, on the technology itselfand not on the broader educational environ-ment in which it was to be used. In the late1960’s, for example, the Federal Governmentfunded a number of research and development(R&D) projects in the use of computer-assistedinstruction (CAI). Interest in the projectswaned, however, given the high costs of hard-ware and curricula and the failure to integratecomputer-based teaching methods into the in-stitutional structure of the school.

Over the last decade, Federal funding forR&D in educational information technologyhas dropped precipitously. At the same time,development and applications of informationtechnology have advanced rapidly in manysectors. Public schools, beset by problems thatsuch technology might mitigate, have laggedbehind in adapting to technological changes.In view of this situation, OTA was asked inOctober 1980 to reexamine the potential roleof new information technology in education.

3

4 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education—

The assessment was initiated at the requestof: 1) the Subcommittee on Select Educationof the House Committee on Education andLabor; and 2) the House Subcommittee on Sci-ence, Research, and Technology of the Com-mittee on Science and Technology.

This report examines both the demands theinformation revolution will make on educationand the opportunities afforded to respond tothose demands. Included in its scope are asurvey of the major providers of education andtraining, both traditional and new, and an ex-amination of their changing roles. The fullrange of new information products and serv-ices rather than any single technology is exam-ined, since the major impact on education willmost likely stem from the integration of thesetechnologies into instructional systems.

For this report OTA has defined educationto include programs provided through a vari-ety of institutions and in a variety of settings,including public schools; private, nonprofit in-stitutions that operate on the elementary, sec-ondary, and postsecondary levels; proprietaryschools; training and education by industryand labor unions; instruction through the mili-tary; and services provided through librariesand museums or delivered directly to thehome. Information technology is defined to in-

clude communication systems such as directbroadcast satellite, two-way interactive cable,low-power broadcasting, computers (includingpersonal computers and the new hand-heldcomputers), and television (including videodisks and video tape cassettes).

The assessment was premised on three ini-tial observations and assumptions:

The United States is undergoing an infor-mation revolution, as documented in anOTA assessment, Computer-Based Na-tional Information Systems.There is a public perception that the pub-lic schools are “in trouble,” and are notresponding well to the normal educationaldemands being placed on them. Publicschools in many parts of the country arefaced with severe economic problems inthe form of rapidly rising costs and re-duced taxpayer support. These pressuresare forcing a new search for ways to im-prove the productivity and effectivenessof schooling.A host of new information technologyproducts and services that appeared capa-ble of fulfilling the educational promisesanticipated earlier are entering the mar-ketplace with affordably low cost andeasy accessibility.

FindingsOTA found that the real situation is far ●

more complex than assumed above. In sum-mary, the assessment’s findings are:

The growing use of information technol-ogy throughout society is creating major ●

new demands for education and trainingin the United States and is increasing thepotential economic and social penalty fornot responding to those demands.The information revolution is creatingnew stresses on many societal institu- ●

tions, particularly those such as publicschools and libraries that traditionallyhave borne the major responsibility forproviding education and other public in-formation services.

Information technology is already begin-ning to play an important role in provid-ing education and training in some sec-tors.Information technology holds significantpromise as a mechanism for respondingto the education and training needs of so-ciety, and it will likely become a majorvehicle for doing so in the next few dec-ades.Much remains to be learned about theeducational and psychological effects oftechnological approaches to instruction.Not enough experience has been gainedwith the new information technology todetermine completely how that technol-

Ch. l—Summary ● 5.— —

ogy can most benefit learners or to predict major national effort, whether federallypossible negative effects of its use. Given inspired or not, to introduce these newthis insufficient experience, caution technologies into education.should be exercised in undertaking any

The Information SocietyRole of Information

For the foreseeable future, information tech-nology will continue to undergo revolutionarychanges. The microprocessor-an inexpensive,mass-produced computer on a chip-will be-come ubiquitous in the home and office—notonly in the easily identifiable form of the per-sonal computer or word processor, but also asa component of numerous other products,from automobiles to washing machines andthermostats. High-speed, low-cost communi-cation links will be available in such forms astwo-way interactive cable, direct broadcastfrom satellites, and computer-enhanced tele-phone networks. New video technologies suchas video disks and high-resolution televisionwill be available. These technologies will be in-tegrated to form new and unexpected typesof information products and services, such asvideotex and on-line information retrieval sys-tems that can be provided over telephone orair waves directly to the home.

It is impossible to predict which of thesetechnologies and services will succeed in thecompetition for consumer dollars, or which willappeal to particular markets. It is, however,reasonable to conclude that they will radical-ly affect many aspects of the way society gen-erates, obtains, uses, and disseminates infor-mation in work and leisure.

The growing importance of information it-self drives and is driven by these rapid tech-nological changes. Until a few decades ago, theinformation industry—that industry directlyinvolved with producing and selling informa-tion and information technology-was rela-tively small in economic terms. It is now be-coming a major component of the U.S. econ-omy. While most economists still talk aboutthe traditional economic sectors—extractive,

manufacturing, and service—some now havebegun to define and explore a fourth, the infor-mation sector. One analysis has shown thatthis new sector, if defined broadly, already ac-counts for over 60 percent of the economic ac-tivity of the United States.

Many firms involved directly with informa-tion are large and growing. Two of the largestcorporations in the world, AT&T and IBM,principally manufacture information products

Personal-type computers are used for instruction in manyclassrooms throughout the Nation

6 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

and provide information services. Moreover,business in general is beginning to treat infor-mation as a factor of production that takes itsplace beside the conventional factors of land,labor, and capital. In addition, the Govern-ment is beginning to treat information as animportant element of national security. Whiledefense officials have always been concernedabout the disclosure of military information—such as troop movements or weapons design—they are now also concerned about the inter-national leakage of more general U.S. scientif-ic and technical information that other coun-tries could conceivably use to pursue economicor military goals that are in contrast to ourown.

In addition to serving as an economic good,access to information is becoming increasinglyimportant for individuals to function in soci-ety effectively as citizens, consumers, and par-ticipants in political processes. Relations withgovernment at all levels are becoming morecomplex—whether they involve dealing withthe Internal Revenue Service, applying forsocial benefits and services, or seeking protec-tion from real or perceived bureaucratic abuse.Individuals are confronted with the need toevaluate more sophisticated choices and tounderstand their rights and responsibilitiesunder the laws and regulations intended toprotect them in the marketplace.

Information TechnologiesThe rapid evolution of the following tech-

nologies in the last few decades has shaped theinformation revolution:

Cable.–Cable systems–wherein data andprograms are transmitted over a wire ratherthan through airwaves-are growing rapidly.The newer systems offer more channels, andsome offer two-way communication.

Satellite Communication.—Satellites havestimulated development of new types of tele-vision networks to serve cable subscribers andearth station owners with specialized program-ing.

Digital Telephone Network.—The shift todigital transmission will allow telephone linesto carry more information at higher speed andwith greater accuracy, providing better link-age of information between computer termi-nals.

Broadcast Technologies.—Some distribu-tion technologies in the entertainment marketmay also have important potential educationaluses. For one, the direct broadcast satellite cantransmit a program directly to a home or of-fice, bypassing a cable system. For another,low-power stations, which restrict transmis-sion to a limited geographical range, providea low entry cost to licensees and are subjectto less regulation than are traditional broad-cast stations.

Computers. —The design and uses of com-puters have advanced to the point where thereis now a mass consumer market for computersand computer software. Moreover, networksthat link privately owned computers have ex-panded access to information. Desktop com-puters are becoming more common in thehome, the small business, and formal educa-tional settings. The use of hand-held com-puters, cheaper and more portable than desk-top computers, has also increased. Along withcomputer development have come advances inthe interface between humans and computers—input/output technology. Input technologyis the process of putting information into thecomputer—either by typing it, speaking to thecomputer, or showing the computer pictures.Developments in output technology are occur-ring in the areas of low-cost printers, graphics(particularly color graphics), and voice.

Storage Technology. —Data programs arestored on a variety of media for use in the com-puter: silicon chips, floppy disks, and harddisks. Improvements are being made in suchtechnology for both large and small comput-ers.

Video Technology.–Significant develop-ments in several areas of video technology are

Ch. l—Summary ● 7

likely in this decade. Video cassette recordersare already important consumer devices. Thefilmless camera, which combines video andcomputer technology to “write” a picture ona very small, reusable floppy disk, may soonbe available.

Video Disks.— Resembling a phonographrecord, a disk that stores television program-ing is of considerable interest to educators. Itis durable, inexpensive to produce, and capableof storing a large amount of data and pro-grams.

Information Services. -Several of the afore-mentioned information technologies are nowbeing integrated to provide new types of serv-ices. For example, several countries now usethe existing television broadcast medium tobring information services to homes and of-fices. Using a teletext system, the user canselect a page for special viewing as it is trans-mitted in segments over the air. In a videotexsystem the user can preselect a page from thecentral system for immediate viewing. Close-ly related to videotex are the information net-works that provide owners of desktop com-puters and terminals with access to computerand data services and to one another over com-munication networks. Through electronic con-ferencing, geographically separated individu-als can participate in meetings. Variations in-clude audio conferencing, which uses telephonelines; video conferencing, which supplementsthe voice connection with television images;and computer conferencing, which involvestransmitting messages through a central com-puter that then distributes them as requested.

Impacts on Institutions

Impacts from the information revolution arebeing felt by government at all levels and bythe military, industry, labor unions, and non-profit service institutions. Traditional servicesprovided by these institutions now overlap innew ways and offer a wide variety of new serv-ices based on information technology. For ex-ample, firms as diverse as investment housesand retail stores now compete with banks byproviding a variety of financial services.

Banks, on the other hand, are beginning tocompete with computer service bureaus in pro-viding more general on-line information serv-ices to businesses and homes.

The U.S. Postal Service, along with Con-gress and a variety of Federal executive andregulatory agencies, is considering the degreeto which it should compete with private tele-communications firms in the provision of elec-tronic mail services. Large computer firmssuch as IBM are moving toward direct com-petition with traditional telecommunicationcommon carriers such as AT&T for the provi-sion of information. Telephone companies mayoffer “electronic yellow pages” that could rivalthe classified advertising business of news-papers.

Those institutions principally concernedwith the collection, storage, or transfer of in-formation will feel the greatest effects. Theyinclude both private sector firms—in fieldssuch as publishing, entertainment, and com-munications—and public or nonprofit organi-zations such as libraries, museums, andschools. How they handle their product—in-formation–may differ from the handling oftangible goods by other institutions becauseinformation has characteristics that differen-tiate it from tangible goods. For example, in-formation can be reproduced easily and rela-tively inexpensively. It can be transported in-stantly worldwide and presumably can betransferred without affecting its original own-ership. Thus, copyright or other forms of pro-tection for intellectual property—data bases,programs, or chip designs-is important to thegrowth of the information industry.

While the business of selling informationhas always existed in some form–e.g., bookpublishing, newspapers, or broadcasting–thegrowth of this sector and its movement intoelectronic forms of publishing will create con-flicts with traditional societal attitudes aboutinformation. The concept of information as apublic good whose free exchange is basic tothe functioning of society is inherent in thefirst amendment to the Constitution and un-derlies the establishment of public libraries

l–


and schools. This concept conflicts with themarket view of information, which recognizesthat there are inherent costs in the provisionof information. Adopting new informationtechnologies will entail extra costs that mustbe borne somehow by the users of those tech-nologies.

The conflict between the view of informationas a market good and the view of it as a “pub-lic good” affects public institutions in a num-ber of ways. Public nonprofit institutions findthemselves increasingly in competition withprivate profitmaking firms that offer the sameor similar services. Institutions such as librar-ies, schools, and museums are beginning to feelpressure to incorporate both nonprofit and in-come-generating offerings in their own mix ofservices. To the extent that previously free orvery low-cost and widely available informationservices such as education move into the pri-vate marketplace, access to them may becomelimited, either because of their cost or becauseof their restricted technological availability.Periodicals previously available at news-stands, for example, may be available in thefuture only via computer or video disk.

New Needs for Educationand Training

The information revolution places new de-mands on individuals, changing what theymust know and what skills they must have toparticipate fully in modem society. It may alsobe increasing the social and economic pricesthat will be paid by those who do not adaptto technological changes. For instance,spurred by increasing domestic and interna-tional economic competition, U.S. industry isexpected to adopt computer-based automationin a major way. Computer-aided design, robot-ics, and other new computer-based manufac-turing technologies will, within the nextdecade, transform the way goods are manu-factured. Automation will not be restricted tothe factory, however. Office automation will,according to some, have an even more revolu-tionary effect on management and on clericalwork in business. Over the longer term, even

the service professions, such as law and med-icine, will be transformed.

While some sociologists suggest that the ef-fect will be to “deskill” labor by lowering theskill requirements for workers, more anticipatethat a greater premium will be placed on lit-eracy, particularly technological and informa-tion literacy. The latter argue that an increas-ing number of jobs will be in the informationsector or will require the use of informationsystems. Moreover, new forms of productionand information handling will create new jobsrequiring new skills. Vocational education andindustrial training programs will be needed toteach the skills for jobs such as robot mainte-nance or word processing.

An advanced information society will placea premium on skills oriented toward the crea-tion of new knowledge and the design of newtechnologies. Thus, while there is some currentdebate about a possible surplus of collegegraduates, generally speaking many expertssee a growing gap between the demand andsupply of graduates in engineering and sci-ence, and particularly in computer engineer-ing and science.

A key element in all of these educationalneeds is that they will constantly change. Ina rapidly advancing technological society, itis unlikely that the skills and information baseneeded for initial employment will be thoseneeded for the same job a few years later. Life-long retraining is expected to become the normfor many people.

Case Studies on InformationTechnology

In addition to using existing information forthis assessment, OTA undertook case studiesdesigned to gain insights into the successfulapplication of information technology in edu-cation. Accordingly, OTA examined well-established programs in public school sys-tems, industries, libraries, museums, the mili-tary, special education, and direct to the homemarkets nationwide. These case studies arepresented in the appendix. Many of the find-

——.

Ch. l—Summary ● 9

ings presented in this assessment reflect ob-servations made in these studies. The mostimportant of these observations is that infor-mation technologies can be most effectivelyapplied to tasks when they are well integratedin their institutional environments.

Potential Technological Solutions

OTA found little evidence of current hard-ware limitations that would limit the applica-bility of technology to education and, hence,call for major research efforts. Continuingresearch in the general fields of computerscience and engineering, coupled with innova-tive private sector development will providethe necessary hardware base. The only excep-tion is the area of technology for the handi-capped, where it is not clear that the opportu-nities for developing specialized technologycould be met without some Federal supportfor R&D. There does appear to be a need, how-ever, for R&D focused on developing new tech-niques and tools for software development,human/machine interface, and improving theunderstanding of cognitive learning processes.

If properly employed, information technol-ogy has certain characteristics that suggestit will be invaluable for education. For one, in-formation technology may be the only feasi-ble way to supplement teaching capability inschools faced with reduced teaching staffs andlarger class sizes. For another, informationtechnology is capable of distributing educationand training, both geographically and overtime. Services can be provided in the home,at work, in a hospital, or in any other locationwhere and when they may be needed.

Many of the electronic media, such as videodisks or microcomputers, allow learners to usethem at their convenience, instead of beinglocked into specifically scheduled times. Com-puter-based analysis, combined with a flexi-ble, adaptive instructional system could diag-nose and immediately respond to differencesin learning strategies among students and,hence, could be more educationally effective.Finally, much work has been done on using in-

formation technology to improve the abilityof foreign students and the physically andmentally handicapped to communicate.

Some experts suggest that the use of com-puters by students teaches them new ways ofthinking and new ways of solving problemsthat may be more appropriate in an informa-tion age. They suggest that a generation thatgrows up with computers will have a signifi-cant intellectual advantage over one that doesnot. Many educators criticize such a view asbeing too technology-centered. At the veryleast one can predict, however, that computerand computer-based information services willbe ubiquitous by the next century, and thatlearning how to use them effectively is a basicskill that will be required for many and per-haps most jobs. (In response to this view offuture skill requirements, many schools haveplaced a high priority on computer literacy asthe first instructional use of the computer.)

Although experience with educational tech-nologies has demonstrated that they offer avariety of potential benefits, it has also dem-onstrated that technology cannot, by itself,provide solutions to all educational problems,nor should it be imposed on an educationalsystem without sensitivity to institutional andsocietal barriers that could prevent the realiza-tion of educational benefits. These barriers in-clude:

Institutional Barriers.--New educationaltechnology must be designed for ease of inte-gration into the schools and other educationalinstitutions that will use it. Some adaptationsof curricula, schedules, and classroom organi-zation will be needed, but the changes are notlikely to be extreme.

Teacher Training.–Widespread use of tech-nology in the classroom will require that teach-ers be trained both in its use and in the pro-duction of good curriculum materials. Too fewteachers are so qualified today. Schools main-tain that they are already faced with a short-age of qualified science and mathematicsteachers (those most likely to lead the way incomputer-based education). Furthermore,


there is little evidence that most of the teachertraining colleges in the United States are pro-viding adequate instruction to new teachersin the use of information technology.

Lack of Adequate Software.--OTA foundgeneral widespread agreement that, with fewexceptions, the quality of educational soft-ware-curriculum material designed for educa-tional technology-now available was, in gen-eral, not very good. Curriculum providers donot yet use the new media to full advantagefor several reasons. In the first place, manyof the technologies are still new. It takes timeto learn how to use them, and the early at-tempts suffer from this learning process. Sec-ond, production of high-quality educationalsoftware is expensive. Some large firms thathave the necessary capital to produce educa-tional software hesitate to risk developmen-tal money in a relatively new and uncertainmarket.

Third, the programmers and curriculum ex-perts qualified to produce educational soft-ware are in short supply. Finally, some firmscite the lack of adequate property protection

—e.g., copyright, patents—for their informa-tion products as a barrier to investment indevelopment.

Skepticism About Long-Term Effects.–Some educators are seriously concerned thatthe long-term effects on learning of substitut-ing technology for traditional teaching meth-ods are not sufficiently understood. Whileacknowledging that computers or other tech-nologies may have some limited utility in theclassroom for drill and practice, or for instruc-tion in computer literacy, they fear that anywidespread adoption of technology for educa-tion could have deleterious effects on the over-all quality of learning.

Cost.–Even though the cost of computerhardware and communication services is drop-ping, investment in educational technologystill represents a substantial commitment byfinancially pressed schools. Costs of softwareare likely to remain high until a large marketdevelops over which providers can write offdevelopmental costs. In some cases the costof information products and services may bepassed on to users for the first time.

Policy Issues and OptionsIssues

The impact of information technology on●

education will confront Congress with a num-ber of important policy decisions in severalareas:

● Education and training for economicgrowth: OTA found that trends in auto-mation and the growth of the informationsector of the economy will probably pre-sent the United States with severe man-power training problems over the nextdecade. These will include a persistentshortage of highly trained computer scien-tists, engineers, and other specialists; aneed for retraining workers displaced byfactory and office automation; and a needfor a more technologically literate work ●

force. Congress must decide what Federal

response to these national needs would beboth appropriate and effective.Redressing inequities: In both the OTAstudy on national information systemsand in this assessment, OTA found con-cern that a significant social, economic,and political gap could develop betweenthose who do and those who do not haveaccess to, and the ability to use, informa-tion systems. People who cannot make ef-fective use of information technology mayfind themselves unable to deal effective-ly with their government and to obtainand hold a job. Both social and economicconcerns may motivate Congress to takeaction to improve literacy in American so-ciety.New institutional roles: OTA found thatmany public educational institutions are

Ch. l—Summary ● 1 1

under severe strain, to the extent thatmany question their survival-at least intheir current form. Actions directly re-lated to the use of information technologycould also have important impacts onthese public educational institutions, bothby enhancing their productivity and byhelping them offer a modern, computer-and communication-based curriculum. Al-though the States have primary responsi-bility for control of the public schools,decisions and policies set at the Federallevel have influenced the nature of pub-lic education and will continue to do so.

Options for Federal Action

Assuming that Congress decides there is asignificant need for Federal action to addressthese issues, there are a number of possible ac-tions it could take.

● Direct Intervention.— Congress could takeaction to increase and improve the use ofinformation technology in education. Mostof the following options would principallyaffect the schools. A few would have abroader effect on the provision of educationand training in other institutions.–Provide tax incentives for donations of

computers and other information technol-ogy: H.R. 5573 and S. 2281 are examplesof such initiatives. They are intended toaccelerate the rate at which schools installcomputer hardware and to respond to pos-sible inequities in the abilities of schooldistricts to direct funds to equipment ac-quisition. However, some experts havenoted that the personal computer indus-try is on the verge of moving to a new gen-eration of more powerful machines thatmay have much greater potential for edu-cational application on a more sophisti-cated level. Donations of older equipmentcould freeze the schools into dependencyon obsolescent systems. Moreover, suchincentives do not address problems suchas the need for software, teacher training,or institutional barriers to effective use.

–Subsidize software development: OTAfound that the most-often cited barrier to

current educational use of technology wasthe lack of adequate educational software.There may be a role for the Governmentin reducing the risks software producerscurrently see that inhibit major invest-ment in quality courseware (educationalsoftware). Many of the existing successfulpackages, such as the Sesame Street pro-grams for television and the PLATO com-puter-aided instruction system, were de-veloped with partial Federal support. Onthe other hand, good software may beforthcoming if the producers see a suffi-cient quantity of hardware in the schoolsto provide them with a viable market.

–Directly fund technology acquisition bythe schools: The Federal Governmentcould directly underwrite the acquisitionof hardware and software by the schools.Such a program would create a market foreducational products that would attractproducers, and it would accelerate the in-troduction of technology into the schools.On the other hand, such an approach maypromote premature and unwise purchasesof technology by schools that are unpre-pared to use the technology effectively.It is also counter to some current trendsand attitudes in Congress concerning theproper Federal role in education.

–Provide support activities: The FederalGovernment could assume a leadershiprole in encouraging the educational sys-tem to make more effective use of infor-mation technology by funding demonstra-tion projects, teacher-training programs,and the development of institutions forexchanging information about successfulimplementations. OTA found evidence ofa high degree of interest and motivationby both schools and parents that could bemore effectively channeled with appropri-ate Federal leadership. Such a programwould not address the financial limita-tions that currently prevent many institu-tions from acquiring technology and soft-ware.

Adapt a General Education Policy.—Con-gress is considering various forms of educa-tion-related legislation that may affect, and


●

in turn maybe affected by, the new informa-tional needs of society. Examples are billsconcerning vocational education, veterans’education, education for the handicapped,and foreign language instruction. Such leg-islation, if drafted with the intent to do so,could encourage the development of moreeffective and economical technological alter-natives to current programs.

Support R&D.–Federal civilian agencysupport of R&D in educational technologyhas decreased substantially over the lastdecade. OTA found that, to make the mosteffective use of technology, there was a needfor R&D in learning strategies and cognitivedevelopment, methods for the production ofeffective and economical curricular soft-ware, and the long-term psychological andcognitive impacts of technology-based edu-cation. Congress could consider policies to:1) directly support R&D in these areas, 2)encourage private sector investment fromboth foundations and industry, or 3) encour-

●

age a combination of both by using Federalfunding to leverage private investment.Elimination of Unintended Regulatory Bar-riers.--Some legislation and regulation notspecifically directed at education may createbarriers to the effective application of edu-cational technology. Telecommunicationregulation, for example, can affect the costof technology, access to communicationchannels, and the institutional structure ofeducation providers.

Moreover, protection of intellectual prop-erty, principally copyright law, was identi-fied as a major determinant of the willing-ness of industry to invest in educationalsoftware. The current state of the law wasseen by many industry experts as inade-quate and, hence, as creating a barrier to thedevelopment of novel and innovative soft-ware. However, to the extent that such abarrier does exist, it is not clear whether itsremoval lies in new legislation or in thegradual development of legal precedent inthe courts.

Chapter 2

The United States as anInformation Society

To facilitate the storage and accessibility of an increased amount of information, the maincard catalog at the Library of Congress is being converted to computer records. Thousandsof entries are stored on the correctable magnetic disks. Twenty of these disk packs are enteredinto one optical disk (seen atop the magnetic packs for permanent record). These optical

disks can be randomly accessed and are connected to a printer. They containan amount of information that was formerly held in 144 card drawers

Chapter 2

The United States as anInformation Society

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All societies depend to some extent on information—to conduct trade, to gov-ern their society, and to transmit culture and social mores. Because of this, pastinventions such as writing, arithmetic, and the printing press have stimulatedprofound changes. Similarly, development of new information technologies willalso deeply effect present-day society. Many of these effects will be in the realmof education.

Findings l

The United States has become an informa-tion society, dependent on the creation, use,and communication of information for itseconomic and social well-being.

Computer, data communication, and videotechnologies have become a large and essen-tial element of U.S. society, central to thehandling of information by individuals andorganizations.

In the past, information technology inven-tions such as the telephone have fundamen-tally altered social institutions and individ-ual behavior; thus, it is reasonable to expectthat current and future innovative develop-ments will have corresponding effects, par-ticularly on activities such as education thatdepend on information.

Trends in the use of information technologyare creating new demands on education interms of who is to be educated, when educa-tion occurs, what is to be taught, how it isto be taught, and what it is to cost.

In a complex, highly technological society,demands grow for quick access to and use oflarge amounts of information in order to con-trol economic, social, and political processes.

‘Much of the information presented in this chapter is basedon OTA’S previous study, Chnputer-lked National hforrna-tion Systems: Technology and Pubfic Policy Issues, OTA-CIT-146(Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-ment, September 1981).

It has been suggested that the creation, use,and communication of information are essen-tial components of the infrastructure of a“postindustrial society” such as that of theUnited States.’ As a consequence, many soci-etal functions are completely dependent on in-formation technology. For example:

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●

●

Airlines use computer networks to controlpassenger reservations, schedule equip-ment usage and maintenance, and prepareflight plans; and the Federal Governmentuses a large computer-based system tocontrol the resulting air traffic.3

Banks and other financial institutionsrely completely on computers and world-wide communication networks for manag-ing accounts, clearing checks, exchangingfunds, and providing a wide variety ofnew financial services.4

Major Government agencies, such as theInternal Revenue Service and the SocialSecurity Administration, require large,automated information systems to han-dle the accounts of hundreds of millionsof clients.

‘D. Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (New York:Basic Books, 1973).

‘Airport and Air Traffic Control System, OTA-STI-175(Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-ment, January 1982).

‘Selected Electronic Fbnds Zhnsfer Issues: Privacy, Security,and Equity—Background Paper, OTA-BP-CIT-12 (Washington,D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, March1982).

15


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The operation of national defense dependson complex computer-communication sys-tems, both for day-to-day management ofthe military establishment and for com-mand and control of modem sophisticatedweaponry.Multinational corporations depend on in-ternational networks of computers forsuch applications as production control,management, and financial administra-. -

of our social institutions. Furthermore, institu-tions and social processes such as education,which are so dependent on the communicationand use of information, will be most affected.

The basic goals of education are the commu-nication of knowledge and skills, the transmis-sion of culture, and the instilling of basic liter-acy. * Since all of these require that educationbe closely linked to information processes, edu-cation will be deeply affected, both in contenttion. and form, by the technological revolution.

Since these and other users of informationin the United States are relying increasinglyon sophisticated computer and communicationsystems, it is reasonable to anticipate that in- *Definitions of literacy vary among experts. For purposesformation technology will have significant ef- of this report, a simple definition will be used. Literacy means

fects on the structure and operation of mostthe ability of an individual to engage in the normal modes ofinformation exchange in a society.

Economic and Societal Impacts ofInformation Technology

The uses of information and the institutionalstructures established to collect and communi-cate it have long historical traditions. Forthousands of years, recordkeeping systemshave been a basic tool for government, com-merce, and finance. They have allowed the for-mation and management of large organiza-tions. Libraries and museums have existed asarchival and reference resources from earliesttimes–perhaps even earlier than the fourthcentury B. C., when Alexander the Great builthis library. Education also has always servedbasic societal functions. While the definitionsof education and the institutional structuresselected to provide it have differed over timeand for each particular society, education hasalways entailed transmitting the values, cul-tural background, and basic communicationtechniques (literacy) necessary to function asa member of society.

Technologies such as writing, mathematics,paper, the printing press, and the camera weredeveloped to improve the handling of informa-tion. Over the last 100 years there has beena rush of new information technologies that

has included the telegraph and telephone,broadcast communication, photocopiers andfacsimile transmission, the computer and itsrelated software-considered, in itself, to bean important technology. These inventionshave directly affected the collection and useof information. For example:

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The speed with which information can becommunicated has been increased. Com-munications that less than a century agotook days, weeks, and even months, nowoccur within fractions of seconds.The quantity of information that can becollected, stored, manipulated, and trans-mitted has been increased. Data storagesystems can hold trillions of charactersof information that are instantly accessi-ble through a computer. (One trillion char-acters of storage contains informationequivalent to over 1 million books.)Information can be more widely distrib-uted and has become more accessible.Data communication systems provide in-stant access to information and to thetechnology to analyze and use it.

Ch. 2— The United States as an Information Society ● 17

Scanning electron micrograph of a portion of a programmable logic array with locations for up to 4,000 logic elements.The array was fabricated with the one-micrometer FET technology. Reducing the minimum device dimensions to onemicrometer resulted in an increase in speed Of a factor of 3 or 4, and a reduction in power dissipation by a factor

of 10, as compared with previous FET circuits

c The ability to use information to accountfor past actions and to predict futureevents has been improved. The inventionof writing made possible the keeping ofhistorical records. Computers analyzecomplex statistical models to supportmanagement decisionmaking.

These improvements in the quantitative andqualitative aspects of information handlingwill profoundly affect individuals and organi-zations that communicate and use informationin some of the following ways:

. The need for mass literacy: The availabil-ity of printed material to the general pub-lic has not only made mass literacy possi-ble; in the long run, it has also made itnecessary. It has created a world in whichit is necessary to be literate in order tofully participate in economic, political,and social activities. In fact, mass literacyhas become a basic necessity for economicgrowth.’ Now, with electronic media, defi-

18 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

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nitions of literacy must incorporate theability to communicate and use informa-tion technology.An altered relationship between individ-uals and organizations: The challenge ofthe Reformation to traditional church au-thority, the demise of the feudal system,the great intellectual spurt of the Renais-sance, and the birth during the 18th cen-tury of political democracy were all due,in part, to the fact that most individualsin society could obtain access to informa-tion and could communicate their ideas.If access to information is further en-hanced by new technologies, individualsand groups may seek to increase their par-ticipation in governmental and organiza-tional processes. If access, on the otherhand, is not enhanced, communicationstechnology might provide a new means bywhich organizations mold social thoughtand cultural mores and exert their author-ity.6

Altered structures in organizational de-cisionmaking processes: Technologicalchanges can affect the nature of decisions,the way they are made, and who in anorganization makes them. New patternsof decisionmaking can, in turn, affect rela-tionships between organizations and be-tween organizations and their clients andemployees.7

Trends toward centralization or decentral-ization: Overall, the trend in communica-tions during this century has been towardcentralization. For example, more andmore large cities are now served by singlenewspapers, and a few large networksdominate the distribution of broadcasttelevision programs. However, access tolow-cost computers and data communica-tions capabilities can potentially provideorganizations and individuals with theability to tailor applications to their ownneeds and goals.

‘A. Moshowitz, The Cbnquest of Will: Information Process-ingin Human Affairs (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1976).

‘H. Lucas, Why Information Systems Fail (New York: Colom-bia Press, 1975).

●

●

●

Thus, the recent provision via cable tel-evision of several new networks to servethe interests of more specialized audi-ences and the appearance of small special-ized newspapers serving individual neigh-borhoods may be harbingers of greater di-versity in services and decentralization ofcontrol.Changes in the political process: Instantdomestic and worldwide communicationschange political behavior and serve toshape public opinion in new ways and innew time frames. Computers allow large-scale and rapid polling of public attitudesand, through sophisticated mailing sys-tems, the formation and coordination ofgeographically distributed special interestgroups. Because they allow for instantpublic reaction to political decisions, someexperts anticipate that new informationtechnologies may bring about a return toa form of political participation that,although involving much larger numbersof people, is reminiscent of the “townmeeting.Effects on culture: Although the new in-formation technologies will undoubtedlyaffect culture, it is unclear exactly whattheir effect will be. More people have ac-cess to creative products than ever before.And yet the media have, as their criticshave pointed out, often served the lowestcommon denominator of taste. It is alsounclear whether information technologywill serve to increase uniformity or to pro-mote the diversity of the culture and val-ues of society.Intellectual effects: The technology thatsociety uses to codify and transmit ideasmay affect how people conceptualize andtry to solve problems. Some experts havesuggested that information technologymay break a limiting mental mold forcedby writing upon Western thought, andthat it may provide new ways to deal withthe very complex and difficult problemsfacing society.8

8S. PaDert. Windstorms (New York: Basic Books. 1980)..

Ch. 2— The United States as an Information Society . 19

Extrapolating the general historical impactsthat information technology has had in thepast suggests that modern technologicaltrends may have a number of effects on edu-cation:

● The nature of Literacy for society is chang-ing, as it did when the printing press wasinvented. While the goal of mass literacy,defined as skill in reading and writing, hasbeen met–at least in the developed world—new goals as to who should be literateand what skills literacy should includemay now appear:1. Who should be literate: Universal liter-

acy—defined as skill in reading andwriting for all people—will have tobecome a societal goal. The growingcomplexity of society, coupled with theautomation of unskilled jobs, will makeit increasingly difficult for semiliterateindividuals to lead useful and produc-tive lives. International economic com-petition and a predicted tighter labormarket in the next few decades willplace a greater premium on skilled, pro-ductive labor. Illiteracy is costly to so-ciety not only because it is expensiveto support the unemployable but alsobecause society must forego the socialand economic contributions that the il-literate, had they been educated, mightotherwise have made.

2. What skills literacy includes: The termliteracy may come to include media lit-eracy—the ability not only to receivecritically information presented via ra-dio, television, and film, but also tocommunicate using these media. Whileprograming in these forms has previ-ously been done by large organizationsof experts, developments such as thevideo cassette, the video disk, and the

Changing EconomicThe U.S. economy has undergone fundamen-

tal changes during this century. A hundredyears ago, the economy was principally agrari-

public access cable will place a greaterpremium on the ability of individualsto use these technologies in their work,at home, for their social organizations,and for political participation. Medialiteracy will include computer literacy—the ability of individuals to use an in-formation system to help them at homeand at work. While individuals will notneed to be experts in computer science,they will need to know how to use com-puter programs and information banksand how to evaluate critically the re-sults they get.

The rate at which new information is gen-erated is accelerating. The dominant em-phasis will be on lifelong learning, retrain-ing, and updating knowledge, rather thanon schooling that is terminated at an earlyage on completion of a standard curricu-lum.9 Educational curricula will increas-ingly focus on learning how to learn ratherthan on learning facts.The organizational structure and behaviorof educational institutions will change.Schools, particularly public schools, areoften large bureaucracies specifically de-signed to collect and transfer informationin an organized fashion. Some expertshave questioned whether they can everadapt organizationally to a new techno-logical environment and to new socialneeds. They foresee as possible either theemergence of completely new types ofeducational institutions based on informa-tion technology, or the radical transfor-mation of existing schools. ’”

‘Stanley M. Grabowski, Preparing Educators of Adults (SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981); Charles A. Wedemeyer, Learn-ing at the Back Door (Madison, Wis.: University of WisconsinPress, 1981).

‘“M. Frobe, et al., Telecommunications and Higher Educa-tion, Occasional Paper #3 (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Institute for HigherEducation of Pittsburgh, 1981).

Base of the Nation

an. Then, for several decades, manufacturingdominated. Now, the service sector predomi-nates, measured both in terms of its contribu-


tion to the gross national product and in termsof the size of its labor force. (See table 1.) Theservice sector, as usually defined by econo-mists, includes economic activity that does notresult in a tangible, storable output or necessi-tate a large base of capital equipment. Giventhis latter categorization, transportation andcommunications are usually classified asindustries rather than services. Education isclassified as a service.

Productivity growth in the service sectorcompared with that in other sectors has beenparticularly low. This relative lag in productiv-ity is more significant as the size and impor-tance of the sector grows. Some experts sug-gest that because of the use of economies ofscale, new management techniques, and infor-mation technology, the service industry is onthe brink of a major improvement in produc-tivity.” They argue that, to the extent thatservices are more resistant to such improve-ments than are other sectors of the economy,their costs will become too high. Thus, thoseareas of the economy, such as manufacturing,that show growth in productivity will alsoshow wage increases reflecting, to some ex-tent, that growth. If similar wage increasestake place in a sector that has not experienceda corresponding improvement in productivity,the real labor costs will grow relative to thosein other sectors.

This analysis suggests that if educationdoes not improve its productivity at a rate con-sistent with the overall improvement of the

“T. Stanbock, Understanding the S&vice Economy (Balti-more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979).

Table 1 .—Percentage Share of theU.S. Economy by Sector

1948 1961 1976

EmploymentAgriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 6.9 4.2Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.2 38.6 35.1Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.0 54.5 60.7

GNPAgriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.84 4.2 3.1Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.8 45.0 41.2Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.9 50.8 55.7

SOURCE: T. Stan bock, Urrderstarrdhg the S&vice Economy (Baltimore: JohnsHopkins IJ,liversity Press, 1979); V. Fuchs, Service krdusfries and ECO.nom/c Growth, NBER working paper 211, Stanford,

economy, it will face even more severe finan-cial problems than plague it now. In fact, ifother portions of the service sector are aboutto undergo significant increases in productiv-ity, as some observers expect, the pressureson education to improve its productivity maybe intensified.

The appearance and growth of what someeconomists refer to as the information sectorhas paralleled the growth of the service sec-tor. This portion of the economy, comprisedof both service and traditional industries, in-cludes those enterprises that make the ma-chines that handle information, run the com-munications networks, and use technology toprovide information products and services.

An overall analysis of the input/outputstructure of this sector, which was made for1966,12 determined that the information sec-tor accounted at that time for over 60 percentof the economy. This study defined the infor-mation sector very broadly and analyzed it atthe national level. It has not been repeated forsubsequent years. Analytical efforts have, in-stead, been directed at refining the analysisand at looking at smaller segments of the econ-omy.

Nevertheless, the original calculations arestill useful in illustrating the importance of in-formation and information technology in theU.S. economy. They also document the growthin the number of U.S. jobs requiring the han-dling of information and information machin-ery. Because information workers are general-ly assumed to require literacy skills more thanworkers in other types of jobs, these trendssuggest that the country is experiencing a risein the level of literacy needed to find and holdjobs.13 The definition of functional literacymay need to be altered to include the abilityto use computer-based knowledge.14

l~M. porat, The Information Economy, Ph. D. Dissertation(Stanford Calif.: Stanford University, 1976).

1gE. Gi.nzberg and G, J. Vojta, “The Service Sector of the U.S.Economy, ” vol. 244/3, March 1981, pp.48-55.

14R. J. Seidel, R. E. Anderson, and B. Hunter (eds.), &mputerLiteracy (New York: Academic Press, 1982).

Ch. 2— The United States as an /formation Society ● 21

Another economic trend is the growing in-formation marketplace. The publishing indus-try has existed since the invention of the print-ing press as a relatively small sector of theeconomy. Now, stimulated by social pressuresand new technological possibilities, it is grow-ing into a large and important sector of theU.S. economy. 15 (Some illustrative growth fig-ures for sectors of the information industry areshown in table 2.)

There are several indicators of this trend.First, even in the current economy, the infor-mation industry is growing at a rate of over20 percent per year. The computer-based dataretrieval market alone is projected to growfrom $1 billion in 1980 to over $6 billion in1985. Second, very large international corpora-tions such as Westinghouse are buying intothe information business, and large traditionalpublishing houses such as McGraw-Hill are ac-quiring high-technology operations in anticipa-tion of their competing in a very different typeof information marketplace in the next decade.

The plan announced by AT&T for entry intothe information business is viewed with con-cern not only by potential equipment manufac-turers and providers of communication lines,but also by newspapers and other traditionalinformation publishers who see AT&T’s new

“H. S. Dordick, et al., The Emerging Network Marketplace(LOS Angeles: Center for Futures Research, Graduate Schoolof Business Administration, University of Southern California,December 1978).

Table 2.—Some Representative Growth Figuresfor the Information Industry

Mainframe computers 1965 1975 1985

Number installed . . . . . . . . . . 23,200 62,800 77,600Value in billions of dollars . . $7.65 $33.6 $89.1

Desktop computers 1975 1980 1985

Number installed . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 326,000 10,579,000Value in billions of dollars . $0.05 $2,4 $36.7

Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... .. .$17.79Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43On-line data bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0Time sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.455Broadcasting/cable/special communications . . . . 28.5Computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ..$58.675NOTE: Figures have been compiled from best available information Estimated

probable error runs – 150/0 to + 50/0

SOURCE LINK

activities as creating potential competition fortheir businesses. Others see the potential fornew information services made available bya restructured, competitive communication in-dustry.

Another indicator of the increased impor-tance of information in the economy is thechanged nature of international economic com-petition. The attention of policymakers con-cerned with U.S. industrial strength is nowfocused on competition in innovation. Com-petitive strength is seen as dependent on thedevelopment of new technology, of new prod-ucts and services based on that technology,and of new manufacturing techniques to makethose products.

Chapter 3

Implications for EconomicGrowth and Human Capital

---

I

This Ph. D candidate is using a console connected with Columbia University’s Computing Center. A small modemconnects the computer console and graphic plotter with the mainframe computer at the computer campus facility.The graphics plotter is displaying the composition of a six-element super alloy used in the space shuttle turbines

and a preliminary predictive phase diagram relating to the six-element alloy’s performance under stress

Chapter 3

Implications for EconomicGrowth and Human Capital

The principal goals underlying Federal involvement in education have his-torically been: 1) to contribute toward national economic well-being, 2) to assurenational security, and 3) to provide an equitable distribution of economic oppor-tunities to U.S. citizens. Because future Federal education policy will presumablycontinue to be predicated on one or more of these or related goals, OTA examinedthe links between education, technological trends, and these goals.

. .Findings

●

●

●

●

Strong evidence exists for linking economicgrowth with the creation of new knowledgeand the transfer of technology into the pro-duction of goods and services. Knowledgecreates new goods and services, improvedproduction techniques, and better manage-ment and organizational strategies.

Many experts believe that there is a closelink between the level of education and theproductivity of workers—even though sucha relation is complex and difficult to estab-lish analytically.

The link between education, training, andeconomic growth is becoming more criticalbecause of structural shifts in the economytoward the service and information sectors.

While greater access to education and train-ing cannot directly create new jobs and maynot increase overall wage levels, there arestrong positive correlations between work-ers’ educational levels and their employabil-ity.

Knowledge

A number of studies have postulated linksbetween information, technological innova-tion, and economic growth. The relationshipbetween knowledge and economic develop-ment has been studied both in the context of

●

●

●

u

The rate at which automation can be intro-duced and the contribution it makes to thegrowth of productivity will partly dependon the ability to retrain workers for newjobs, either within the same industry or ina new industry. Their ability to be retrainedwill in turn be determined, at least in part,by their levels of literacy and their familiar-ity with information technology.

There is a severe shortage of engineers, com-puter experts, information specialists, andother trained workers needed to support thegrowth both of the information industry it-self and of the use of information technologyin other sectors of society.

The failure of the U.S. education system torespond to the changing needs of the infor-mation society at a rate comparable to thatof foreign competitors may impose seriouseconomic costs in the form of low growthrates and reduced competitiveness in worldmarkets.

and Growth

the U.S. economy1 and in that of developing

‘E. F. Denisen, Accounting for Slower Economic Growth(Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1979): (Kendricksarticle).

95


countries.2 In one analysis, nearly two-thirdsof the economic growth that occurred in theUnited States between 1948 and 1973 was at-tributed to increases in the size and qualityof the work force and to the development ofnew knowledge. Other studies have examinedthe direct contribution of research and devel-opment (R&D) to economic growth.3

There are several ways in which the links be-tween knowledge and economic growth mayoperate:

●

●

●

Better and more timely information canlead to better organizational structuresand to improved management decisions,which can lower costs by more efficientallocation of resources, to better schedul-ing of production, and to better economicplanning.Technical innovation leads to new or im-proved products and services and in somecases to the emergence of new industriesthat are more competitive in the market-place. Most of the firms in the Fortune500 deal in products and services that didnot exist a century ago.New technology can lead to more efficientproduction methods that improve manu-facturing productivity. Some anticipatethat the new computer-based flexiblemanufacturing systems will provide thecritical technological underpinning forU.S. reindustrialization.

OTA has found strong support not onlyamong economists but also in the businesscommunity for the view that the availabilityof literate, well-educated workers is an impor-tant determiner of productivity and economicgrowth.4 The interest that business has shownin the performance of public education, and thegrowing investment that industry has made

‘T. W. Schultz, Investment in Human Capital (New York:Free Press, 1971).

‘E. Mansfield, “Research and Development, Productivity, andInflation, ” Science, vol. 209, Sept. 5, 1980, pp. 1091-1093;J. Walsh, “Is R&D the Key to the Productivity Problem?”Science, vol. 211, 13, Feb. 13, 1981, pp. 685-688.

4A. W. Clausen, “The Quality of Public Education, ” VitalSpeeches, 1981.

High school students in Oxford, Mass., work with alearning aid that familiarizes them with electrical andelectronic wiring patterns. This helps them prepare forentry-level work in the burgeoning electronics industryin Massachusetts. The school board of this old mill townin southeast Massachusetts hopes that their creation ofa young labor pool skilled in electronics will help draw

new industry into the town

in specialized education and training programsare strong indicators of such concern.

Education and training may affect the con-tribution that workers make to productivityin at least three ways. First, education andtraining improves the productivity of the workforce if it allows workers to use current pro-duction techniques more effectively and toadapt more readily to new techniques. Second,the growth rate of new industry is determined,in part, by the availability of individualstrained to fill the new types of jobs created by

—

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital “ 27

innovation. Finally, the process of innovationrequires individuals trained to do R&D at alllevels from basic research to product develop-ment.

A number of labor economists have sug-gested that the link between education andeconomic growth is becoming more importantbecause of structural shifts toward the serviceand information sectors. Eli Ginzberg andGeorge Vojta state, “Human capital, definedas the ‘skill, dexterity, and knowledge’ of thepopulation, has become the critical input thatdetermines the rate of growth of the economyand the well-being of the population. We con-tend that the competence of management andthe skills of the work force . . . determine theability of enterprises to obtain and utilize ef-fectively other essential resources . . . "5

.‘E. Ginzberg and G, J. Vojta, “The Service Sector of the U.S.

Economy,” Scientific American, vol. 299, March 1981, pp. 48-55.

The suggestion that U.S. economic growthand competitiveness are dependent, in part,on the production of new information and onthe literacy of the work force has serious im-plications for Federal and local educationpolicy. A decline in the performance of theeducational system could be costly to U.S.society in terms of lower productivity of thework force; less flexibility for industry toadopt new production methods and manage-ment techniques; higher unemployment rates,particularly among the disadvantaged; and de-creased R&D, particularly in the basic sciencesand engineering.

Education and GrowthIn this century, particularly since World

War II, there has been a steady increase in thenumber of years of education completed byAmerican workers. This trend is illustrated intable 3. The degree to which this growth ineducation level is accompanied by an increasein the skill levels of jobs held, however, is amatter of some debate. While some see the ex-tension of education as evidence of the expan-sion of skills, others see it as a devaluation ofthe high school and college degree, or, in otherwords, as an inflation of the certification re-quired to obtain work that is no more—andmay even be less –demanding than before.’

An increase in job skill requirements couldtake place in three ways: 1) industrial growthand sectoral shifts in the economy could createmore jobs demanding higher skill levels; 2) theavailability of a more highly trained labor poolcould encourage employers to raise their per-formance expectations, even if the basic job

‘Randall Collins, “The Credentials, ” Society: A Histur-icdSociology of Education and %ratifi”cation (New York: AcademicPress, 1979).

Table 3.—Percentage Employment in the BusinessSector by Sex and Years of Education Completed

1948 1959 1969 1976

school years completed . . . . 44.4 1.0 0.5 0.3Elementary, 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 32.0 21.2 12.7High school, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.3 48.7 54.7 54.5College, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 14.7 19.0 25.7College, 5 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 3.6 4.7 6.9

school years completed . . . . 32.4 0.5 0.2 0.3Elementary, 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . — 22.5 14.5 8.4High school, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.1 63.8 68.6 65.9College, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 12.2 15.2 22.7College, 5 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 1.0 1.5 2.8SOURCE E. F Denisen, Accounting for Slower Economic Growth (Washington,

D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1979),

classifications remain the same; and 3) rapid-ly changing job requirements could place apremium on employees’ flexibility and on theirability to be retrained in new skills.

Justifiably or not, education is, generallyspeaking, a major factor in the competition forjobs, and those lacking the requisite educa-tional level are less employable. Unemploy-ment rates by education level are shown in


table 4. Two conclusions are suggested by the Table 4.—Unemployment Rates by Sex anddata: Number of Years of Education Completed

●

●

1970 1979

Education is an important selection cri-terion for employers. High school, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 8.3

High school, 4 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 5.5

More sensitive to fluctuations in overall College, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 4,2College, 4 years or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2. . . . . . . . . 1.8

employment rates than their more skilledcounterparts, less educated workers are High school, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 10.4

more likely to lose their jobs when unem-ployment rises, and less likely to get themback when it drops.

High school, 4 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 6.0College, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 4.3College, 4 years or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 3.0SOURCE Chronicle of Higher Education, citing BLS data

Human Capital TheoryHuman capital theory regards expenditure

on education as an investment in improvingthe quality of labor input to production, henceas a factor of production. Because of the in-vestment focus, worker income is regarded asthe measure of return. Researchers have dem-onstrated correlations between both currentand lifetime education levels and incomes. Inthe 1960’s, human capital theory formed a ra-tionale for much of the Federal educationpolicy that aimed at improving educational op-portunity as a means of fighting poverty.7

Most experts agree with the concept that,in many cases, education and training cancreate a more productive worker. However,many raise objections to human capitaltheory, both with respect to the analyticalbasis of the field and to the policies’ implica-tions that have been drawn from them. Chiefamong these objections are the following:

●

●

The assumption that individuals maketheir decisions about education and careeropportunities based on their reading ofthe labor market is questioned.Improvements in the quality of labor andthe resulting increases in productivity arenot necessarily directly reflected in a con-comitant rise in salaries and wages.Hence, the societal payback from furthereducation may be underestimated.

‘Chronicle Mar. 16, 1981, p. 2; G. S.Becker, Human Chpitd (New York: Columbia University Press,1975).

●

●

●

Particularly at higher levels of education,individuals may decide to continue theireducation for another year not because itwould increase their lifetime income re-turn, but rather because they want to de-velop special talents and to pursue otherpersonal goals.8

According to screening theory, educationdoes not “add value” to labor as such, butmerely serves to prescreen the most ableworkers.9 There is a difference of opinionbetween those who advocate screeningtheory and the proponents of human cap-ital theory with respect to how much sig-nificance should be attributed to screen-ing when calculating the return on invest-ment in education.An increase in the social investment forimproving the quality of the labor pooldoes not necessarily serve to increaseoverall levels of employment or to raisewage levels. Hence, by itself, investmentin education is not an effective strategy,either to raise the income of the disadvan-taged or to increase employment.10

8S. Rosen, “Human Capital: A Survey of EmpiricalReaearch,” in Research in Labor Economcs (Greenwich, Corm.:JAI Press, 1977), vol. 1, pp. 2-39.

‘K. J. Arrow, “Higher Education aa a Filter, ” Journal Economics vol. 2, 1973, pp. 173-216.‘“?’he Productivity R-oMem: Alternatives for Action (Wash-

ington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Congressional Budget Office, Jan-uary 1981); L. C. Thurow, The 2%ro Sum Society (New York:Baaic Books, 1980).

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital ● 2 9. .

Need for Technical EducationThe labor market is too complex to be de-

scribed in simple terms of oversupply or under-supply. It can be generally said, however, thatwhile the American work force does not appearto be undereducated in terms of the years ofschooling or in terms of the number of highschool and college graduates needed to meetoverall employment requirements, there doseem to be deficiencies in what students havelearned in school and severe shortages of grad-uates trained in certain job areas. And whilethe demand for traditional full-time, degree-oriented education may be leveling off or evenslackening, the demand for specific or contin-uing job-related education is growing. In par-ticular, the trend in the U.S. economy towarda growing service and information sector iscreating an increased demand for education inengineering and science, especially the com-puter sciences, at all levels. If these needs arenot met, U.S. economic growth and interna-tional competitive position may decline.

The clients for technical education can beloosely categorized into three groups, accord-ing to their respective needs:

1.

2.

3.

The general work force–workers in all oc-cupational categories, from blue collar tothe professional, who increasingly need togain literacy in information technology.Information professionals-specialistswho program, operate, repair, and in otherways directly support information prod-ucts and services.Information scientists and engineers—technical experts who conduct research,develop new products and applications, orteach at the college level.

Information Literacy

Economists, educational experts, and busi- ematics, and, in particular, information tech-ness leaders assert that there is a growing nology.11

need in U.S. society for at least a minimumlevel of literacy in science, engineering, math-

“Schultz, op. cit.; R. J. Seidel, R. E. Anderson, and B. Hunter(eds.), Cbmputer Literacy (New York: Academic Press, 1982);


As stated by the president of the Bank ofAmerica:

. . . increasingly, business is looking for andthe better jobs are going to, individuals withsome modicum of computer literacy. Basiccommunication and data-processing skills areamong the hottest commodities in the em-ployment sector today.12

The shift in the United States from a man-ufacturing and agricultural economy to an in-formation and service economy is creatingmore jobs with information handling require-ments. The occupational mix in the service sec-tor is compared with that in other sectors infigure 1. Furthermore, traditional jobs will in-creasingly require the handling of automatedequipment, a trend that is already visible inthe office. With the advent of automated infor-mation systems, the skills required of a cler-ical staff are changing. Moreover, the job skillsof a secretary in the wired office of the futurewill be substantially different from what theyare today. In fact, the concept of “secretary”may disappear altogether.

A similar trend may also occur in the fac-tory, where robotics and other forms of com-puter-aided manufacturing are beginning totransform the way that goods are produced.There, automation will require that the workerlearn new skills oriented toward operation andcontrol of computerized equipment. (Some ex-perts maintain that few of the current 20 mil-lion jobs in the manufacturing sector will re-main two decades from now.)

Faced with these pressures for a more tech-nically literate work force, the schools are ap-parently falling short of supplying thoseneeds.

● Overall achievement levels of high schooland college graduates, as measured by theNational Assessment of Educational Prog-ress, are steadily falling. In particular, de-

(continued from p. 29)R. J. Marano, “Educational Disenfranchisement in a Technolog-ical Age, ” Vital Speeches, 1982, p. 222.

12Clausen, op. cit.

Figure 1 .—Shifts in Employment1929

Total goods

AgricultureMining andconstruct ion

Manufacturing

Services

1948Total goods

AgricultureMining andconstruction

Manufacturing

Services

1969

Total goods

AgricultureMining andconstruct ion

Manufacturing

Services

1977

Total goods

AgricultureMining andconstruction

Manufacturing

Services

I I 1 1 1 1 I 1 Io 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Percent of labor force

Shifts in employment since 1929 are charted for the goods-producing industries and the service sector. The service sector in-cludes distributive services such as communications, utilities andwholesale trade; retail trade; consumer services such asrestaurants, dry cleaning and recreation; producer services such asaccounting, banking and legal work, and nonprofit and governmentservices including health, education, and national defense.

SOURCE E Glnzberg and G J. Vojta, “The Serv[ce Sector of the U SEconomy, ” Sclent(flc American, March 1981

clines in achievement have been noted in sci-ence and mathematics.13

Historical trends over the last decade in theachievement levels of students for selectedsubject areas are shown in table 5. The well-documented decline in the science literacy

“National Assessment of Educational Progress, Three Na-tional Assessments of science, report 08-5-00 (Denver, Colo.:Educational Ccnn.mission of the States, 1978); National Assess-ment of Educational Progress, Changes in MathematicalAchievement report 09-MA-01 (Denver, Colo.: EducationalCommission of the States, 1979); Science Education Databook1980 report, SE 80-3 (Washington, D. C.: National Science Foun-dation, 1980).

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital “ 31

Office design model for information gathering and communications is in use in many modern offices and has changedthe design concept of many offices throughout the business community

Table 5.—Achievement Test Score Averages, 1972-79 (numbers in thousands)

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

English composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mathematics Level I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .American history and social studies . . . . .Biology ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mathematics Level II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .European history and world cultures . . . .Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Average SAT scores for takers of

achievement tests*Verbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

526516541492535568

527517537498532572

544539—

——

——

533517545498545581

—

——

——

——

538532546493543567665553547525592555531524

501553

533 531 529516 512 514547 541 537492 496 480543 544 547574 577 575666 665 657553 552 554535 554 542526 521 522593 591 580551 553 550526 507 516517 508 524

504 507 508553 554 554

“Data not computed prior to 1976. Data for 1976 are estimated from scores of individual achievement tests for that year

SOURCE Science Educatton Databook, Nattonal Science Foundation, derived from the Admissions Testing Program of theCollege Board, Nat(onal Report, College Bound Sen(ors, 1977, p 8, 1978, pp 13.14, 1979, pp 13-14

rates of students does not necessarily imply disadvantaged backgrounds, it may be thata failure of the schools themselves. Declines literacy rates have declined because morein student performance might stem from social selectivity factors are operating now than infactors that are independent of the classroom. the past.Moreover, because the schools have had to ex- ● There has been an insufficient response bypand to accommodate an increasing number schools to the need for increased mathe-of students, some of whom have come from matical, technical, and computer literacy.

A sociologist studying how schools in a dis-trict heavily populated by high-technology in-dustry responded to the increased needs fortechnological literacy concluded that theseschools have in fact ‘moved away from a sci-ence and technology curriculum.14 The Nation-al Science Foundation (NSF) and Departmentof Education, in their report to the Presidenton science and technology- education, concludedthat the secondary schools were not carryingout their responsibilities effectively.15 Thereport notes that the divergence is wideningbetween the amounts of science and mathe-matics education made available to the fewwho wish to become professionals and to thosewho do not, a divergence further increased bya general lowering of performance standardsand expectations. A shortage of mathematicsand physical science teachers and the erosionof the teacher support system weaken the ca-pacity of the schools to provide quality in-struction to all students, majors and non-majors alike.

‘Elizabeth Useem, “Education and High Technology In-dustry: The Case of Silicon Valley,” unpublished August 1981,Institute for the Interdisciplinary Study of Education, North-eastern University, Boston, Mass.

‘b&ience and Engineering Education for the 1980b andBeyond (Washinton, D. C.: National Science Foundation and Department of Education, October 1980).

InformationThe Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has

prepared a study of the growing demand forprofessionals trained specifically in computerskills.17 Its estimates, shown in table 6, indi-cate that 685,000 new jobs will be created and250,000 replacement openings will occur overthe next decade, creating a need for nearly 1million new professionals trained in computerskills.

The estimates of BLS are probably conserv-ative, since only traditional computer job cate-gories were examined. Other types of jobs like-ly to become important over the next decade

1 7 E m p l o y m e n t ~ndg h Cbmputer @cupations, Bulletin

2101 (Washington, D. C.: Department of Labr, Bureau of LaborStatistics, October 1981).

The NSF report to the President also ex-amined the status of technical literacy in othercountries. To the extent that there is a connec-tion between technical literacy, economic pro-ductivity and growth, and national security,the comparisons should be worrisome. Exam-ining the state of science and engineering edu-cation in West Germany, Japan, and the Sovi-et Union, the report observes:

. . . these countries are educating a substan-tial majority of their secondary school popula-tion to a point of considerable scientific andtechnological literacy, in part because theyapparently believe that such literacy is impor-tant to their relative international positions.

In addition, the report states that the SovietUnion has elementary and secondary level cur-ricula in science and mathematics that “sur-pass that of any other country. ” (A Britishstudy of engineering education noted that inJapan, even high school students majoring inthe fields of humanities and liberal arts obtainenough knowledge in science and mathematicsto attend engineering school and compete suc-cessfully.) 16

16Engineer& Our FWzuw report of the Committee of Inquiryinto the Engineering Profession. Her Majesty’s Statement Of-fice, London, January 1980.

ProfessionalsTable 6.—Requirements for Computer Specialists

(data in thousands)

Occupation 1980 Projected 1990

Systems analysts . . . . . . . . . . . 243 400Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 500Equipment operators . . . . . . . . 522 850Data entry technicians . . . . . . 266 230Service technicians . . . . . . . . . 83 160

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,455 2,140SOURCE: Employment Trends h Computer Occupations, Bulletin 2101

(Washington, D. C.: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statlstlcs,October 1981).

include design engineers to create new typesof microelectronic chips, industrial engineerstrained in computer technology to supportwhat some experts see as a necessary surgein industrial automation, information special-

.

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital ● 3 3

ists to help the average user make effectiveuse of automated data systems, marketingand management personnel for the emerginginformation industry, and content producersfor entertainment and information services.

OTA was unable to find any reliable esti-mates of the projected growth of these typesof jobs. However, these jobs will no doubt addto the total demand projected by BLS of2,140,000 specialists by 1990. These numbersare significant because all of these jobs requireindividuals with similar types of knowledgeand work skills. Thus, employers will be com-peting to fill such jobs from the same limitedpool of information specialists.

Against the requirement of nearly 1 millionnew jobs, NSF projects that there will be atotal of 157,000 baccalaureates and masterslevel graduates in the computer professions.Projections of community college and publicand private vocational education graduatesover the next decade have not been made. Inthe academic year 1977 to 1978, these schoolsproduced about 67,000 graduates trained inthe computer field.

Several observations can be made:

● The enhancement of productivity in thecomputer field will likely affect jobs at thelowest levels first. For instance, advancesin programing languages may decreasethe need for entry-level program coders.However, neither BLS nor NSF examinedthe structure of these jobs in any detail;furthermore, they did not look at trendsin skill requirements.

● Some of the jobs included in the BLS es-timates do not require college degrees.While no estimates have been made of thenumber of jobs requiring lesser skills inproportion to the total number of jobs,they are probably concentrated in thecategories of data entry, equipment opera-tion, and repair. Some low-level program-ing jobs may also be available.

s The production of entry-level computerscience and engineering graduates willneed to be sustained during a period when

●

●

●

●

the number of people of traditional collegeage will be growing more slowly and mayconsist of an increasing proportion of ed-ucationally disadvantaged students.It is possible that, assuming no decreasein levels of support for vocational educa-tion, the community college and voca-tional programs may be able to meetmany of these needs. It is noteworthy,however, that some concern has been ex-pressed by business about the mismatchbetween current vocational programs andthe needs of industry. (See ch. 6 for a dis-cussion of vocational education and in-dustrial training.)Since computers are a relatively new tech-nology, the industry has had to live withpersonnel shortages from the start. Oneresponse has been to hire graduates fromother fields and train them in computerscience and engineering. All the majorcomputer firms have extensive trainingprograms, an approach that is less feasi-ble for smaller sized companies.The rate at which computer science andengineering training programs can growmay be limited not only by the existingshortage of experts but also by the factthat, with salary scales that are un-competitive in comparison with privateindustry, educational institutions may beunable to hire qualified faculty.The generally inadequate educationalpreparation at the secondary level couldreduce the pool of potentially qualifiedcollege entrants, an eventuality whichcould compel colleges and universities tolower admission standards for computerscience majors and to require extensiveremedial programs at the undergraduatelevel.

The U.S. position in relationship to othercountries is also unfavorable. As shown intable 7, of the four Western industrializedcountries examined, the United States pro-duces the fewest number of engineers meas-ured as a percentage of the relevant age group.The percentages of engineers produced in each

34 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 7.—Percentages of Engineering Graduates country correlates directly with the growth inand Trends in Shares of World Trade their share of international trade over the last

Share of world trade decade. While this is not proof of a cause-effectEngineering

Country graduates 1963 1977 relationship, it does suggest that one mayexist.

SOURCE: National Science Foundation

InformationDoctorate-level graduates in engineering

and science are needed to support innovationand growth in a high-technology society byconducting research that builds a foundationfor new development, conducting applied re-search and product development, and staffingcollege-level computer science and engineeringprograms. NSF found that the most seriousshortages of Ph.D.’s are in computer sciencesand in engineering, the two areas that are atthe leading edge of technological growth. Theproduction of Ph.D.’s in the computer sci-ences and in engineering has not grown signif-icantly over the last decade. In fact, in the caseof engineering, it has dropped. The situationmay be even worse than the numbers indicate,since NSF estimated that in some depart-ments nearly half the engineering graduatestudents are foreign nationals. While some for-eigners may stay in the United States andenter the U.S. labor pool, others will return totheir native countries.

Scientists●

●

●

●

●

Engineering programs are experiencingrepercussions from an oversupply of twodecades ago followed by strong studentantipathy in the late 1960’s and 1970’s.Computer science programs have experi-enced their strongest growth pressures ina time of general retrenchment in aca-demic budgets.A shortage of top-level, research-orientedfaculty prevents the growth of graduateprograms; 10 percent of the faculty open-ings in computer science were unfilled in1980.High private sector salaries and tightbasic research funding are drawing thebest faculty out of the classrooms andlaboratories.High salaries for programmers, analysts,and engineers at the baccalaureate andmaster levels are attracting studentsaway from Ph. D. programs.

Several factors have been mentioned as un-derlying the Ph. D. shortage:

Chapter 4

Trends inInformation Technology

Chapter 4

Trends in Information Technology

Electronics technology in general has evolved rapidly over the last few decades,but the changes now taking place in communications, computers, and video tech-nology are, perhaps, the most profound.

Findings

● The next decade will see a wide assortmentof new information technology products andservices offered to the consumer. Many ex-isting products and services, such as thetelephone or television set, will be alteredand enhanced by incorporating microelec-tronics technology.

● These new products and services are beingprovided by a rapidly growing business sec-tor called the information industry. Thissector is composed of both new firms ex-perienced in technology, and some tradi-tional publishing and entertainment com-panies that are adapting to technologicaladvances.

● While it is not possible to predict with cer-tainty which of these products will succeedin the marketplace, it is clear that a wealthof new technology will be available to the

●

●

●

home, school, and business. Many of theseproducts and services will, at least initial-ly, be directed to upper-income consumers.

Educational users are not likely to stimulatethe development of technology specificallyoriented to their needs. Rather, they will useproducts and services designed to serveother consumer markets such as businessand entertainment.

New firms in the information industry mayplay key roles as new providers of educa-tional hardware and curricula. Curriculamay also be provided by a few traditionaltextbook publishers that are moving intonew information technology markets.

Automated work stations, such as wordprocessors, are beginning to incorporatetraining and job assistance software.

,0

Several new types of communication tech- ● Much larger volumes of data can be car-nologies are being developed and installed. ried over the lines.They will offer the following improved capa- . An international data communicationsbilities: network is evolving that will allow the es-

●

●

●

The cost of communications, particularlyhigh-speed, long-distance data transmis-sion, will continue to drop.Users will have a variety of communica-tion services available to serve differentneeds.Communications networks will be easierto use, so that users can build distributednetworks of interlinked computers andterminals.

tablishment of high-speed communicationlinks between virtually any two points onthe globe.

Specific communications technologies con-tributing to this picture are two-way cable,satellite communication, digital telephone net-works, new local loop distribution technolo-gies, and new broadcast technologies, such asthe direct broadcast satellite and the low-power broadcast.

37

● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Cable

Cable television transmits the signal to a tel-evision receiver directly through a wire ratherthan through air waves. Its principal advan-tages are better reception, the ability to directspecific signals to specific receivers, and theavailability of more channels for use.

Originally viewed simply as an antennashared by a community, usually in an areawith reception problems or with limited localservice, some cable systems have been in placefor over 30 years, and their growth has beenslow. Cable now, however, seems to havepassed a critical threshold and is growingrapidly. This growth is spurred by the availa-bility of a number of new services and, in theview of some, by the deregulation of the cableindustry. The number of past and projectedinstallations of cable in homes and the numberof local community franchises for new cablenetworks to serve them are shown in table 8.

The principal technological differences be-tween older and new cable systems are thenumbers of channels and two way access.Older cable installations provide only a smallnumber of channels into the home, in some

cases, less than 12. Some modem systems nowbeing installed provide over 100 channels. Ithas been estimated that by 1990 over 50 per-cent of the homes served by cable will haveaccess to more than 30 channels.1 This addi-tional channel capacity is important for educa-tional purposes, since it implies the potentialavailability of a wider variety of programingaimed at narrower audiences (called narrow-casting). The content of television program-ing no longer must be determined by a limitednumber of channels serving a mass market.

Two-way access means that in addition toreceiving programing from the cable center—the “head-end”-- the user has a communica-tion channel back to the center. In currentsystems such as the Qube system in Colum-bus, Ohio, the viewer has a hand-held key-board through which he can make responsesto program inquiries. Some two-way systemsallow the connection of security devices suchas fire or burglar alarms and meters that canbe read remotely for utility billing.

‘LINK, New Electronic Media Program.

Table 8.—The Growth of Cable Television in the United States

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 640 1,352 2,490 3,506 4,225 6,000Total subscription households . . . . . . . 150,000 650,000 1,275,000 4,500,000 9,800,000 16,000,000 33,000,000SOURCE LINK

Satellite CommunicationIn slightly over a decade, communication

satellites have become a major component ofthe national and international communicationnetwork. The past and projected growth ofcommunication satellite usage for a variety ofservices is shown in table 9. These projectionsof growth depend on assumptions about whatnew services may be developed and about howmuch satellite capacity may be available.

Table 9.—Projected Demand for SatelliteCommunications in Number of Transponders

1985 1990 1995

Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 74 117Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 660 1,008Video-conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 100 200Video-television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 200 225

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 1,034 1,550NOTE: Projections vary greatly.

SOURCE: U.S. Satellite Systems Inc., Fi/ing Before FCC, Nov. 23, 1981.

—.

Ch. 4— Trends in Information Technology ● 39

Availability is affected by technical, economic, Satellites stimulated the development of newand regulatory factors that are independent types of television networks formed specifical-of the existence of a potential market. ly to serve cable subscribers with specialized

Different studies have resulted in striking-ly different estimates of communication sat-ellite usage. The numbers shown in table 9are estimates based on these studies and arethus useful only to indicate trends.

programing in such areas as news, sports, re-ligion, minority interests, movies, and finearts. This programing is distributed over acombination of satellite and land communica-tion lines to the cable center, where it is thenredistributed to the subscribers’ homes.

The growth of communication satellites isclosely connected with that of cable systems.

Digital Telephone NetworkThe basic technology of the telephone net-

work and its use is changing. The principalshift is from an analog-based system to adigital-based one. In analog transmission, thehuman voice (or any sound pattern) is trans-formed into electrical wave form, similar to theway music is stored on a record as a series ofwavy lines. Digital transmission, on the otherhand, encodes the information as a series ofdiscrete pulses. In a manner similar to that ofMorse code, different sequences of pulses rep-resent different numbers. The sound wave isencoded as a series of numbers and then con-verted into sequences of electrical pulses onthe line.

The shift to digital transmission will pro-foundly affect both the potential uses of thenetwork for data transmission and the typesof sophisticated communication services thatcan be provided. Digital technology allows thetransmission lines to carry more informationat higher rates. Moreover, transmission ismore accurate. Distortion of analog signalsdoes not usually affect normal voice conver-sation; however, computer data transmissionis far more demanding. Digital coding allowsfor error correction.

The digital communications network com-bined with the presence of computers, bothwithin the network and at the terminal ends,will provide a basis for a wide array of newcommunication services that unite the com-munication of information with the ability to

store and process it. Most electronics technol-ogy on which the telephone network is becom-ing dependent is digital. Central office switch-ing is computer-based, as are most new PBX(Private Branch Exchange) systems on themarket. A new generation of telephones basedon digital microcomputer electronics is alsoappearing.

A service already being offered is “packet-switched” data transmission, which is de-signed specifically to carry data between acomputer and either another computer or acomputer terminal. In this type of system,digital information is packaged in small piecescalled packets. A packet contains informationabout the source and destination of the dataand the relationship of that piece to the wholemessage. The packets are transmitted sep-arately through the network, sometimes tak-ing different paths, depending on which pathsare free at the moment.

The telephone network was originally de-signed for human conversation, not for com-puter data transmission. That the require-ments of these two types of communicationare significantly different is shown in table 10.Packet switching systems incorporate com-puters into the network in such a way as tomake it far more efficient for data transmis-sion. It is cheaper, faster, more accurate, andeliminates some incompatibilities between thevarious types of equipment on the network.

1. .

40 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education— —

Table 10.-Chief Characteristics ofVoice v. Data Communication

Voice Data

Transmissionspeed . . . . . . . . . . . Low Very high

Characteristics ofmessage . . . . . . . . . Infrequent bursts Nearly constant

of data use of lineLength of time

connected tonetwork. . . . . . . . . . Minutes Hours

Sensitivity todistortion . . . . . . . . Very low Very high

SOURCE: Off Ice of Technology Assessment.

Packet systems, because they lease tele-phone lines from AT&T and produce a dif-ferent type of service for their own customers,are called “value-added carriers. ” They areunder Federal Communication Commission(FCC) regulation. Other future services thatlink computers and communication lines willnot be so clearly classifiable as common car-riers, since computers within the network andat its nodes will provide services that look likedata processing and storage. For this reason,they may not be regulated.

It has not been completely decided–eitherby the courts, by the regulators, or by the

marketplace-which of these advanced serv-ices the telephone companies will be allowedto provide in competition with other com-panies in the information business, and whatthe rules of competition will be. The implica-tions of the recent reorganization of AT&T,agreed on between AT&T and the U.S. Depart-ment of Justice, are still not clear, althoughthe telecommunications and information serv-ices marketplace will be affected. Congressmay wish to legislate in certain areas of tele-communications policy that it still feels to beunresolved.

Digital data communication services havebeen particularly important to higher educa-tion, which has been experimenting with theiruse to form nationwide computer networks.For example, the Edunet system facilitatesthe exchange of educational computer pro-grams and the sharing of unused computerresources among institutions. Under sponsor-ship of the National Science Foundation,university computer science departments areforming a network of their departmental edu-cation and research computer systems to allowscientists all over the country to share pro-grams, resources, and ideason joint research projects.

and even to work

Local Distribution NetworksA local exchange is that part of the telecom-

munications network that provides point-to-point service within a given geographical area,ranging from a single office building to an en-tire metropolitan area. The telephone companyhas historically been the provider of this serv-ice; however, competitors, stimulated by de-regulation to make use of new technology, arenow developing technologies that promise tochange the economics and form of local datatransmission.

Thus, for example, some experts predictthat as an outgrowth of the potentially largecapacity of cable transmission technology, thenext stage of cable services will be the provi-sion of full two-way data transmission services

within local areas. Some channels of two-waycable service will be withheld from generalhome use and sold to Government agencies,school systems, and businesses to form theirown private cable-based communication net-works. Local franchises in a few areas (e.g., theNew Orleans, La., agreement with Cox Cable)are already providing for this type of facility.2

Other firms are experimenting with packetcommunication systems that use broadcastmedia. Networks for interoffice communica-tion are also being developed, principally byfirms interested in the office automation

‘Cable TV’s Third Wave: tial Broadband C%xnnmnicationServices, NRM, vol. 2, 6. LINK, New York, 1981.

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology ● 4 1

market which will make it possible for dif-ferent types of computer equipment locatedin different parts of a building to communicatewith one another, transferring data and proc-essing work as needed. Finally, a new form ofbroadcast transmission, called cellular radio,will greatly increase the availability and useof mobile telephone communication.

they will provide a mechanism to distributeprograming among schools in a district orwithin a school; they will facilitate the shar-ing of expensive resources; and they will alloweducational services to be directed outside theschool—to homebound students, to studentswith special needs and interests, and to voca-tional students at their workplaces.

Both regional and office technologies prom-ise a number of benefits to educational users:

New Broadcast TechnologiesA number of recently developed communica-

tion technologies will make new services avail-able for the distribution of programing. Whilemost of the industry is focusing on applica-tions in the entertainment market, these serv-ices will also have important potential educa-tional use.

Direct Broadcast Satellite

In a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) system,a satellite transmits a program directly to areceiver in the home or office, bypassing theintermediate step of using cable. Several com-panies have applied to FCC for permission tooffer this service, and, if approved, it wouldbecome available toward the end of the 1980’s.

The applicants have different views of theforms a DBS service might take, ranging fromtraditional pay television to new videotechnologies such as high-resolution televi-sion. * One applicant would use it as a morehighly developed form of network transmis-sion to cable and other redistributors, ratherthan to home consumers. It is noteworthy thatat least one applicant, COMSAT, has includedan educational channel in its proposal. If avail-able, DBS could be a relatively inexpensive

● A ~levi9ion ~iver “draws” its picture ~ a number of dots

on the screen. Its resolution, the fineness of detail that can bedisplayed, is fixed by decades-old transmission standards. Thehigher resolution displays that occur in computer graphics sys-tems are technically feasible. Because more information mustbe transmitted to produce more image detail, substantiallygreater bandwidth is needed for transmission.

means of distributing educational programing,particularly in rural areas where providingadequate education and other social servicesis still a costly and difficult process.

A number of market, technological, and reg-ulatory issues, some of them international inscope, must be resolved before a DBS systemcan become operational. Many questions re-main about the potential utility and marketfor such types of services. Will DBS simplycompete with current cable offerings, and ifso, what are its advantages? Would high-reso-lution television find a viable market? Arespecial provisions needed to encourage its usefor such public services as education? Final-ly, many users are competing for the increas-ingly fewer available frequencies of the elec-tromagnetic spectrum and for orbital “park-ing places” for satellites.** Would current orpotential uses of these resources allocated toDBS be more productive, more economical, orof greater value to society?

Low-Power Broadcast

In 1980 FCC began to consider applicationsfor licenses to establish low-power televisionstations. Such stations broadcast with re-stricted power that limits their range to a fewmiles (10 to 15 miles or even less).

**Broadcasting equipment such as satellites transmit theirinformation on an assigned radio frequency. When this frequen-cy is being used for one purpose, no other use of the same fre-quency can be tolerated in geographical areas where the twosignals might interfere with one another.


It is estimated that low-power stations willrequire a relatively small capital investmentto set up, possibly as little as $5,000. Further-more, since the stations have a restrictedrange, many more licenses can be grantedwithin any geographical region. FCC’s statedpurpose for promoting low power is to providegreater diversity of ownership and program-ing than that traditionally available over therestricted number of broadcast channels cur-rently serving an area. The advantages of lowentry cost and license availability may makelow-power stations attractive as a medium fordistributing educational programing and pro-viding other public services.

Low-power stations can be connected andused to distribute programing from a centralsource similar to the way that cable operatesnow. Programing can be distributed by satel-lite or by less exotic means, such as by mail-ing video cassettes. A network of inexpensivelow-power stations could serve as an econom-ical way to provide television broadcast toregions with low population density. For ex-ample, the Alaskan Public Broadcasting Com-mission has authorized an experimental net-work of low-power stations to serve the res-idents of Bethel, Alaska. Similar systems arealso being developed in Canada to serve re-mote northern regions.

ComputersThe fundamental technological base for com-

puter hardware has undergone revolutionarychanges over the last decade that are expectedto continue in the next. In 20 years, computerdesigners have advanced from using vacuumtubes, through solid-state transistors, to usingmicroelectronic integrated circuits on singlesilicon chips the size of a dime. Researchersare now developing the ability to print elec-tronic circuits in the sub-micron (less than 1millionth of an inch) range.

These developments have had an enormousinfluence on the way computers are used andon who uses them. A mass market for com-puters and computer software has developedthat serves retail consumers. Where computerownership and operation used to be restrictedto large, expert organizations, it now poten-tially extends to millions of homes, smallbusinesses, and schools. Contributing to thistrend is the fact that the cost of computinghas dropped steadily and rapidly-to the pointthat so-called desktop computers can be pur-chased for no more than a few thousand dol-lars. These small machines have the capabili-ty of computers that two decades ago sold forhundreds of thousands of dollars, and it is an-ticipated that their price will continue to drop.

In addition, networks of computers nowallow the owners of even a small computer togain access to special resources—hardware,software, or data bases—and enable them tocommunicate among themselves. Moreover,software, which instructs the computer howto do specific types of work, is becomingavailable in the commercial market. In thepast, computer operators were faced with theproblem of developing most software them-selves, an expensive task that required com-puter expertise. Now, there are enough userswith similar computer hardware and needs toform an attractive market for software.

Other consumer devices that use microcom-puter technology to increase the capabilitiesof traditional consumer products such as type-writers, automobile carburetors, televisionsets, or thermostats are also being marketed.In some cases, entirely new products, such ascomputer video games, are being developed.However, these are not designed to be usedas computers.

These general technological trends are re-sulting in the availability of a number of spe-cific products.

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology * 43

Desktop Computers

Desktop, or personal, computers are smallmachines that retail for prices ranging fromless than a thousand to a few thousand dollars.They are based on microelectronic technology,using inexpensive memory and computerchips commonly available on the market. Mostcurrent desktop computers are based on oneof two basic chip designs that use an 8-bitword as their fundamental unit of informa-tion. * Newer models are appearing, however,that use a more recently developed 16-bit wordchip. (Larger word-size generally results infaster computation and more memory direct-ly available to the machine.)

The owner of a desktop computer has a widevariety of attachments available. These “pe-ripherals” allow the computer to perform var-ious tasks—such as printing results, drawinggraphs, communicating over the telephoneline, storing information (e.g., on magnetictapes or disks), and even generating musicalsounds. While the computer manufacturersthemselves offer a selection of peripheraldevices, many have been designed and mar-keted by independent firms. The role playedby these small independent firms has undoubt-edly stimulated innovation in the small com-puter field and, by developing new applica-tions, accelerated the growth of the market.

Over the last 5 years, the structure of themarket has undergone substantial changes.Desktop computers were originally developedand sold by small entrepreneurial firms suchas Apple, one of the most successful to date.However, an unexpectedly broad consumermarket rapidly developed, and in response,larger, more consumer-oriented firms enteredit. Tandy Corp., for example, entered thedesktop computer market with a machinecalled the TRS 80. While not a computer com-pany, Tandy had a national network of retailoutlets—Radio Shack—through which thesmall computers could be sold to consumers

*An s-bit Word is a quantity of information roughly largeenough to contain a single alphabetic or numerical character,A 16-bit word can contain twice as much information.

interested in electronics. This companybecame a major competitor in the market.

Atari, originally a small firm manufactur-ing video games, but now a subsidiary ofWarner Communications Co., followed soonafter. Most recently, giant firms such as IBM,Xerox, and Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)have entered the market. The growth of thismarket is continuing, albeit at a slower pace,stimulated by use of computers for entertain-ment and games, education, household man-agement, and hobbies (e.g., computer-gen-erated art or music).

Another market, originally unanticipated, isthat of the small business user. It started slow-ly, principally because professional users wereoften nonexperts who needed more reliable as-sistance and better software than the manu-facturers were originally willing to provide.However, growth of the business market hasbeen rapid, and most experts expect that itwill predominate in this decade.

Finally, many manufacturers see the educa-tion market as one with great potential. Ap-ple, Atari, and Tandy have set up nonprofit

Software selection available at a Yonkers, N.Y., store


organizations intended to encourage the edu-cational use of computers. (The past and pro-jected growth of the desktop market is sum-marized in tables 11 and 12, and fig. 2.)

Growing along with the desktop computerindustry are the firms that provide the pro-grams for these devices. Nearly all of thesecompanies are new, started by one or a fewprogrammers with a bright idea. Their packagedprograms make the computer useful, andtherefore attractive, to most customers. Giventhe current size and expected growth of thepersonal computer market, a single successfulprogram can make a firm’s fortune and estab-lish it in the business. Like the independentperipheral industry, such software companieshave been a major force in expanding the useof desktop computers. For example, the avail-ability of VISICALC, a budgeting and plan-ning program offered by Visicorp, has beencited as the principal reason that somebusinesses bought desktop systems. Similar-ly, the availability of sophisticated word-processing and accounting packages hasopened the business market to smallcomputers.

In some ways the small computer softwarebusiness resembles that of traditional bookpublishing. A software company often pur-chases rights to distribute packages writtenby independent programmers. The company,which may also assume the costs of testing

Table 11 .—U.S. Installed Base of PersonaIComputers by Market Sectora (units in thousands)

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Home/hobby . . . . . . . . . . . 700 1,327 2,357 3,407 4,798Business/professional . . 1,236 2,345 3,975 6,025 8,428

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,936 3,672 6,332 9,432 13,226aBa~ed ~rl IIX Survey of Desktop Cornwters.

SOURCE: LINK.

Figure 2.— Installed Base MicrosTotal Universe and School Installed

22

20 -/

Yu

Jan 1982 1987 1992

SOURCE: LINK

and documenting the program, handles all thestandard publication jobs of production andmarketing. Some programmers are beginning tobe well known. Their names are attached tothe software packages just as those of authorsare to books; and, just as with books, cus-tomers often show preferences for softwarewritten by particular programmers.

Hand-Held Computers

The hand-held computer is somewhat largerthan a normal pocket calculator, contains amicrocomputer chip and sufficient memory toallow simple programs to be entered and run,and sells for only a few hundred dollars. It isboth much cheaper and considerably moreportable than the desktop computer.

Table 12.—Micros in Schools (installed base)

Purchased byschool district School level Total for Total

Hardware for K-12 Grades K-8 Grades 9-12 College 1981 installed

Totals . . . . . . 10,400 16,800 22,800 30,000 80,000 145,000SOURCE: LINK.


Its portability, however, is also the sourceof its limitations: the keyboard is small anddifficult to use for entering large amounts oftext; the display is limited to a single line oftext or numbers; and no convenient, fast, bulkstorage such as a floppy disk is attached.These deficiencies may be overcome by design-ing the hand-held computer to plug into otherhardware devices, thus sacrificing its porta-bility.

One promising application of the hand-heldcomputer for educational use will be as an in-

expensive terminal . Although containing with-in itself some computer power, the hand-heldcomputer could also be used in conjunctionwith a communications network connected toone or more larger computers. In an educa-tional setting, for example, students might usetheir personal hand-held computer by itselfwherever possible. For assignments that re-quire more capacity, the hand-held could belinked over a phone line to a larger system atthe school.

Human InterfaceMuch research and development (R&D) in

computer technology is directed at makingcomputers and humans communicate with oneanother more easily, a process referred to asinput/output. The input function has two basicactivities: 1) instructing the computer in thetask that it is to perform; and 2) reading dataor instructions into the computer quickly, ac-curately, and inexpensively. The output func-tion refers to producing results that are un-derstandable and easily used either by ahuman or, increasingly, by some other com-puter or machine.

New languages are being developed to helpboth experts and nonexperts program com-puters more efficiently. Many of these lan-guages are tailored to specific applications—such as educational use. For the professionalprogrammer, the goal is to develop languagesthat allow increased productivity—eitherfaster and more accurate programing, or thecreation of more complex programs. For non-expert users, the goal is to provide a languageclosely related to their language and problem-solving styles.

Computer experts see a close connection be-tween the language used to program a com-puter and the mental problem-solving strategyof the person using it. If the logical structureof the programing language is significantlydifferent from the user’s mental processes, thelanguage can actually be a barrier to effective

computer use. On the other hand, accordingto this theory, a properly designed program-ing language can actually guide the user to thesolution of a problem. It was this latter obser-vation that led to the creation of a program-ing language called LOGO, which was de-signed for educational use. This languageteaches children new patterns of thinkingabout problems, patterns not only more at-tuned to the use of computers, but also—according to some experts—more powerful forsolving very complex problems.

Data have traditionally been typed into thecomputer, either directly or through punchedcards or some other intermediate medium.Technology is now appearing on the marketto input directly, either by speaking to thecomputer or by showing it pictures. Presentvoice input capabilities are quite limited,however. Only a few hundred words can be rec-ognized, and these only in a few specific voicesfor which the system must be trained. Duringthis decade, experts expect that significant ad-vances will be made in both vocabulary sizeand number of speakers that can be recog-nized. An interesting application of a hand-held computer would be as a personalized voiceinput device that is tuned to respond only tothe owner’s voice.

The principal developments in output tech-nology have been in the areas of low-costprinters, graphics, and voice. Printers have


historically been an increasingly expensivetechnology to add to small computers. Pre-dominantly mechanical, they have not sharedin the price reductions experienced by elec-tronic devices. Recently, however, stimulatedby the growing small-computer market, anumber of firms have developed inexpensiveprinters that use electronics more extensive-ly. These “dot-matrix” printers, selling for afew hundred dollars, print characters as pat-terns of small points. Besides cost, other ad-vantages of the dot-matrix printers are thatthey can produce a wide variety of type fontswithout changing the print mechanism andthat they can be used to print graphicmaterial.

Lately, the most active computer peripheralmarket in new product development has beencolor graphics output. Systems can now dis-play solid shapes, in full color, with shadingto reflect light sources and surface textures.While this technology is still very expensive,prices are dropping rapidly, and new and more

sophisticated capabilities are coming on themarket. Limited, but inexpensive and useful,color graphic capability is already available onmost desktop computers. While elaborate, full-scale graphics would be useful for engineeringdesign education and for simulators—say, forflight training-the limited capability avail-able on small systems has not yet been fullyexploited for many educational uses.

Voice output technology, while still prim-itive, is also improving steadily in price andperformance, although it is unlikely that ac-curate reproduction of human speech will beachieved in this decade. Texas Instruments,with its successful “Speak and Spell” line ofproducts, has illustrated how useful even alimited capability can be for educationalapplications. *

*Spe~ ~d SwlI i9 a sm~ hand-held device with a keyboardand display. It speaks a word to the learner, who types in thatword on the keyboard. If the word is spelled correctly, the devicemoves on to the next word. If not, after giving the child anotherchance, it displays the correct answer.

Storage Technology

Technology for storing data is steadily im-proving, for both large and small computersystems. The most significant developmentsfor educational use are those storage technol-ogies used by software publishers for the dataand programs they sell. The storage mediummust be cheap, durable, easily handled, hardto copy (in the view of some firms), and, mostimportant, usable by purchasers on theirsystems.

Many desktop systems are designed to op-erate programs stored permanently on siliconchips in a high-speed memory that cannot bechanged. This so-called “read-only memory”(ROM), is plugged into a socket on the com-puter. Its most common form is the game car-tridge for the Atari and other electronic gamepackages.

The other major memory technology forsmall computers is the floppy disk, which was

probably as important to the development ofthe desktop computer as was the microproc-essor, itself. The floppy disk, which comes in5 ¼- and 8-inch sizes, is most typified in word-processing systems in its 8-inch form. It pro-vides a low-cost, rapid, and reliable storagemedium for the small computer. Programs arenow commonly distributed on floppy disks.There is currently a debate about whether soft-ware firms will favor floppy disks or ROMsas the medium of choice for distributing theirproducts. Disks are cheaper to reproduce,while ROMs are now harder to copy and“pirate.”

Now, economical bulk storage systems thatuse hard disk technology are becoming avail-able for small computers. These systems havemany times the capacity of floppy disks andare much faster and more reliable. However,they are also more expensive and do not pro-vide a facility for data backup.

————


Video TechnologyLike the computer and communications in-

dustries, the consumer entertainment sector,principally television, is also making techno-logical advances. This decade is likely to seesignificant developments in several areas ofvideo technology: video cassette recorders, im-proved quality (high-resolution, flat screen,large screen, high-fidelity sound), filmlesscameras, and video disks.

Video Cassette Recorders

Video cassette recorders have already be-come important consumer goods. Based onconsumer surveys, their principal home usesseem divided between viewing movies, par-ticularly those not readily available at localmovie houses or on network television, and so-called “time-shifting.” Time-shifting meansrecording a program at the time it is broad-cast for later replay. (According to a recentcourt ruling, such practice may be in violationof the copyright law, although the court alsoacknowledged the difficulty of its enforce-ment.)3

Video cassette recorders have become an es-tablished consumer technology despite theirlack of standard recording format and theirrestricted marketability (to the relativelysmall upper-income bracket). It has not beendifficult to produce and sell tapes in differentformats, and time-shifting use does not dependon common standard formats.

Improved Quality

R&D is under way to develop basic newvideo technologies that promise better per-formance. Although none of these has yetreached the market place, experts think thatat least a limited number will be available inthis decade.

The flat and large screen protection systemsthat are currently available are expensive and

3Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 659 F. 2d, 963 (9thCir., 1981).

awkward to use in small rooms. The goal ofresearchers is to develop a true flat displayscreen, since the market for such a technologywould be large, not only for entertainment, butalso for use in computer systems. Since man-ufacturers are keeping their progress in thisarea quiet, it is hard to predict the likelihoodof success.

High-resolution television, another area ofintensive development, may be closer to tech-nological realization. However, its widespreadadoption will be hampered by the need to usedifferent broadcast formats on transmissionchannels with much higher capacity, as wellas by the viewer’s need to purchase expensivenew receivers. For this reason, CBS is propos-ing the use of direct broadcast satellites fortransmitting high-resolution programing.Cable is another possible transmission medi-um. Initial users are likely to be institutionalusers, such as theaters, that can afford to pur-chase receivers and pay relatively high trans-mission costs.

Filmless Camera

The Japanese firm, Sony, recently an-nounced the development of a camera that op-erates electronically. The camera, whichcombines video and computer technology,“writes” a picture on a very small, reusablefloppy disk. The picture is then viewed on atelevision display. The initial version is expen-sive, and its performance is limited by theresolution capability of current television dis-plays, which is much lower than that of film.However, the future availability of high-reso-lution television displays will allow a picturequality as good or better than that of film.

Video Disk

A technology eliciting much interest fromthe education community is the video disk, amedium that stores television programing ona disk resembling a phonograph record. Edu-cators and information publishers are excited


about its potential because such disks aredurable, and copies are cheap to produce. Eachdisk has two sound tracks, which may beplayed singly or together, and individualframes on the disk can be addressed andviewed. Moreover, the storage capacity of adisk is high-56,000 frames on a side. Com-puter data and programs can also be storedon such a disk.

These characteristics suggest that a videodisk coupled with a small computer would bea very flexible and powerful device, allowingon the same disk a combination of moving se-quences, still pictures, and text, all under in-teractive control.

There are a number of competing technol-ogies for recording and reading the informa-tion on a disk. However, they can be regardedas two basic types, capacitance and laser. Thecapacitance system, marketed by RCA, storesthe information on a disk in a spiral of tinygrooves, much smaller than, but similar to,those on a phonograph record. The informa-tion is read by a needle that physically ridesin the groove. RCA has marketed its capaci-tance system directly to the upper-incomehome buyer, selling it principally in competi-tion with video cassette records as a mediumfor viewing movies and other packaged pro-gram materials. However, since the system

does not offer recording capability, it is notuseful for those who want to record frombroadcasts or create their own video tapes.

The laser system stores information astransparent or reflective spots on the disk. Thereader uses a laser light beam that eitherpasses through or reflects from the disk sur-face. No physical contact is made with the disksurface, and the reading accuracy is immuneto damage to the disk surface. Currently avail-able laser disk systems record on one side.However, at least one firm will soon offer atechnology that stores information on bothsides and that can read both without havingto flip the disk.

The principal benefits of the laser system areits ability to lock onto a single addressedframe and to move at random, under computercontrol, through the information stored on thedisk, as well as the durability of the disk itself.Its chief drawback to date is cost.

The principal market for laser video disksystems has been industrial and militaryusers. Experts differ on whether this tech-nology will become common in the home andschool. For this to happen, the cost of acomputer-controlled video disk reader mustdrop substantially from its current price,which runs well over $1,000.

Information ServicesThe new information technology described apart. * This technological merger is taking

in this chapter will form the basis for a wide place in two ways:variety of information products and servicesfor the home, office, school, and other loca-

● The technologies are becoming integrated

tions. The most significant ones will incor-into each other. The digital telephone net-

porate the integration of several technologies.work uses computer technology; distrib-

The three areas of information technology– *Thig Overlap creates regulatory problems, ShlW the commU-

computers, communications, and video-have nications industry is regulated and the computer industry isgrown up separately, connected only by their not. The FCC recently concluded an inquiry, “Computer II, ”joint dependency on microelectronics. Now, it motivated by this growing overlap, which was intended to better

distinguish computer services from communicationsis becoming increasingly difficult to tell them (5-FCCINQ).

—

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology . 49

uted computer systems use telecommu-nication services; video disks are con-trolled by microcomputers.

● New types of information services thatmake use of all three technologies arebeing planned and offered. For example,Pergamon Press offers a patent searchsystem that integrates a personal com-puter, a video disk, and a remote database accessed by telephone to allow at-torneys to search U.S. patents.

Several sectors of the industry are alsobeginning to overlap:

●

●

●

●

High technology-communications andcomputers.Traditional print publishers—news-papers, magazine, and book publishers.The entertainment media-film, televi-sion, and radio.Other information-dependent firms–banks and credit card companies.

To some extent, mergers of previously in-dependent business sectors reflect normalbusiness growth through diversification, butthe firms also see their various business ac-tivities as becoming more closely related.Thus, diversification within the informationindustry has become a way for companies toprotect themselves against technological ob-solescence. The industry overlap is motivatedby two trends:

●

●

Computer and communication technologyis becoming central to the provision ofmany traditional information services.For example, some providers of two-waycable services plan to offer an electronicnewspaper. Furthermore, traditional pub-lishing is becoming increasingly depend-ent on the use of electronic systems.Unique new services are appearing thatcan be interpreted as a blend of more tra-ditional businesses. For example, AT&Thas been considering offering an in-homeinformation service that, while resemblingan electronic version of the yellow pages,competes in the eyes of some newspaperpublishers with classified advertising.

While some of these new information serv-ices are described below, the list is not com-plete. It is possible to predict with some cer-tainty what technological capabilities will ex-ist over the next decade or two. It is not possi-ble, however, to predict how entrepreneurs willuse those capabilities to bring innovative serv-ices to the marketplace. The new informationtechnology base that is being developed andinstalled offers a rich opportunity for suchinvention.

Videotex and Teletext

Some European nations, along with Japanand Canada, have been developing a tech-nology that uses the existing television broad-cast medium to bring an information serviceinto homes and offices.

A picture on a television screen is composedof several thousand lines. During the transmis-sion of the television signal that-paints the pic-ture line-by-line on the receiver screen, thereare a number of times when no useful infor-mation is being transmitted. These so-called“blanking intervals” are needed to allow thereceiver and transmitter electronics to catchup and get ready to display the next line.While some of these intervals are used to syn-chronize and control the picture display, manyof them are unused. Information can be trans-mitted in these intervals. A properly modifiedtelevision receiver can pick out the informa-tion and, on command from the viewer, displayit on the screen, either alone or on top of theexisting picture.

In a teletext system, several hundred oreven thousands of pages of information arecontinually being transmitted. (It may takeseveral seconds to transmit the entire volumeof data.) The user selects a page for viewing;the television set then waits for that page tocome along in the information stream, picksit out, stores it, and displays it on the screen.

Videotex is a more sophisticated version ofthis service. It requires two-way communica-tion between the viewer and the transmitter.

50 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The viewer requests a specific item from thecentral system; that page of information isthen transmitted on the television signal to theviewer’s screen.

The term videotex is sometimes used morebroadly to include all on-line service designedto display information on demand. Such sys-tems may use cable, telephone lines, or newpacket broadcast technology to distributetheir products. The advantage of videotex isthat a larger data base can be made availableto the user, since the entire data base does notneed to be transmitted continually. It alsoallows for interaction between the user and thecentral data base. One could, for example, ex-amine a catalog of merchandise or an airlineschedule and then complete the transaction bybuying a product or making a reservation. Be-cause it allows individualized interaction witha data base, the videotex system may offer val-uable opportunities for educating and training.

Broadcasters and information publishers inthe United States have been experimenting ina small way with various forms of videotexand teletext services, in most cases usingtechnology developed in Europe and Canada.A recent proposed rulemaking by FCC opensthe way for their widespread introduction. Theprincipal problems in the commercial develop-ment of this type of service will be identify-ing information markets, assembling an ade-quate and marketable data base, and pricingrecorders for home television sets at a levelwhere they can be purchased for use in theaverage household.

Information Networks

Closely related to videotex are various serv-ices that have developed to provide owners ofdesktop computers and terminals with accessto computer and data services over commu-nication networks. This business is expectedto grow rapidly over the next decade. Someexperts project over $6 billion in annual bill-ings by 1985.

Providers of these services distinguish theirmarkets by the nature of the services offeredand by the types of clients they serve. General

services offer access to a wide variety of datafor a broad customer market. Specialized serv-ices provide narrow, but usually deeper andmore sophisticated, information services tocustomers with special needs. Some firmsserve home, professional, and small businessusers, while others serve large industrialclients.

There are no clear dividing lines betweenthese markets. In general, however, the large-scale specialized data bases tend to be expen-sive, and using them requires a great deal ofcomputer processing, at either the provider’sor customer’s end of the telephone line. Sys-tems oriented to individual customers tend tobe less costly and less specialized.

For example, using ordinary telephone lines,owners of small computer systems can connectwith on-line services such as The Source andCompuServe. Companies like these offer a widevariety of information to subscribers. Al-though originally oriented to the needs of thehome consumer, these firms are beginning toexpand their network offerings to the businessmarket. Their services now include directaccess to United Press International andAssociated Press news wires, stock exchangetransactions, weather information, transpor-tation schedules, restaurant and film reviews,sports scores, and even computer programsthat can be directly loaded into the home oroffice system from the company’s network.

A number of newspapers are conducting ex-periments to provide electronic newspapers.Customers paying a special access charge willbe able to get news summaries and specialfeatures such as horoscopes and weather. Two-way services such as bill paying and teleshop-ping will also be offered to network sub-scribers. Customers can view lists of productsand prices and put an order into the system.After the product is delivered, the customerwill be billed via credit card. Some banks areexperimenting with in-home banking services.

In addition to communication with the cen-tral network data bases, customers can ex-change messages with one another throughthe system, allowing a simple form of “elec-

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology “ 51

tronic mail.”* The network services also usethis two-way communication to provide elab-orate games that can be played by several cus-tomers simultaneously.

While The Source and similar firms sell ac-cess to a wide variety of services, other com-panies offer more specialized products. DowJones, for example, sells access to its stock ex-change data base. A customer with an Appleor other small computer and a communica-tions interface buys a special program for thecomputer from Dow Jones and subscribes tothe data base. Using the home computer, re-cent transactions can be monitored and his-torical trends analyzed.

Some firms offer large sophisticated databases designed primarily to serve institutionalcustomers with special information needs. Ex-amples are:

*For examp]e, Con=essman James Coyne uses The SOUrCeas a way to stay in electronic communication with his constit-uents.

●

●

●

●

●

Bibliographic and reference data bases forresearch, are offered by DIALOG Infor-mation Services, Inc. (a subsidiary ofLockheed) and the National Technical In-formation Service (NTIS) of the U.S. Gov-ernment; also the New York Times Infor-mation Service, which offers indexed ab-stracts and full text retrieval of news ar-ticles appearing in a number of magazinesand newspapers.Medical information are provided by theMedline service of the National Libraryof Medicine; also, Harper and Row’sHARFAX service publishes an on-linepharmaceutical data base.Legal information, such as the Legis databank of citations and the Pergamon on-line collection of patent information.Econometric information such as offeredby Data Resources, Inc.Natural resources data such as thepetroleum reserves estimates developedby the Department of Energy and offeredby the I. P. Sharp Co.

Electronic ConferencingWith electronic conferencing, a meeting is

conducted in which geographically dispersedparticipants talk with one another over tele-communication lines. There are three catego-ries of electronic conferencing, depending onthe

●

●

●

technology used:

Audio conferencing, which uses thetelephone: individuals at different loca-tions are linked together by a conferencecall wherein both a loudspeaker and amicrophone system are used at each lo-cation.Video conferencing, which supplementsthe voice connection with television im-ages of the participants or of displaycharts, tables, or other graphics underdiscussion.Computer conferencing, which transmitsmessages through a central computerthat stores them and forwards them onrequest to another participant. In a com-

puter conference, the participants do notneed to be connected at the same time. Inaddition, since each message in the dialogis stored as computer data, it can be in-dexed to topic, date, sender, and so on.This facility allows a complete running,indexed transcript to be available to theconferees at all times.

All of these conferencing modes offer an al-ternative to traveling for meetings, thus sav-ing energy and time. Additionally, becausecomputer conferencing offers time-independ-ence, it is even attractive for use within asingle office for meetings between busy execu-tives.

Extensive research has been done on the useand effectiveness of different types of telecon-ferencing systems.4 Each has its own advan-

4J. V. Johansen and K. Spengler, Electronic Meetings (Read-ing, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1979).


tages, disadvantages, and costs. Video con- Turoff at the New Jersey Institute of Tech-ferencing, for example, will be more expensive nology (the EIS system) and by the Institutethan computer or audio conferencing; however, for the Future (the PLANET system). Com-computer conferencing offers time-independ- mercial systems are now appearing on theence. market. Infomedia, a small California-based

firm, is marketing its NOTEPAD conferenc-Experimental computer conferencing sys- ing system to large industrial and government

terns have been operated for some time by clients.

Advanced Business Services

AT&T is planning to offer an advanced datacommunications service known as ACS (Ad-vanced Computer Service). This service, prin-cipally designed to serve major corporateusers, will integrate high-speed data commu-nications for computer applications with suchuses as teleconferencing (video and audio) andfacsimile transmission. Satellite Business Sys-tems is planning to offer a similar service, andother firms may also enter the market soon.

One principal advantage of these new com-puter-based communication systems is thatthey will allow the integration of communica-tion services economically over a single high-capacity channel. Incorporation of computerswithin the network will provide the customerwith more flexibility, since the network can

handle incompatibilities between differenttypes of computers and terminals and can alsomanage the flow of work among several inter-connected computers. The network can evenoffer a customer data storage and retrieval,as well as computer-processing services.

Data networking has been of interest tohigher education for several years. Post-sec-ondary education institutions may find fewertechnological barriers and lower data com-munications costs if they link their computersand use teleconferencing for teaching andmanagement. Industrial firms that installACS-type services almost certainly will usethem to provide education and training fortheir employees.

Chapter 5

Educational Uses ofInformation Technology

An elementary school teacher in Lexington, Mass., prepares a program forpresentation to her students

Chapter 5

Educational Uses ofInformation Technology

Since the development of the radio, people have proposed that communica-tions technology provide major improvements in the delivery of education.Research on “teaching machines” dates back to the 1940’s, before the generalintroduction of computers into the marketplace. Since that time, there has beencontinual research, development, and implementation of techniques for using in-formation technology in various aspects of education.

OTA investigated what is known and what has been proposed about possibleapplications of information technology to education.

Findings

● Information technology is capable of becom-ing a major resource for the delivery of edu-cational services over the next decade:— It can be an effective delivery mechanism

for most existing forms of education. ●

— It provides capabilities for responding tonew demands that traditional school-room education cannot meet adequately.

. The cost of information products andservices for educational applications willcontinue to drop with respect to otheritems in the educational budget.

● The principal benefits will be realized fromcombinations of new technologies rather

●

than from any single device.

c Most educational applications will be basedon hardware technology that is originallydeveloped for a broader consumer market.The only exceptions will be devices designed

for specialized industrial uses–e.g., flighttraining for airline pilots-or education andtraining for the handicapped.

It is impossible to predict with certainty thetechnological base that will exist for educa-tional use. Some of the products and serv-ices now projected for the next decade, anddescribed in chapter 4, may not survive thecompetition for the consumer’s money. Thisuncertainty may inhibit the rapid develop-ment of software and services particularlyoriented to the education market.

The provision of high-quality, reasonablypriced educational software is the principaltechnological challenge. Low-cost hardwarewill be widely available to most homes, of-fices, and schools.

Functions of Educational TechnologyThere are a variety of ways in which comput- Passive Instruction

ers and communications technology can pro-vide educational services. In some cases, dif- The oldest instructional use of informationferent types of applications will require differ- technology is simply to present information.ent technologies; in other cases, the same type The textbook is the traditional passive instruc-of technology can be used to provide different tional system. Projection media-slides, film-types of services. strips, overhead transparencies, and pictures

55


—are more modern forms. Educational radioand television have experienced quiet butsteady growth since the late 1950’s and early1960’ s.’ Video cassettes and video disks willprovide even more flexible tools for presentingvideo-based instructional material.

The best known recent examples of passiveinstructional programing are the ‘(SesameStreet” and “Electric Company” programsproduced by The Children’s Television Work-shop with partial Federal support. These pro-grams were intended to supplement, not re-place, normal schooling. Sesame Street is in-tended to teach preschool children some basicconcepts and learning attitudes. Electric Com-pany is principally aimed at supplementingreading instruction at the grammar schoollevel.

At the other extreme, a full alternative totraditional education is the “Open Universi-ty” in Britain, which has conducted a full col-lege degree program for over 11 years, basedprincipally on passive instruction using thebroadcast networks. In the United States, theCorporation for Public Broadcasting is devel-oping an educational program along similarlines in cooperation with universities acrossthe country.

New technology for video production is alsohaving an impact on educational uses. Com-puter animation systems have become consid-erably less expensive than older, hand anima-tion techniques. Video processing uses com-puters to perform elaborate modification ofvideo images. Both of these technologies arewidely used in commercial television and mo-tion pictures, but they are also particularly at-tractive for instructional application in whichconcepts and processes that are subtle anddifficult to visualize need to be illustrated.Complex physical processes, such as fluid flowor load stresses on structures such as bridges,can be simulated on a computer and displayedas dynamic graphic images. In addition, videocassette recorders (VCRs) and video diskspromise to relieve students from the dictates

IP. J. Dier and R. J. Pedone, Uses of Television for Instruc-tion, 19761977, NCES/CPB, 1979.

of schedule. The VCR, in particular, allows—copyright law permitting-instructors andstudents to copy instructional programs offthe air and play them back at some later time.Video cassettes and video disks will providealternate modes of broadcasting for the distri-bution of instructional material.

Passive instruction systems have the follow-ing characteristics:

●

●

All educational decisions are in the handsof the providers; what information is tobe presented, for how long, in what se-quence, and even—in the case of such cur-rent instructional broadcasting—theschedule—when it is shown.The boundaries between entertainment,public information, and educational serv-ices can become blurred. A Shakespeareplay, a concert, or an informational seriessuch as the successful Cosmos series car-ried by the the Public Broadcasting Sys-tem, may all be considered important in-structional resources as well as entertain-ment.

Interactive Instruction

This technology is used to teach a specificsubject or skill directly to a student, guidingthe learner through a sequence of steps involv-ing the presentation of information, drills, andexercises designed by an instructor. Interac-tive instructional systems require the studentto communicate with the device, allowing thesystem to vary the pace of instruction, selectamong alternate sequences of presentation,test for understanding, and alter the contentaccording to the specific needs of the individ-ual.

Computer-assisted instruction is the bestknown interactive technology. A student sit-ting at a computer terminal works through aseries of “frames” that teach and test under-standing.* If the student is progressing slow-ly, the computer branches to an alternate style

*A ‘{ fr~e ” i9 a &splay on the television screen in a SAI 9y5-tem. The term dates back to programed learning research inwhich a frame was a unit of material presented at one time.

Ch. 5—Educational Uses of information Technology ● 5 7

Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington,D. C.—Consternation is a constant in the

first phases of instruction . .

&

. , . but the student’s discovery ofwrong responses . .

of presentation or a remedial section. If thestudent has mastered that section, the com-puter jumps ahead to more advanced material.

The Plato system was one of the betterknown experiments. It was developed by re-searchers at the University of Illinois and Con-trol Data Corp. With principal funding fromthe Federal Government, the system originallycombined a new type of interactive graphicsterminal with a large multiterminal computersystem and an elaborate language specificallydesigned to create instructional programs.While Plato was originally a very expensiveexperimental system, most of its underlyingconcepts survive in commercial instructionalsystems now marketed by Control Data.

Four factors have more recently revived in-terest in interactive instruction: 1) the rapidlydeclining costs of computers and the adventof the desktop computer, 2) the escalatinglabor-intensive costs of traditional schooling,3) an improved understanding of how to createinstructional packages, and 4) the develop-ment of alternative delivery mechanisms thatlink the computer with other technologies,such as video disk and interactive cable.

. . . is followed by the sense of reward forright responses which makes the anxiety

of exploring the unknown bearable

The video disk is a good example of how newtechnologies can be combined to form instruc-tional systems. The video disk contains an ex-tensive data base of text, still images, andfilm. The computer controls the sequence ofpresentation and, using an educational pro-gram contained on its floppy disk and infor-mation stored in the remote data base, inter-acts with the student.2

The video disk, for example, might containseveral thousand images of microscope slides.The data base would have full descriptive in-formation on the subjects illustrated by theslides, indexed in various ways. Educationalsoftware on the computer would take a stu-dent through sequences of slides and text pres-entation, providing information and adminis-tering tests. While the computer programwould be designed to achieve a specific instruc-tional purpose, the slide catalog and data basewould be intended to be more widely appli-cable for research and education.

‘L. F. Eastwood, “Motivation and Deterrents to EducationalUse of ‘Intelligent Videodisc’ Systems, ” J. Ed. Tech Systems,vol. 7(4), 1978-79, PP. 303-335.


Several experiments are under way to devel-op instructional packages using combinationsof video disks and personal computers. TheMinnesota Educational Computing Consor-tium is developing a series of video disks inbasic economics. The first disk of a planned6-disk series has been produced and tried inthe classroom with favorable results. Othercompanies are developing products aimed atthe industrial training market; and a fewfirms, such as IBM, are already using interac-tive video disks for employee training.

Interactive instructional technology has thefollowing characteristics:

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●

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●

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●

It allows the system to customize teach-ing to the particular level of understand-ing, learning style, and ability of eachindividual student.The system can be designed so that stu-dents can pace themselves.Because individualization and self-pacingmay not fit well with traditional school-ing, large-scale implementation of inter-active instructional technology in theschools may engender substantial institu-tional resistance.Instructional software is often dividedinto discrete packages, each designed toteach a specific skill or item of informa-tion. An instructional curriculum (say, afifth grade mathematics course) is a col-lection of these packages, which, for a fullcourse, may number into the hundreds.Extensive design effort is needed to cre-ate each module. The material to betaught must be broken down into frame-sized pieces. Tests of understanding mustbe devised, and the paths that studentsare most likely to take in going throughthe material must be anticipated.Because they are so carefully tailored, in-teractive curricular packages are inflexi-ble. They are not generally useful for anypurpose, clientele, or environment otherthan the specific one for which they weredesigned.The skills required both to produce soft-ware and to assist students with its use

are substantially different from tradition-al teaching skills.

● Some experts suggest that smaller in-structional modules can be designed to fitinto the regular course of instruction, per-mitting a gradual introduction of educa-tional technology. Others maintain thatthe principal educational benefits of tech-nology are lost with such an incrementalapproach.

Learning Environments

The interactive instruction technology de-scribed above can be used to create a specialenvironment-a language, simulation, or database–that can be manipulated by the student.

For example, special computer languages,such as LOGO, can help learners gain particu-lar problem-solving skills. Languages such asVISICALC, a system designed for businessusers of small computers, can be a powerfultool in teaching accounting principles and fi-nancial planning techniques.

Another form of learning environment is thesimulation. A simulation of a laboratory exper-iment for a physics course, for instance, mightpresent on a television screen a variety ofweights and springs. The student would beallowed to “connect” them in various config-urations, to apply forces of prescribed amountsat different points in the arrangement, and tomeasure and record the results. Working withthis system for only a few days, a studentwould learn some basic principles of mechan-ics. As another example, large-scale simula-tions can be made of physical processes or ofequipment that might be too expensive or dan-gerous to use in person. Simulated nuclearpowerplants provide vehicles for training newoperators; simulated aircraft are used for pilottraining.

For medical education, computer-controlledrobots can be used to simulate injured or illhuman beings. A small computer presents thestudent with an instructional sequence whereproper techniques are illustrated using a com-puter-controlled video disk. The student then

Ch. 5—Educational Uses of Information Technology ● 5 9

At Fort Gordon, Ga., Signal Corps Center, video simulationis used to teach repair techniques. If instructors were to useactual equipment, it would have to be returned to a repair

shop for costly work and expensive ‘downtime’

The actual coil shown on right, whose removal and respacingwould require costly downtime for the instructional radio set.The student is given the learning experience by TV instead,testing his notion of the proper technique against solutions

stored on the random-accessed video disk

practices on a dummy equipped with sensorsmonitored by the computer, which, in turn,presents the results to the student.

Simulations of economic and social systemsare used to teach political science, economics,and management. Business managementgames are one of the earliest educational appli-cations of computers, and they have beendeeply integrated into the curricula of manybusiness schools. Other educational applica-tions range from simple economic simulationson small computers to elaborate simulations

of city management and international politicsthat require very large computer systems. TheDefense Department makes extensive use ofcomputer-based simulations to train seniordecisionmakers in crisis management.

Using information technology to provide alearning environment has several implications:

●

c

●

An instructional program can be applic-able over longer course periods and for agreater variety of educational uses thancan an interactive module that concen-trates on a single teaching unit.Since the interaction is so flexible and isdirected in large part by the students, in-structors and students need documenta-tion and supplemental curriculum materi-als appropriate for using the system tomeet their particular educational objec-tives. Except for large simulations (suchas flight trainers) that may require specialhardware, the principal cost of “learningenvironment” applications will be in de-veloping these supplemental curricularmaterials. Developmental costs for theprograms will, in general, be written offagainst a much larger customer base.Because it fundamentally changes bothcontent and the way material– is pre-sented, use of an automated learning en-vironment may require extensive changesin course content or even a broader rede-sign of an entire curriculum.

Information Resource

General information literacy is needed forall individuals to work and to participate ful-ly in an information society. In addition, formost professions, specialized computer andcommunication-based systems are rapidly be-coming indispensable tools of the trade. Stu-dents must learn how to use these services aspart of their early training.

For these reasons, in addition to being aninstructional tool, the computer in educationis viewed as an intellectual and problem-solv-ing resource, akin to the library or laboratory.Information services will need to be both


broad enough to support general educationand specialized enough for particular subjectmatter. Examples of specialized systems in-clude computer-aided design systems for in-dustrial engineering students, on-line legal ormedical information retrieval systems for useby law students or doctors, and automated ac-counting and financial analysis systems forbusiness students.

In addition to these specialized resources,students in all fields will need constant accessto information services and computer facilitiesfor their work. One engineering school is ex-perimenting with providing a desktop comput-er to some of its entering freshmen, with aview toward giving computers to all studentsin the future. A graduate school of businesshas already adopted a similar policy for itsentering students. The leader of the movementto provide all undergraduate students withcomputer access has been Dartmouth College,which, for well over a decade, has operatedwith a policy of universal computer literacyand free student access to computer terminals.

The role of the computer as an educationalresource on campus is blending with the viewof libraries as automated information centers.

Software Library of the Columbia University Computer Center.Software is placed into the computers on an hourly basis to

the department utilizing the computer

Many college and university libraries havebeen among the leaders in this movement—first in automating their management, thenin providing users access to computerized bib-liographic services. Their ultimate goal is toprovide full-text, on-line retrieval. As thesetrends continue, the computer center and thelibrary will actually merge into a single, auto-mated information utility.

Regional and national networks will providescholars with access to information and com-putational resources anywhere in the country.EDUCOM, a nationwide consortium of univer-sities and colleges, has been developing thisconcept for several years and now offers itsmembers access to EDUNET, a nationwide re-source-sharing data communication network.

Administration andInstructional Management

Information technology can be used by theteacher to help plan coursework and managethe classroom. Computers not only assist withmundane daily tasks such as grading and rec-ordkeeping but can also help keep closer trackof the daily accomplishments and problems ofindividual students. Teacher attention can,thus, be more focused on individual studentneeds. Teleconferencing via radio, television,or computer allows teachers to exchange ex-periences, develop curricula, and coordinateeducational programs among a number ofschools in a district.

Distribute Education

The distribution of services to those whoneed them has always been a difficult problemfor the educational system. For as long as edu-cation has been provided by schools, the dis-tribution problem has been responsible for in-stitutional constraints of both time and loca-tion on the student. That schooling takes placeon a physical campus, attended principally byyoung people, may be more reflective of thelimitations of the traditional schooling systemthan it is of the current needs of society foreducation. Chapter 6, which examines thestate of the educational system, concludes that

Ch. 5—Educational Uses of Information Technology ● 6 1

At the Oxford High School, Oxford, Mass., students operatethe Digital Equipment Corp. mainframe computer thatcontrols the student records system for the school district

a significant gap may exist between the formsof educational needs of a modern informationsociety and the traditional institutional formsof educating.

Information technology is a tool that can ad-dress these two distributional problems–dis-tance and time. In the past, television andradio have been used for this purpose, oftento good effect. However, their applicability hasbeen limited both by the need to use expen-sive and scarce broadcast facilities to serve arelatively small clientele and by the inabilityto provide interactive services.

Modern technology removes these barriers.Communication facilities such as cable, directbroadcast satellite, low-power television, andvideo cassette and video disk will greatly in-crease the number of information channelscoming into the home and office. Two-waycable, remote conferencing facilities, and opti-cal video disk microcomputer systems providethe capability for interactive education.

Among the particular applications of infor-mation technology for distribution are the fol-lowing:

● General educational services to dispersedpopulations: Some geographical regionsneed to provide schooling to a sparse pop-ulation spread over a large area. Commu-nications technology such as direct broad-

●

●

●

cast satellite or low-power television al-lows educational programing to be broad-cast at low cost to small rural communi-ties and even to individual residences.Video cassettes, video disks, and personalcomputer programs can be distributedphysically by mail.Specialized educational services to smallpopulations: Some groups in society thathave very specialized needs for education-al services are not concentrated geograph-ically. Only by providing courses regional-ly or nationally can a critical mass of stu-dents be assembled to justify the expenseof the course. Information systems pro-vide that wider market. For example:.

—

—

Advanced professional training, espe-cially continuing education in suchfields as medicine, law, and engineer-ing, in which knowledge advances at arapid rate.Unusual educational needs, such as ac-celerated science programs for thegifted or courses conducted in a foreignlanguage.Instruction in subjects for which expe-rienced teachers are scarce or coursesconducted by outstanding scholars andleaders in a field.

Education for the homebound: For a num-ber of reasons–e.g., illness, physicalhandicap, or age—many individuals insociety cannot travel physically to attenda class. Information technology can pro-vide educational services directly to thehome, hospital, or workplace.Job-related education and training in theworkplace: There are a number of barriersto workers who wish to take job-relatedinstruction. Attending regular classes isdifficult due to competing demands ontheir time, travel to a campus maybe bur-densome, and there is reluctance on thepart of some older individuals to sit in aclassroom and compete with younger stu-dents.’ Information technology, by bring-

‘R. L. David, “Adult Higher Education: Thinking the Un-thinkable, ” Adult (%ntinuing Higher Education Chrference,Region V, Appalachian State University, April 1977.


ing the course to the workplace, can re-move some of these constraints.

Testing and Diagnosis

Computers have been used for some time tograde and analyze the results of college admis-sion exams, intelligence tests, and a varietyof psychometric examinations designed to ex-plore the values, attitudes, and thinking pat-terns of individuals. Educational testing canbe thought of as having four basic roles:

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Strategic: Testing helps assess a stu-dent’s general levels of understanding andlearning strategies. It is used to deter-mine what classes and courses of studya student should pursue, and what in-structional approaches would be most ef-fective for him. After a course, testingmeasures the skills and knowledge thatthe student.Tactical: Testing also takes place duringinstructional sequences to determine howthe student is progressing through thecourse and to detect and diagnose difficul-ties the student might be having.Gatekeeping: Testing plays an increasing-ly important role in supporting decisionson admissions to institutions and to pro-grams of study. It is a basis for allocatingscarce resources (e.g., admission to a pres-tigious college or university) and for thegranting of licenses to practice profes-sions.Certification: Testing plays an importantrole in certifying the-knowledge and skillof individuals, qualifying them to pursueprofessions such as medicine or law, or at-testing that they have progressed alongcertain educational or training paths.

Modern information technology will likelyhave several effects on testing:

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Continual testing of students’ progressand levels of understanding is an impor-tant pedagogical tool, even in a nonauto-mated teaching environment. However itis very demanding of a teacher’s time.Automated systems will allow much clos-er monitoring of student and class prog-ress in a normal classroom environment.Automated teaching systems depend oncontinual testing and evaluation to directthe presentation of material.Automated instruction may lead to a de-coupling of instruction from institutions—in the sense that a student moves free-ly between home, job, and school forcoursework. This trend will create greaterneed for strategic testing to determineappropriate instructional programs forstudents.Institutional decoupling will also requiremore testing for purposes of certification.Traditionally, an engineering degree wasobtained by following a course of studyat one department. Certification was thedegree earned by successfully completingthe program.The accelerating growth of knowledge ispressuring professions such as medicine,law, and engineering to require retrainingand periodic renewal of certifications.If traditional forms of education becomeincreasingly expensive and, hence, scarce,gatekeeping requirements will inevitablycontinue to grow in importance. The cur-rent competition for entry into medicalschool illustrates this trend.On the other hand, automated learningsystems may make certain types of educa-tion and training far more accessible andaffordable. If that occurs, gatekeepingmay take place not on entry to the educa-tion program, but in licensing to practice.

Capabilities of Educational TechnologyNone of the technologies and services de- bilities required to support all of the applica-

scribed in the chapter 4 overview has the capa- tions listed above. Hence, the growth of an ex-

Ch. 5—Educational Uses of /formation Technology ● 6 3

tensive automated education network will de- cation. Thus, the basic message is that differ-pend on the integration of information tech- ent information technologies will need to benologies. linked in order to provide all of the capabil-

ities needed for extensive automated learningEach particular technology-cable, personal systems to be developed. As shown in chapter

computers, etc. –has some but not all of the 4, such integration is already taking place forcapabilities necessary to provide effective edu- other applications.

Cost and EffectivenessFor many years, the cost and effectiveness

of educational technology has served to cir-cumscribe the debate about whether and howit should be used. OTA found that:

There is a substantial amount of agreementthat, for many educational applications, infor-mation technology can be an effective andeconomical tool for instruction.

This conclusion is based on a number of ob-servations:

● Research exists, some of it dating backyears, to suggest that students do learnas well or better from educational technol-ogy than from conventional means. Lit-tle evidence exists to the contrary. Muchof the past debate centered around wheth-er technology was more effective thanconventional means and hence warrantedsubstitution for traditional classroominstruction. 4

● Costs for labor-intensive education andtraining methods continue to climb fasterthan the inflation rate, while costs for in-formation technology continue to dropprecipitously. These trends will result ina steadily growing number of applicationsin which technology-based instruction isclearly the most cost-effective method.

‘See, for instance, W. L. Schraumrn, Bighfedia Little Media(Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1977); A. Bork, “Inter-active Learning, ’ Amer. Journal Physics 47(l), January 1979,pp. 5-10; L. J. Seidel and M. L. Rubin, Computers and Chnrnu-nicatkms lrnph”cations for Education (New York: AcademicPress, 1977); J. Edwards, et al., “How Effective is CAT? AReview of the Research, ” Educational Leadership, November1975, pp. 147-153; and R. Dubin and R. A. Hedley, The MediumMay Be Related to the Message: College Instruction by TV,Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration,University of Oregon, Eugene, 1969.

● For many educational and training needs—e.g., educational services to the home-bound, to geographically isolated regions,or to the workplace—there are few viablealternatives to the use of technology, pro-vided that it works adequately. In a grow-ing number of instances, teachers quali-fied to teach in certain fields—such as sci-ence, mathematics, or bilingual education—are difficult to find. In these cases, tech-nology may be the only means by whichsuch education can be provided.

This is not to say that there are no poten-tial limitations or dangers in the uncritical useof educational technology nor that there is noneed for additional research in the field. Infact, in the eyes of some critics, a number ofquestions remain unanswered.

Will access to computers reduce the abil-ity to practice and learn basic skills?Some parents and teachers are concernedthat student use of hand calculators maylead to the atrophy of simple computa-tional skills. Some modern word proces-sors incorporate spelling correction facil-ities, and future systems will probably in-corporate simple grammatical analysisand correction. Will use of such technol-ogy decrease a student grasp of writingmechanisms?Does the medium have characteristicsthat, when exploited, distort the educa-tional message or produce subtle side ef-fects? Some observers, for example, havesuggested that television educational pro-grams such as Sesame Street may rein-force short attention spans. A similar ex-ample is the finding of some developers


●

of interactive computer-based reading ●

programs that, in order to maintain stu-dent attention, shorter passages must beused on video screens than would beneeded to maintain student attention forreading exercises on paper.Most research on technology-based educa-tion has focused on the development ofwell-defined skills, such as arithmeticcomputation or foreign-language vocabu-lary. While proponents argue that com-puters can encourage the development of ●

new problem-solving skills,5 critics sug-gest that education of the more generalconceptual skills could suffer.

‘S. Papert, Windstorms (New York: Basic Books, 1980).

If, over the long term, education is pro-vided principally by technology, what arethe unintended long-term impacts on so-cial, cognitive, and psychological develop-ment? Very few answers to this importantquestion are known. However, since itwould take several years before techno-logical and institutional changes couldcreate such a possibility on a massivescale, there seems to be adequate time tostudy it.Do particular characteristics of informa-tion technology subtly favor some typesof students psychologically or cognitive-ly? Do differences exist that tend to favorperformance by sex, age, social class, orvalues? These questions are importantwhen dealing with issues of social equity.

Chapter 6

The Provision of Educationin the United States

Access to new information technologies can be provided In a number of, and In many nontraditional, ways. Inthe Oxford School District, Oxford, Mass., computer programs are provided by bus throughout the school district

Chapter 6

The Provision of Educationin the United States

●

●

●

Within all societies there is an educational system that is both central to anddependent upon the rest of society. Its role, its functions, and the resources avail-able to it are determined by the very social institutions for whose maintenanceand effectiveness it is responsible.1 Thus, while all societies educate, the particularform that any educational system takes will depend in large measure on the natureof the society of which it is a part.2 How a particular educational system evolveswill also depend on the nature of the decisions made about it. For within the con-straints established byeducational outcomes.

Recent social and economic

the socioeconomic order,

Findingsdevelopments vate

there are a variety of possible

good, and decisions about educationhave fostered a reevaluation of how educa- are made in the market instead of in thetion should be treated—as a public or as a governmental arena,private good. —Because they are capable of providing spe-cialized educational services to narrow seg-ments of the educational market, the newinformation technologies will make it easier —

to produce and distribute education in themarketplace.If education is increasingly treated as a pri-

individuals and groups that can afford tobuy educational services may be moresatisfied with the kind of education thatthey receive, butfewer social resources may be made avail-able to support what traditionally havebeen regarded as the public benefits ofeducation.

Social Change and Education in AmericaAll societies educate; education is necessary

to either maintain or to structure the socialorder. Education mediates between individu-als and society. It is the means by which soci-eties transmit acquired knowledge, attitudes,values, skills, sensibilities, and symbols fromone generation to the next—and thus themeans by which individuals learn the skills

‘Lawrence A. Crernin, Public Education, Basic Books, 1976.‘Herbert A. Thelen, and Jacob W. Gretzels, “The Social Sci-

ences: Conceptual Framework for Education, ” The School lbview, vol. LXV, No. 3, autumn 1957, p. 346.

and roles necessary to function in and to actupon societies.3*

Individuals and societies have differed withrespect to how they believed educational deci-

‘Ibid; see also, Charles Weingartner, ‘‘Redefining Educationin a Changing Present for an Uncertain Future, ” paper pre-sented at meeting of Chief State School Officers, Orlando, Fla.,winter, 1980; and Charles E. Bidwell, “The School as FormalOrganization, ” Handbook of organizations, James G. March(cd.) (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1965), pp. 972-1,969.

*SocietA factors may affect an educational system in ZUIYnumber of ways. Factors such as population size and structure,family and social organization, working patterns, patterns of

(continued next page)

67

68 . lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

sions should be made. Plato and Aristotle be-lieved that education was so important itshould be monopolized and controlled by thestate. Rousseau, on the other hand, was op-posed to all formal schooling, believing thatnature was the best teacher. John Stuart Milltook a middle position. Strongly in favor ofpublic support for education, he feared the con-sequences of public control over education.Mill said, for example:

The objections which are urged with reasonagainst State education do not apply to theenforcement of education by the State, but tothe State’s taking upon itself to direct thateducation; which is a totally different thing.That the whole or any large part of the educa-tion of the people should be in State hands,1 go as far as anyone in deprecating. All thathas been said of the importance of individual-ity of character, and diversity in opinions andmodes of conduct, involves, as of the sameunspeakable importance, diversity of educa-tion. A general state of education is a merecontrivance for molding people to be exactlylike one another; and as the predominant pow-er in the government-whether this be a mon-arch, a priesthood, an aristocracy, or the ma-jority of the existing generation.4

Writing in 1859, Mill expressed an attitudetoward public education that was greatly atodds with the one then prevailing in theUnited States, where the crusade for publicschools was at its height. If Mill were to writethese words today, however, he would find amore receptive audience. For today, seriousquestion is being given to the question ofwhether or not education should be treated asa public or a private good.

In the United States, education has tradi-tionally been treated as if it were a publicgood.* Most educational decisions have been

social and economic mobility, the availability of leisure time,and personal resources all serve to establish who, in a society,will be educated. Similarly, the level and configuration of socialorganization determine, in part, the kinds of institutions thatare adopted perform the educational function; while the levelof economic, social, and cultural development determin e, in part,the idea of what, in a given society, constitutes literacy.

‘John Stuart Mill, On Liberty.*~blic g~s refer to those goods whose benefits are avail-

able to everyone and from which no one can be excluded. These

made in the political arena; and most educa-tional activities have been supported, if notfinanced, with public funds. This practice oftreating education as a public good reflects,in part, the traditional American belief thateducation plays an essential societal role. Con-trasting the attitude of Americans towardseducation with that of Europeans, Alexis deTocqueville, the well-known commentator onAmerican society, noted in 1831:

Everyone I have met up to now, to what-ever rank of society they belong, has seemedincapable of imagining that one could doubtthe value of education. They never fail tosmile when told that this view is not univer-sally accepted in Europe. They agree in think-ing that the diffusion of knowledge, useful forall peoples, is absolutely necessary for a freepeople like their own, where there is no prop-erty qualification for voting or for standingfor election. That seemed to be an idea tak-ing root in every heads

The public benefits that Americans haveassociated with education have changed overtime and in different historical circumstances.In the earliest years of American history, edu-cation was, for example, considered essentialfor the survival of the new democratic Nation.Later, with the need to acculturate immi-grants into society and to unite a divided Na-tion in the aftermath of the Civil War, it wasconsidered the means for building a Nation ofcitizens. At the turn of the century, educationwas expected to train and socialize Americanyouths for participation in a modem, industri-alized society. More recently, Americans have

goods will not be produced privately, and thus they must beproduced by government. There are only a few pure publicgoods, one example being national defense. There are, however,some goods, like education, that are impure public goods. Thesecombine aspects of both public and private goods. Althoughthey serve a private function, there are also public benefitsassociated with them. Impure public goods may be producedand distributed privately in the market or collectively throughgovernment, How they are produced is a societal choice of sig-nificant consequence, If decisions about impure public goodsare made in the market, on the basis of personal preferencesalone, then the public benefits associated with them may notbe efficiently produced or equitably distributed. Edwin Mans-field, Macroeconomics Theory and Applications, New York,1970.

bAlexis de Tocqueville, Journey to America translati byGeorge Lawrence, J. P. Mayer (cd.), Anchor Books, 1971.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States . 69

seen in education the solutions to some of theNation’s thorniest social problems.

To guarantee that these public benefitswould be provided, Americans established awhole range of public institutions-elementaryand secondary schools, 4-year and communi-ty colleges, libraries, and museums. Moreover,to assure that private educational institutionsserved public goals, they supported and regu-lated them.

Americans were able to treat education asa public good because, having similar needsand agreeing essentially upon the rules bywhich they lived, they were able to agree uponthe kind of education that they wanted to passon from one generation to the next.6 Given thisconsensus, there was little conflict betweenwhat was a public or a private educational in-terest, or between what was a local or nationaleducational goal.

Although highly institutionalized, theAmerican educational system has been quitesuccessful in adapting to meet the changingneeds of society. It has been transformed froma system designed to meet the needs of anagrarian society to one tailored to meet theneeds of an urban, industrialized society. Ithas been changed, moreover, from a systemstructured to meet the educational needs ofa privileged few, to one more structured tomeet the diverse and sometimes conflictingneeds of a growing and heterogeneous popula-tion.

Today, however, society is undergoingchanges that may affect the nature of the sys-tem itself. Some of these changes originatewithin the educational system; others stem

‘Rush Welter, Popular Education and Democratic Thoughtin America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962); DavidTyack and Elisabeth Hansot, “Conflict and Consensus in Amer-ican Public Education, ” America SchooLs: PubL”c and l?riva@Daedalus, summer 1981.

from the profound changes taking place in thelarger social environment. Among these devel-opments are:

●

●

●

●

●

●

an increase in the level of education thatindividuals need to participate effectivelyin society;an extension of the period of time duringwhich individuals can and need to be edu-cated;an increase in the diversity of the educa-tional clientele and thus an increase in thediversity of the demand for education;a decline in the public resources availablefor education, resulting in part from:— an increase in the cost of producing

education,— a questioning of the public benefits as-

sociated with education, and— a loss of confidence in the institutions

providing education;the emergence of new institutions that,under new circumstances, find it profit-able to market education; and,the development of the new informationtechnologies that allow educational insti-tutions to provide specialized services tospecific sectors of the market.

These developments, taken together, willhave a major impact on the educational sys-tem and on the institutions that have tradi-tionally been responsible for providing educa-tional services. Taking advantage of the devel-oping market for special kinds of educationalservices, new profitmaking institutions areemerging to provide education. To compete inthis growing and increasingly segmented mar-ket, many traditional educational institutionsmay have to curtail some of the services thatthey provide, retaining only those that havethe greatest economic and political return.Changes such as these are, in fact, already oc-curring in almost all sectors of the educationalsystem.

70 ● Informationa/ Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Elementary and Secondary Education

Public Schools

The traditional American belief in the publicvirtues of education is nowhere better illus-trated than in the historical commitment toa system of public schooling. It is highlysymptomatic, therefore, that today seriousquestions are being raised about whether ornot elementary and secondary educationwould be best served if it were providedthrough the mechanism of the market.

A legacy of the past, the public school sys-tem is a unique and typically American insti-tution. For, while educational institutions arepublicly supported in many societies, in noother country have they been established withsuch deliberate purpose and public expectationor been conceived of as being such an integralpart of the political, social, and economicorder.

Clearly recognizing the important role thateducation could play in building a nation, theFounding Fathers did not leave its develop-ment to chance. They strongly advocated pub-lic support for schooling.7* In fostering educa-tion, however, they made little distinction be-tween its public and private aspects. If Ameri-can youth were provided with the knowledgenecessary to preserve their liberties, all school-ing, it was believed, would serve the publicinterest.

The American commitment to public school-ing grew in the wake of the Civil War. Thiscommitment was so intense that it gave riseto a national crusade to establish publicschools. Concerned about the problems of re-construction in the South, the influx of Cath-ol ic im migrants, and the advent of industriali-zation in the North, Americans saw public

‘Bernard Bailyn, Education in the Forming of AmericanSociety (New York: W. W. North, 1980); Lawrence A. Cremin,!Zhd”tions in American Education, Basic Books, Harper 1976.

*There W- veV little formal schooling in America Untfl titirthe Revolutionary War, Throughout colonial times, educationwas conducted informally in the home and in the church. Theformal schooling that did exist was of marginal significance,serving only those who were training for specific roles.

schooling as a way of preserving the social,economic, and political system. By educatingAmerican youth in common, public schools,they hoped to inculcate them with a commonset of patriotic, Protestant, and republicanvalues.8

With the industrialization and urbanizationof American society, it was expected thatschooling would serve not only to prepareAmerican youth for a common political roleas citizens, but also to prepare a growing num-ber of people from increasingly different social,economic, and ethnic backgrounds for an in-creasingly differentiated set of economic roles.To perform this economic function, the publicschools were restructured in accordance withbusiness principles. 9* Vocational educationand guidance were introduced as part of theeducational curriculum. Assuming that themajority of Americans would be working atindustrial jobs, educators believed that voca-tional education would serve not only the bestinterests of the individual, but also the bestinterests of society.10

In the period that followed World War II,support grew for the view that the social and

*Welter, op. cit.; Tyack and Hansot, op. cit.; Robert A.Carlson, The Quest for Clmformity: Americanization ThroughEducation, John Wiley & Sons, 1975; “ Public Education asNation Building in America: Enrollments and Bureaucratiza-tion in the American States, 1870-1930, ” American Journal ofSociology, vol. 85, No. 3, November 1979.

‘David K. Cohen and Barbara Neufeld, “The Failure of HighSchools and the Progress of Education, ” America Schools:Public and Priva~ Daedalus, summer, 1981; Tyack andHansot, op. cit.; and Sol Cohen, “The Industrial EducationMovement, 1906- 1917,” American Quarterly, spring 1968, pp.95-1 10; Martin Trow, “The Second Transformation of AmericanSecondary Education, ’ International Journal of timparativeSociology, vol. 7, 1961.

*TO uni~ the school system and to make it more efficient,

educational reformers began to standardize textbooks and cur-riculum, to grade classes, to train teachers in approved methods,and to improve the supervision of the schools. Businessmenplayed an important role in bringing about these changes. View-ing education as a public good, businessmen looked to the publicschools to expand wealth and improve productivity. Concernedabout strikes, labor turnover, and increasing worker absenteeism, many businessmen hoped that public schooling, and vo-cational education, in particular, would socialize a growingnumber of irnmigrant youths for the workplace.

‘“I bid.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 71

economic well-being of the Nation dependednot only on the efficient production of goodsand services, but also on their equitable dis-tribution. As a growing and upwardly mobileschool-age population began to compete foreducational rewards, the question of distribu-tion and access became central to the educa-tional system.11 This new emphasis on equityhad a profound effect on the American schoolsystem. For, in addition to fulfilling apoliticaland an economic function, the American publicschool system was increasingly called upon toserve as an agent of social change.12* To im-plement the extensive goals provided for in thelegislation of this period, the Federal Govern-ment became increasingly involved in thefunding, operation, and ‘administration ofschool activities.13

Status of the AmericanPublic School System

The American public school system is a rel-atively large enterprise. In the school year1978-79, it included 16,014 school districts inwhich there were 53,192 elementary schools,12,020 middle schools, and 16,639 secondaryschools including high schools14 (see table 13).

Public education accounts for a significantportion of public expenditures. In 1977-78,$84.9 billion was spent on elementary and sec-ondary education. Of this total the FederalGovernment contributed about $8 billion, orabout 9.5 percent15 (see table 14).

“Cohen and Neufeld, op. cit.‘zCohen and Neufeld, op. cit.*This wa9, for example, the goal of the Elementary ~d Sec-

ondary Educational Act of 1965, the most comprehensive andsignificant educational legislation passed during this period.Conceived of and marketed not only as an education bill, thisact was a major piece of antipoverty legislation. Between 1958and 1978, for example, Federal expenditures on education in-creased sixfold. The Federal Government became so involvedwith the operational activities that it presented an unprece-dented challenge to the authority of the States and localitiesto control public school programs.

‘gSteven K. Bailey, “Political Coalitions for Public Educa-tion, ” America schools: Pubfic and Private, Daedalus, sum-mer 1981; Tyll van Geel, Authority to Control the School Program (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976).

“Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Educa-tion Statistics, May 1980.

‘sIbid.

Table 13.—Number of Public Elementary/SecondarySchools and Estimated Percentage Distribution, By

Level of instruction and Grade Span Served:School Year 1978-79

PercentageLevel a and grade span Number distributionTotal schools ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Elementary schoolsb. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 2nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 3rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 4th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 5th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 7th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preprimary to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4th to 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other spans with highest grade

preprimary to 6th. . . . . . . . . . . . .Junior high or middle schools . . . . .

5th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7th to 9th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other spans with highest grade

7th to 9th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Secondary schools including high

schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other spans with highest grade

10th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Combined elementary/secondary

schools (preprimary to 12th) . . .Schools not classified by lowest

and highest gradec . . . . . . . . . . .

87,00653,192

9021,0522,2152,9208,116

25,618790

7,229746

3,60412,020

9282,8882,1323,790

2,282

16,6394,045

4177,5842,813

1,780

1,145

4,010

100.061.1

1.01.22.63.49.3

29.40.98.30.9

4.113.8

1.13.32.44.4

2.6

19.14.60.58.73.2

2.1

1.3

4.6aLevej of school jS a classification by highest grade served Elementary includesschools with no grade higher than 8th Junior high and middle schools haveno grades higher than 7th, 8th, 9th and no grade lower than 5th, 6th, or 7thSecondary schools have as the highest grade IOth, 1 Ith, or 12th

bLowest grade of elementary schools may include prekindergarten, kindergarten,or 1st grade

cschools in this category have grade spans that are unspecified, ungraded, orunclassified

NOTE’ These national estimates are based on information reported in 1978by all States except California, Georgia, and Massachusetts. Each category wasinflated equally to represent a known national total of 87,006.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,Common Core of Data (CCD) 1978-79 Survey, unpublished tabulations

Measured by the goal of providing univer-sal public education, the public school systemhas been a reasonable success. Americans to-day are better educated than ever before.Moreover, many of the barriers to educationthat once served to limit an individual’s ac-cess to the socioeconomic benefits of societyhave been removed. However, despite the cen-tral role that the public school has played inAmerican society and the numerous accom-

—,

72 .Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 14.— Revenue and Nonrevenue Receipts of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, By Source,1977-78 (amounts in thousands of dollars)

Revenue receipts

Total revenue and Federal State Local and other

non revenue Percent Percent Percent Non revenuereceipts Total Amount of total Amount of total Amount of total receipts

$84,969,058 $81,440,326 $7,699,042 9.5 $35,005,584 43.0 $38,735,700 47.6 $3,528,732SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1980

plishments that can be attributed to it, theAmerican public is becoming increasingly dis-enchanted with public schools (see fig. 3).

Several explanations have been suggestedfor this loss of support.” It has been sug-gested, for example, that the school systemhas

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

suffered from:

a general loss of confidence in and supportfor all public institutions;the association of public schooling withunpopular social policies such as busingand desegregation;the decline in overall school performanceas measured by traditional indicatorssuch as test scores;the public backlash against what appearsto be the unprofessional behavior of someunionized teachers;the concern about inflation and increasedtaxation;the dissatisfaction with American youthand their culture; and;the disintegration of the political coalitionthat has traditionally provided supportfor the public schools.

The loss of a common base of support forthe public schools has had a negative effecton the conditions under which they have hadto operate. Forced to appeal for their supportto a number of increasingly distinct and di-verse interests, the public schools have had totake on a multitude of new and often conflict-ing tasks at a time when they face the pros-pects of reduced economic and human re-sources.——

“Michael W. Kirst, “Loss of Support for Public SecondarySchools, ” &hools: fiblic and fiivaa Daedalus,summer, 1981; Bailey, op. cit.; Patricia Albjerg Graham, “Lit-eracy: A Goal for Secondary Schools, ” America Schools: fibfic and Private, Daedahzs, summer 1981.

Future of the AmericanPublic School System

Many educational commentators have ar-gued that if public schools are to survive, edu-cators will have to adopt a more limited setof goals, which, although less ambitious, willbe more likely to gain public support.” Suc-cess in this endeavor will depend, to a largedegree, on future societal developments. Theprognosis according to educational futuristsis not particularly good. Instead of providingthe basis for a national consensus in supportof public schools, demographic, economic, andsocietal trends may, in fact, serve to intensifythe centrifugal tendencies already at work inthe educational system.18

Forecasts of demographic trends suggest,for example, that Hispanics, Asians, and othercultural groups with specialized needs willsoon comprise a major portion of the schoolpopulation. Moreover, the increase in the num-ber of school-age children living with a singleparent or two working parents will forceschools to provide more supervision and social-ization. Instead of cutting back on their educa-tional activities, schools will have to cater toa growing variety of educational needs.

Economic forecasts also cast doubts aboutthe future of public schools. If economicgrowth rates remain slow, and inflation andinterest rates continue to be high, the schoolswill be in intense competition with other serv-ice sectors for reduced human and economicresources. Faced with the loss of personal in-come because of increased levels of inflation

“Graham, op. cit.; Tyaclc and Hansot, op. cit.; Bailey, op. cit.‘Christopher Dtie, Potential

unpublished report pre-pared for the Office of Technology Assessment, March 1981.

———


Figure 3.—Quality of the Public Schools: Opinions of ParentsWith Public School Children

“Students are often given the grades A, B, C, D, and F (FAIL) to denote the quality of theirwork, Suppose the public schools themselves, in this community, were graded in the sameway. What grade would you give the public school here—A, B, C, D, or F?”

Percentage distribution of responses

100

80

60

40

20

01974

SOURCE. “The Condltlon of Education, ” 1981, National Center for Education Statistics


and high energy costs, the American public is,in general, less willing to finance educationalexpenditures through additional taxation.This reluctance is likely to increase as thenumber of families with school-age childrendeclines and the number of those beyond child-bearing age increases.

Faced with their own problems of increas-i n g c o s t s a n d shrinking resources, Federal andState governments will be unable to fill in thefinancial gaps. Continued high inflation willalso reduce the economic resources availablefor public schools. Because of inflation, thecosts of education are increasing twice as fastas the rate of increase of revenues for educa-tion. Thus, in 10 years, if inflation continuesat its present rate, educational institutions willhave only one half of the revenues (in realterms) that they have now.19*

The problem of scarce economic resourceswill be matched by a problem of scarce humanresources. The problem of human resources is,however, not so much a problem of numbers—for the supply of teachers may very well ex-ceed the demand-as it is a problem of qual-ity. A decline in highly qualified educators isalready evident. Few entering-college fresh-men select a career in teaching, and, more sig-nificantly, those that do are generally amongthose who have the lowest academic qualifica-tions. 20 Increasingly, there are fewer incentivesfor well qualified individuals to enter theteaching field.

Given the financial problems facing schools,a career in teaching is no longer considered tobe secure. Given the loss of public support foreducation, a career in teaching is less likely to

‘eIbid; Kirst, op. cit.*Wh,i,le ~ public schools likely to suffer a loss of economic

resources, the problems created will be greater in some areasthan in others. The urban schools in the Northeast will be themost seriously affected because the recent migration of peopleaway from the area has caused a significant loss of taxable re-sources. The economic problems in the area of the sunbelt, onthe other hand, will be ameliorated by an influx of populationwhich will increase the area’s tax base.

‘“’’ Introduction,” America Schools: Public and Private,Daedalus, summer 1981; J. Myron Atkin, “Who Will Teach inHigh School, ” America Schookx fiblic and Priva@ Daedalus,summer 1981; Dede, op. cit., 1981.

provide the rewards of public status or person-al esteem. Since teaching salaries are not com-petitive with those in private industry, manyof the most highly qualified teachers—espe-cially those with qualifications in math andscience—will give up teaching to sell theirskills on the open market. Well qualified wo-men—a traditional source of high quality edu-cators—are particularly likely to seek out thewider range of employment opportunities nowavailable to them. 21

Private Alternatives toPublic Schools

Conflicts over public and private control ofeducation have always existed. While reserv-ing for itself the dominant role in educationalmatters, government in the United States hasalways recognized that private individualshave an interest in the outcome of educationalpolicy decisions. It has generally been recog-nized, for example, that parents have certainrights—based on notions of liberty and pri-vacy—in determining the education of theirchildren.

In order to take into consideration both pub-lic and private concerns, the responsibility foreducational policy and administration has tra-ditionally been allocated to the States and tolocal jurisdictions where, given more homoge-neous populations, public decisions about edu-cation would be most likely to reflect privateconcerns. 22 Parents whose needs were not ade-quately met by public education were allowedthe option of sending their children to privateschools.

This arrangement, which served in the pastto reconcile public and private educationalneeds, is thought to be increasingly less effec-tive, as the assumptions upon which it is basedbecome increasingly less realistic. For exam-ple, as the Federal Government assumed moreauthority over educational policy, the charac-ter of schooling has become less subject tolocal influence and control. Moreover, since

2’Atkin, op. cit.‘zVan Geel, op. cit.

.


many local communities are no longer com-prised of homogeneous populations, there isalso less likelihood that public decisions-evenwhen they are made at the local level—will besynonymous with private, individual needs.23

Conflicts over public and private educationalinterests have grown along with the enhancedimportance of education in American society.Because education has come to be regarded asthe essential means for gaining access to socio-economic rewards, individuals now believethat they have more of a stake than ever be-fore in the outcome of decisions about it. Inthis sense, individual interests are likely todiverge from those of government. For where-as government is committed to providingequal access to educational opportunities, anindividual, if he is to compete successfully forsocioeconomic rewards, must gain an educa-tional advantage.24

Private dissatisfaction with public decisionsabout education has led some people to seekalternatives to public school education. Tradi-tionally, that alternative has been the privateor independent school. Although such schoolshave always provided a considerable propor-tion of all elementary and secondary educa-tion, they are today experiencing a revival ofinterest .25

There are today in the United States 14,300private elementary and 4,700 private second-ary schools.26 Of these schools, 85 percent arereligiously affiliated, and 65 percent of theseare associated with the Roman CatholicChurch.27

Private schools provide educational servicesto one out of every nine students. Enrollmentin the fall of 1978 totalled 5,000,158. Havingdeclined substantially since the 1960’s, enroll-ment is more stable today. Declines in enroll-ment have been greatest in Roman Catholic

231bid.Zicohen and Neufeld, op. Cit.

“William A. Oates, “Independent Schools: Landscape andLearnings, ” American Schools: Portraits and Perspectives,Daedalus, fall 1981; James Coleman, “Private Schools, PublicSchools, and the Public Interest, The Public Interest.

ZdDigest of Educational Statistics, OP. cit.270ates, op. cit.

schools, a considerable number of which haveclosed due to lack of resources.28

Unlike public schools, private schools arerelatively independent of public control. Ac-countable to a governing board of trustees,they are free to determine their own objectivesand the means by which they pursue them. Al-though the types and levels of courses varysignificantly between schools, private schoolsare generally distinct from public schools inas-much as they offer less work experience, lessbilingual education, and less alternativeschooling (see fig. 4).

Demand for private school education ap-pears to be also related to the quality of publicschool alternatives. Private school enrollments

28Digwt of Educational Statistics, op. cit.

Figure 4.—Secondary SchoolsProviding Special Programs

experiencecredit

Credit bycontract

courses

Gifted andtalentedprogram

a Public school

~ Private Catholic school

=Other private school

SOURCE’ “The Condition of Education,” 1981, National Center for EducationStatistics


are highest in those areas where public schoolsare experiencing the most severe problems.Private school enrollments are highest in themetropolitan cities of the Northeast, where21.3 percent of all students attend privateschools. Of all students in the North CentralRegion, 11.5 percent attend private schools ascompared with rates between 7.8 and 7.9 per-cent for the West and the South. The lowestrate of private school attendance, 2.8 percent,is in the nonmetropolitan areas of the West.29

Demand for private school education is alsorelated to the ability of individuals to pay forit. Levels of family incomes distinguish thosestudents who are enrolled in private schoolsfrom those who are enrolled in public schools,and those students who attend religiously af-filiated schools from those who attend themore expensive, unaffiliated schools (see fig.5). While 21 percent of all public school stu-dents come from families with annual incomesof $25,000 or more, as many as 37 percent ofall private students do. And, whereas 35 per-cent of the students attending religiously af-filiated schools come from this income bracket,there are over 56 percent in unaffiliatedschools who do. Students coming from familiesof this income level are also among those whoare most likely to spend $1,000 or more on tui-tion and fees.30

Because cost is a major factor inhibiting in-dividuals from choosing private alternativesto public education, much of the discussionabout public and private school education hasfocused on public policy options that call forpublic subsidization of private educationalcosts. The options that have been most fre-quently proposed and considered are the tui-tion tax credit and the educational voucher.

The educational voucher has generated suchdiverse interest and support in part becauseit is a general concept for which there is no oneparticular model. Included under the rubric ofan educational voucher could be, for example,any sum of money (or financial credit, such asa tax credit) provided by any class or group

‘gThe Clmd-tion of Education, 1981,‘“I bid.

Figure 5.— Private Elementary/Secondary SchoolTuition and Fees by Family Income

Racial/Ethnic GroupAll students

Family income

$20,000 to$24,999

Black

I 1 I I I I I I 1 1 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

~ $500 to $999SOURCE” “The Condition of Education, ” 1981, National Center for Education

Statistics.

of individuals for the purpose of buying anytype of educational service in the market. Thenature and potential impact of any particularvoucher would vary, therefore, according towho receives how much money, from whom,under what conditions, and for what purposes.

Although not a new idea, the educationalvoucher has only recently become a topic ofpublic debate in the United States. Interestin the voucher has grown with the public’s in-creased disillusionment with the public schoolsystem. Initially championed during the1960’s as a way of providing aid to parochialschools and of circumventing desegregationrulings, during the Nixon administration, itwas proposed as a way of providing education-

Ch. 6--The Provision of Education in the United States s 77

al assistance to disadvantaged groups. Todayit is receiving attention, if not the support, ofa wide variety of diverse interests each ofwhich seeks to bring about structural changesin the educational system.

Although many different versions of thevoucher idea have been proposed, all educa-tional voucher proposals have one essentialelement in common. They all assume that ed-ucation should be treated as a private, ratherthan a public good. While acknowledging thateducation merits public support, voucher ad-vocates would generally argue that the presentsystem of public schools, responsible as it isto a political body, produces poor-quality ed-ucation. They see the voucher as a way ofallowing government to continue to supporteducation without having, at the same time,to sacrifice quality and diversity to public con-formity. They argue that if parents were to begiven public vouchers with which to buy edu-cational services in the marketplace, thenschools, forced for the first time to competefor students, would have not only to improvethe general quality of their educational serv-ices but also to tailor these services morespecifically to meet the needs of their clien-tele.31 By providing diversity and accountabili-ty as well as the encouragement of high-qual-ity education, the educational voucher would,according to its proponents, benefit both in-dividuals and society.

Voucher proposals have been strongly crit-icized on the grounds that, once implemented,they would recreate many of the same prob-lems that the public school was established torectify. In encouraging diversity, critics argue,the voucher system may exacerbate socioeco-nomic disparities and cleavages. They contendthat a voucher system would discriminateagainst the poor, because in an unregulatedmarket, educational services would be distrib-

“George I.a Naoue, Educational Vouchers, Cbncepts and Ckm-troversies, Teachers College Press, 1972.

uted according to one’s ability to pay. Op-ponents are concerned, moreover, that vouch-ers might be used, as they have in the past,to facilitate segregation.32

Acknowledging these problems, some pro-ponents have suggested that the voucher beregulated to prevent them.33 To assure openaccess to private schools, regulations havebeen proposed, for example, that would setlimits on tuition and that would guaranteethat a certain proportion of the student bodiesof all schools be selected at random. However,a basic problem with the regulated educationalvoucher would be that the more complex theregulations, the less likely that individualsparticipating in the system would be able totake full advantage of whatever benefits it of-fers. This could be one reason why the pro-posals for the regulated vouchers have re-ceived less public attention and support thanthose for unregulated ones.

In 1978, a tuition tax credit bill was ap-proved in the House of Representatives, andgained 41 new votes in the Senate. In 1980,the Republican Party supported the voucherconcept in its party platform, and the concepthas clearly gained in popularity. Most recent-ly, the Reagan administration has proposedits own tax tuition plan. Dissatisfied with theprivate benefits of the public school system,more and more Americans regard the voucheras a way of reducing the costs of educatingtheir children in private schools.34

Designed as it is to cater more specificallyto particularistic needs, the voucher is an ideathat should be well received in the segmentededucational market that will characterize thefuture. Public pressure to adopt some kind ofa voucher system will probably increase.

321bid.‘sIbid.94Jean Rosenblatt and Hoyt Gimlin, “Tuition Tax Credits, ”

Editorial Research Reports, Aug. 14, 1981.


University and the Four-Year CollegesAs semiautonomous communities of facul-

ties and students, universities are organizedfor learning and for research. Although theystill retain many of the institutional featuresof their medieval heritage—a name, a centrallocation, a degree of autonomy, a system oflectures, a procedure for examinations anddegrees, and an administrative structure or-ganized around faculties—universities haveevolved over time to meet changing societalneeds .35

American colleges and universities were ableto monopolize the field of higher educationbecause they were relatively autonomous, eco-nomically self-sufficient, and comprehensivein scope-capable of serving the multiple goalsof higher education.36 Today, they no longerenjoy these advantages. As knowledge has in-creasingly come to be viewed as an importanteconomic resource that can be bought and soldin the market, colleges and universities, facedwith increasing costs and with competitionfrom private, profitmaking institutions, havehad to consider undergoing some radicalchanges.

Public Role of HigherEducation

Although originating in the private sec-tor,37 * American universities have becomesemi-public institutions, regulated and sup-ported, to a large extent, by government. Thisdevelopment occurred near the end of the 19th

“Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1972).

‘Edward Shils, “The Order of Learning in the United StatesFrom 1865-1920: The Ascendancy of the Universities, Miner-va, vol. xvi, No. 2, summer 1978.

‘7 Shils, op. cit; and Martin Trow, “Elite Higher Education:An Endangered Species?” Minervq vol. xiv, No, 3, autumn1976; Ernest L. Boyer and Fred M. Hechinger, Higher Learn-ing in the Nation Service (Washington, D. C.: The CarnegieFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1981).

*The f~st Universities to be established in the UniW sta~sfollowed the traditional European model. Serving primarily thewealthier members of society, they were specifically establishedto educate youth for leadership positions in the fields oftheology, law, and education.

century, when Americans began to regard col-leges and universities as having a unique soci-etal role.38 Unlike institutions of elementaryand secondary education, which were expectedto prepare the general population of youth foradult roles in society, institutions of highereducation were expected to recruit those whoqualified for leadership positions. And, where-as elementary and secondary education schoolswere designed to transmit the general, or pop-ular, culture from one generation to the next,colleges and universities were expected totransmit the total knowledge base of society.They were to be responsible, moreover, notonly for the transmission of knowledge, butalso-through the pursuit of research-for itscreation. Believed to have a special under-standing of society, universities were called onto bring about its improvement.39 *

Two events–the land-grant movement andthe alliance during World War II between theuniversities and the Federal Government—strongly influenced this development, givingthe American university a distinct character.Involving the university in the daily life of theNation, both of these events served to rein-force the public aspect of the university’s roleand to enhance the public’s involvement in theaffairs of the university.

Democratic and populist, the land-grantmovement called on the universities to extendthe benefits of education to all segments ofsociety. Responding to the Nation’s rapid in-dustrial and agricultural development, it called

‘8 Shils, op. cit.‘gIbid.*ArneriC~ colleges and universities were particularly Well

suited to play the role prescribed for them. Bringing togetherfaculty members from all disciplines, they were unique centersof intellectual stimulation. The income they derived from teach-ing made them economically self-sufficient. And because theirwork was not circumscribed by practical necessities, facultymembers were free to work on basic research in areas of theirown intellectual interest, Notwithstanding a growing focus onresearch, the multidisciplinary nature of the university pre-vented it from becoming limited in scope and helped to fostera public belief that the pursuit of knowledge was, in and of itself,an important societal goal and one that the colleges and univer-sities were alone capable of achieving.

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 7 9

on the universities, moreover, to expand be-yond their traditional role of training gentle-men as preachers, lawyers, and doctors, and—through applied research-to develop the morepractical applications of education. Providedfor under the Merrill Act of 1862,40* land-grantcolleges, open to children of all backgroundswere established to provide education in fieldssuch as agriculture, engineering, home eco-nomics, and business administration. Unlikethe traditional colleges, the land-grant collegeswere not isolated communities. Through theiragricultural experiment stations and theirservice bureaus, their activities were designedto serve the State.41

Although the land-grant movement estab-lished the Federal Government’s interest inhigher education and served to legitimate theuniversity’s involvement in public affairs,there was no significant interaction betweenGovernment and the academic communityuntil World War II, when several major uni-versities were enlisted to conduct research fornational defense. This wartime collaborationestablished a precedent by which the FederalGovernment began to look to the universitiesfor help in executing national goals. In ex-change for its assistance, the Federal Govern-ment provided the academic community withfinancial aid.42* An increasingly importantsource of funding, the Government came to ex-

4~he Merrill Act of 1862.*’l’’ his law provided land to the States, the proceeds of which

were to be used to teach in the fields of agriculture and me-chanical arts. Subsequent legislation provided Federal finan-cial support for research and the operation of the land-grantcolleges.

4’Kerr, op. cit.42 Kerr, op. cit.; Patrick M. Morgan, “Academic and the Fed-

eral Government, ” Policy Stu&es Journal vol. 10, 1981; D. Bok,“The Federal Government and the University, ” D. Bok, ThePublic ~ntires~ winter 1980.

*Feder~ ~volvement in higher education increased markedlyafter World War 11. By 1960, the academic community was re-ceiving about $1.5 billion from the Federal Government, 100times as much as it had received 20 years before. Most of thesefunds were spent on research-related activities, and were chan-neled to a limited number of universities and to a limited groupof departments within universities.

ert a considerable influence on universityaffairs.43*

While continuing to support research, theFederal Government, in the late 1960’s, alsobegan to provide funds to assure that allqualified students would have access to highereducation. 44* In fiscal year 1978-79, the Fed-eral Government spent approximately $14 bil-lion to meet these goals.45 Today, nearly 40percent of all students receive Federal aid, and75 percent of all university expenditures forscientific research are federally funded.46

Measured in accomplishments, it is clearthat the alliance between Government and theuniversity has been quite successful. Americanuniversities have been responsible for manyof the Nation’s most significant achievements.Since World War II, for example, Americanscholars have received more than half of all theNobel Prizes awarded for science. And Ameri-can research dominates the world’s scientificand technical literature, accounting for ap-proximately 40 percent of the articles writteneach year.47 Moreover, the American univer-sity system has been remarkably successfulin providing extensive and varied educationalresources to a broadly based and increasing-ly diverse clientele.

43 Kerr, op. cit.*Feder~ finding Was used to support research in about 10

major universities. Most funds were spent for research in thephysical and biomedical scienms and in engineering. Only about3 percent were used to support research in the social sciences,and almost nothing was spent for the humanities. Universitydecisions to accept Federal funds for research occurred outsideof the normal academic decisionmaking process, and often deter-mined how the universities would distribute their own fundsand facilities.

“Morgan, op. cit.*The Civil Rights Act of 1964, the National Education Act

of 1965, and the Educational Amendments of 1972 providedthe legislative basis for increased Federal involvement inacademic affairs. In this legislation, the Federal Governmentendorsed the view that higher education was a vital nationalresource and one to which all Americans should have equalaccess.

“Sloan Commission on Government and Higher Education,1980 Report.

48 Morgan, op. cit.4’Boyer and Heckinger, op. cit.


Status of American Collegesand Universities

Today there are in the United States approx-imately 1,957 4-year colleges and universities,549 of which are public and 1,408 private. Re-flecting the pluralistic nature of Americansociety, they include a wide variety of institu-tions. All together they enroll about 4,115,000full-time students.48 Over the past 10 years,institutions of higher education have ex-panded rapidly in size, in number, and in thekinds of services that they render.49* Duringthe same period, higher education has beenmade available to a much broader section ofthe population.50*

The expansion of colleges and universitiesto meet the growing demands for educationhas, however, affected their future viability.American colleges and universities are, for ex-ample, no longer semiautonomous institu-tions. Heavily supported and regulated bygovernment, they have lost considerable con-trol over some of of their own internal affairs.In recent years, the Federal Government hascome to determine such issues as who shouldbe taught what, by whom, and how.51

The American university is, moreover, nolonger economically self-sufficient. Fundsderived from teaching can no longer be usedto subsidize university research. In fact todaythe reverse is true. Revenues from researchnow pay the overhead for many of the univer-sity’s more traditional functions. As a result,more than ever before, departments are beingdesigned to suit the needs of research, and

igThe ~n~”tjon of Education, Op. Cit.

‘gIbid.*DUr~g the 1970’s, the number of institutions of higher ed-

ucation increased by 241 percent, the number of students at-tending these institutions increased by 290 percent, and thenumber of degrees conferred upon graduates increased by 251percent,

‘“I bid.*Increased access to institutions of higher education is in-

dicated by the changed racial and ethnic composition of the stu-dent body. For example, the difference between the percentageof blacks in the total population and the percentage of blacksin the student body decreased significantly during these years.This changed composition of the student body can also be seenin the increase in the number of degrees that were conferredupon female and minority students.

‘lBok, op. cit; Morgan, op. cit.

faculty members are being selected more onthe basis of their ability to attract researchcontracts and grants than on their ability toteach or even to publish.52

Once the undisputed center of research ef-forts in the United States, American univer-sities are today competing strenuously withone another and with business and govern-mental research institutes for money and re-sources. In the present economic and educa-tional climate, most universities are findingit difficult to compete. The cost of equipmentfor advanced scientific research is extremelyexpensive to buy and to maintain.53 Facultymembers, drawn by the superior research op-portunities and financial benefits offered byprivate firms and government, are leaving theuniversities and taking their research teamswith them.54

To make themselves more financially inde-pendent, many universities and colleges havebegun to sell their educational services to newclients and to deliver them in new forms. Inan effort to capture some of the growing adultmarket for education, universities, as early as1963, began to develop programs of continu-ing education. Many colleges and universitiesnow offer degree courses through correspon-dence programs. To compete more effective-ly with proprietary educational institutions,several colleges and universities have shiftedthe focus of their curricula from the arts, cul-ture, and leisure activities to vocational needs.Taking advantage of some of the new infor-mation and communications technologies, sev-eral universities have, moreover, begun tobroadcast courses over cable TV and to pack-age instructional materials on video disks andvideo cassettes for sale to businesses or toother educational institutions.55

s~stephmie y~ctiski, “Universities Take To the MarketPlace, ” IVew ScientisL December 1981; Will Lepkowski, “Re-search Universities Face New Fiscal Realities, ” Chemical andEngineering News, Nov. 23, 1981.

‘g’’ Graduatx Universities-A New Model,” scien~ December1981.

biLepkowski, op. cit-5Kpatsy Vyner, Telephone Survey on Use of Teleco=unica-

tions Technologies at Post Secondary Institutions unpublishedpaper, 1982.


Operating more and more in the market sec-tor, universities are also beginning to sell andto patent the results of their research.56* Manyof these arrangements are being made with thecooperation of business. Moreover, severalfaculty members acting independently havejoined with suppliers of venture capital to es-tablish new companies in fields such as genet-ics and electronics.57*

If universities are to keep pace with theircompetitors in the profitmaking sector, it isclear that, given diminished Government fund-ing, they will have to make some new finan-cial arrangements with industry. This develop-ment has caused some concern within the aca-demic community. Meeting in Rome, Italy, anumber of biologists recently identified someof the issues that might arise if universitiesbecome deeply involved in commercial ven-tures. To preserve their proprietary rights,universities might, for example, begin torestrict the free exchange of information, aprocess upon which so many of the universi-ty’s traditional functions depend. In an effortto preserve traditional values, some academicsare now trying to develop guidelines for col-laboration. 58

Today, as the demand for knowledge and thecost of its generation increase, many collegesand universities are finding it more difficultto be all-purpose “multiversities.”* Unable toobtain Government or industry funding, manysmall liberal arts colleges, for example, can no

“Lepkowski, op. cit.*FOr ex~p]e, stanford University recently sold the design

of their software chip of a music synthesizer, developed by oneof their music professors, to Yamaha of Japan for $700,000.

“’’The Academic-Industrial Complex,” Scien@ vol. 216, May28, 1982.

*For exmple, Hoechst AG, a German pharmaceutical f~ml

recently provided $70 million for the founding of a new depart-ment of molecular biology at the Massachusetts General Hos-pital. In exchange for this contribution, the Massachusetts Gen-eral Hospital has agreed to grant Hoechst exclusive worldwidelicenses to any patentable developments that result from com-pany-sponsored research. Harvard Medical School has a similaragreement with E. I. du Pent de Nemours. In exchange for a$5 million contribution to build a new genetics department, Har-vard has agreed to grant Du Pent licenses to market any com-mercially useful research for which it has paid.

681 bid.; and Yanchinski, op. cit.*The km “m~tiversity” was coined by Clark Kerr. It refers

to university communities where teaching and research ac-tivities coexist but are performed in and by different sectorsof the university.

longer afford to pursue major research efforts.And many larger institutions have had tocurtail some of their research departments.Others are beginning to shift their educationalfocus from one that emphasizes the liberal artsto one that prepares students for careers in agreat variety of new and expanding technical,semiprofessional, and managerial occupations.This public/private development may have far--reaching consequences. If more and more col-leges and universities begin to function as sin-gle-purpose organizations, they may find thatthey face much stiffer competition from thegrowing number of other single-purpose insti-tutions now seeking to provide education inthe marketplace.

Information and communication technolo-gies have potential applications for all aspectsof higher education. They can play an impor-tant role, for example, both in providing aliberal education as well as in training in-dividuals for specific roles in society. They canserve, moreover, to facilitate research and thestoring, retrieving and sharing of knowledge.Many of the ways in which the new technolo-gies can be used will be of special interest tothose universities which, in the face of shiftingdemands and shrinking resources, are search-ing for new ways to become more economicallyand socially secure.

They might be used, for example, to providefaculty support in routine and remedial learn-ing situations. The need for such support islikely to increase in the future, given an in-crease in the costs of providing higher educa-tion, an increase in the number of collegestudents who will come from minority back-grounds, an increase in number of adults seek-ing higher education, and an increase in theneed for job retraining. Many colleges and uni-versities are already using and developing newways to apply information and communicationtechnologies for these purposes. At NorthCarolina State University, for example, stu-dents and faculty members worked togetherto develop a successful video tape instruc-tional program that teaches strategies forstudying and learning.59

bvTelescan: The Digest of the C%nter for hxirning and Telecommunications, VOL 1, issue 1, October 1981.

82 ● informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The new technologies can also be used to ex-tend the boundaries of the university to pro-vide teaching facilities to those who wouldotherwise not have access to them. Many col-leges and universities have, for example,joined with public broadcasting stations tobroadcast college credit telecourses as part ofa new Adult Learning Service to be coordi-nated nationally by the Public Broadcasting

Services. 60 Members of the health communi-ty have, moreover, used video teleconferenc-ing to provide continuing medical educationto professionals throughout the country.61

Communication and information technolo-gies can also be used to distribute scarce teach-ing and faculty resources across many cam-puses. Recognizing the potential for sharing,

‘“I bid.“James J. Johnson, “A Case Study: The Healthy Pulse of

Medical Video Teleconferencing, ” satifi”~ ~munjcat~on~,

May 1981, pp. 19-23.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 8 3

several colleges and universities have formedconsortia to advise and assist them in the useof media-based materials. A telecommunica-tions task force was recently formed at the Na-tional Association of State Universities andLand Grant Colleges,62 for example.

While the use of computers in college anduniversity teaching has traditionally beenlimited to the fields of math and science, it isincreasingly being extended to other areas aswell. Viewing computer literacy as an essen-tial element of any general education, a num-ber of liberal arts colleges, such as Harvardand Wells, now require that all of theirstudents become familiar with the computer.Faculty members and students have experi-mented in using the computer to teach a widerange of courses including drama, English lit-erature, psychology, and the classics.63 Wherestudents on a campus have ready access tocomputers, they are using them more andmore not as an adjunct to, but as an integralpart of their learning routines.64*

By facilitating sharing, information andcommunication technologies can help reducethe costs of and increase the resources avail-able for performing university research. Net-works to transmit data, voice, and video be-——6ZT~leScn, M@JUne 1982.

‘3’’ The Wired University IS On 1ts Way, ” Business WeekApr. 24, 1982.

“Ibid.*La~t Yem, for exmple, 60 of the entering students at Rens-

selaer Polytechnic Institute were given computers as an ex-periment to see how they would be used. Within a short periodof time, these students became very comfortable with them,using them as extensively as students who had brought theirown computers to campus.

tween universities are already being estab-lished. Some will provide individual users ac-cess to library resources and scientific databases, while others, like Bitnet, will allowfaculty members and students to communi-cate with their colleagues at different collegesand research institutions and provide an en-vironment in which they can exchange ideasand information, and even coauthor papers.65

By extending their traditional boundaries, thenew information and communications technol-ogies may help the universities to adapt to thechanged needs and circumstances of an infor-mation age.

However, at the same time, and for manyof the same reasons, they may also serve toundermine those aspects of the university thathave traditionally set it apart from–andabove—the rest of society. Semiautonomouscommunities’ universities were expected tooperate by a special set of rules and standardsthat would foster the development and thepreservation of knowledge as a goal in and ofitself. And members of the academic commu-nity, assumed to be loyal to these goals, werecalled on to serve as independent observersand critics of society. The widescale deploy-ment of information technologies may affectthe university’s ability to perform this role.Increasingly linked to outside groups, the uni-versity community may be less able to func-tion as an independent source of knowledgeand as independent observer of society.

s5Bitnet L~s Yde Unjversjty, City University of New York,Columbia University, Princeton University, Rutgers Univer-sity, Penn State University, Brown University, Boston Univer-sity, and Cornell University.

Two-Year and Community CollegesMore than any other educational institution, suited to take advantage of, the new informa-

the American community college has ex- tion technologies.hibited an ability and willingness to adaptrapidly to changing societal needs and cir- Community colleges emerged at the end ofcumstances. Experienced in reaching out to the 19th century to accommodate the grow-provide nontraditional services to new cating number of youths who, seeking some kindegories of students, community colleges may of postsecondary education, either were unpre-have a special need for, and be particularly pared for or could not find room in the tradi-


tional college and university system.66 Someof these new colleges were extensions of sec-ondary schools; others were 4-year collegesconverted to 2-year programs. Referred to asjunior colleges, they provided a general collegecurriculum designed to be transferable to 4-year colleges and universities.

Today, as the change in their name sug-gests, community colleges offer a curriculamore oriented towards the needs of local com-munities. Having continually added new func-tions as the need arose, community collegesnow provide a wide variety of educational serv-ices. These include:67

academic transfer programs;terminal general education programs;technical productive skills programs;life skill programs not related to employ-ment;remedial programs;cultural, social, and recreational pro-grams; andcounseling.

To provide such a wide variety of programsand services, community colleges have em-ployed untraditional organizational structuresand educational techniques. Willing to adaptthe institution to the needs of their students,they have followed policies of open admissions,made use of the special skills of nonacademic,part-time faculty members, allowed flexiblescheduling, and offered courses off-campus insuch remote places as nursing homes, prisons,and storefronts.68

Because of their organizational flexibility,their open-door policies, and their aggressive-ness in recruiting new students, communitycolleges benefited more than any other institu-tions of higher education from the postwarbaby boom and from the national emphasisduring the 1960’s on providing equal educa-

68FO~ ~ hi9toV of community colleges, sw Ralph R. Fields,The Cbmmunity CWlege Movement (New York: McGraw Hill,1962).

“Clark Kerr, “Changes and Challenges Ahead for the Com-munity College, ” Clxnmunity and Junior Ckdlege JoumaL vol.50, May 1980.

“Barbara Guthrie-Morse, “Agenda for the 80s: CommunityCollege Organizational Reform, ” Community CWege fiview,spring 1981, pp. O-8.

tional opportunities. Their growth during thisperiod was phenomenal. Enrollment increasedby 930 percent, and, on the average, one newcollege was established every week.69

Today there are 1,194 2-year community col-leges in the United States, approximatelythree-quarters of which are publicly supported.Together they constituted in 1979a $52-billionenterprise.70 In 1980, community colleges en-rolled 1,718 full-time and 2,733 part-time stu-dents, and employed about 87,000 full-timeand 115,400 part-time faculty members. Al-though their distribution varies from State toState, they account for a substantial propor-tion of higher educational enrollments in allof them. In 1979, one-third of all students, and27 percent of all full-time students were en-rolled in community colleges.71

Although a large portion of all students ofhigher education are enrolled in communitycolleges, community college students differsignificantly from those who have historical-ly attended 4-year colleges and universities.As compared with those in the more tradi-tional institutions, community college stu-dents are more likely to be older, registeredpart-time and in noncredit courses, to comefrom lower economic backgrounds and fromminority groups, and to be in greater need ofremedial instruction.72

Because of their demonstrated ability toadapt to change, and to attract new groupsof students, community colleges, unlike mostother institutions of higher education, arepredicted to grow throughout the 1980’s.Their future will, however, not be withoutproblems.

As total levels of enrollment decline, alleducational institutions will begin to competefor the same categories of students. Once alonein marketing their service to nontraditionalgroups of students, community colleges may,

WD8 W. Breneman and S. C. Nelson, FhIancing ~mmunityGW.Zeges: An Economic Perspective (Washington, D. C.: TheBrookings Institution, 1981).

‘“Ibid.‘i Ibid.“Ibid.

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States “ 85

in the future, have to compete with highschools to provide adult basic education, witharea vocational centers and proprietary in-stitutions to teach vocational and commercialskills, with company-based training programsto provide job specific instruction, and with4-year public and private colleges and univer-sities to teach part-time and general educationcourses .73

Community colleges will also have to com-pete with other institutions for scarce publicresources. Charging relatively lower tuitionfees than other institutions of higher educa-

“S. V. Martorana and Wayne D. Smutz, “State Legislation,Politics, and Community Colleges, ” Cbrnmunity College %view, winter 1980; S. V. Martorana and W, Cary McGuire, “Re-cent Legal Action Affecting Community Colleges: A NationalSurvey, ” Cixnmunity Cblfege Review, fall 1976.

ProprietaryProprietary educational institutions are

profit-seeking institutions that offer programsclosely geared to preparing students to enterspecific jobs and occupations. Over the years,four types of proprietary institutions haveevolved, each appealing to a distinct educa-tional market. They include trade and tech-nical schools, licensed occupational schools(e.g., cosmetology and barbering), independentbusiness schools, and home study schools.Most private and profit-seeking, preschool,elementary, secondary, and preparatoryschools are not considered part of the pro-prietary educational system, perhaps becausethey are less occupation-oriented and their cur-riculums tend to be more traditionally struc-tured.

Status of Proprietary Schools

Proprietary schools have existed as distinctinstitutions in the United States since the1880’s. Many were typical small businesses ofthe time—established by individual entrepre-

tion, community colleges are more dependentthan most on public funding.

In recent years, State governments haveassumed greater responsibility for and controlover community college affairs.74 In a periodof increased costs and declining revenues,State policymakers, now responsible for amuch broader area of educational activities,may have to reevaluate the rationale accordingto which educational funds are allocated. Com-munity colleges may be particularly vulner-able in such a reevaluation, since there is lessgeneral recognition of, and no longstandingtradition to publicly finance, many of the func-tions that they perform.75

74Breneman and Nelson, op. cit.761bid.

Educationneurs or as family operations.76 The over-whelming majority of these schools are stillindividually owned today, but corporate own-ership is now the most common form of pro-prietary school organization.77 Most schoolsare small. The average private school enroll-ment (includes nonprofit) in 1978 was 153,compared with an average enrollment of 556during the same year for public postsecondary,noncorrespondence schools.78

According to biennial surveys of postsec-ondary schools that offer occupational pro-grams, conducted by the National Center forEducation Statistics (NCES), the number of

“Donald E. Mellon, The Role of the Entrepreneur-Educatorin Private Business Education in the United States From 1850to 1915: A Study in C%mch”tioned Entrepreneurship, 1975 doc-toral dissertation, New York University, Graduate School ofBusiness Administration.

“Steven M. Jung, Proprietary Vocational Education (Colum-bus, Ohio: National Centir for Research in Vocational, The OhioState University, 1980).

“Evelyn R. Kay, Enrollments and Programs in NoncollegiatePostsecondary Schools, 1978 (Washington, D. C,: NationalCenter for Education Statistics, 1979).


proprietary schools had increased from 5,814in 1978 to 6,141 in 1980, of which 4,151 (67.6percent) were accredited. 79 Of the 1.5 millionstudents enrolled in 1978 in all public and pri-vate noncorrespondence postsecondary schools,61 percent (or 928,000 students) attended pro-prietary institutions.

80 An unpublished NCESsurvey indicated in 1980 that total postsecond-ary occupational enrollments had increased to2.4 million and that the number of studentsattending all types of noncorrespondence pro-prietary schools had risen as well. (No compre-hensive enrollment figure for 1980 is availableat present.) Cosmetology/barber schools, busi-ness/commercial schools, flight schools, andtrade schools were the largest groups of pro-prietary institutions operating in 1980 (seetable 15). As indicated in table 16, more ofthese schools are accredited than any of theother types of proprietary institutions.

There are an estimated 250 home studyschools in the United States. The 70 of thesethat are accredited have some 1.5 millionstudents enrolled annually .81

It has been suggested that vocational educa-tion began to evolve when those seeing the

‘g’’ Statistics of Postsecondary Schools With OccupationalPrograms, ” National Cknter for Education Statistics EarlyRelease, September 1981.

80Kay, op. cit.“Interview with Michael P. Larnbert, Assistant Director, Na-

tional Home Study Council, fall/winter 1981.

need for additional and expanded occupationaltraining attempted to join two separate educa-tional systems—craftsmen education, whichprior to that time had been in the hands of thecraftsmen themselves, and academic educa-tion, which had developed around the conceptof scholarship. Attempts by educationally in-novative individuals to place the preparationof craftsmen in the same context as academiceducation met resistance from more tradi-tional educators. However, the need for oc-cupational education remained.

Vocational education developed as a sepa-rate branch of what was then the traditionaleducation system, but traditional academicschool standards-such as length of programsand methodology-were superimposed on thisnew type of educational experience. This re-sulted in a vocational program that was tooabstract and” . . . lacked the desired technicalknowledge and practical skill.”82

While public and nonprofit vocational educa-tion programs continued to develop over theyears, the need to which proprietary educationhad become at least a partial response beganto take shape. A study of personality charac-teristics of 19th to early 20th century privatebusiness school founders indicates that those

82Melain L. Barlow, “Our Important Past, ” in The Future ofVocatiomdEducatio~ Swanson, Gordon I. (cd.) (Arlington, Va:American Vocational Association, 1981).

Table 15.—Number of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, ByControl and By Type of School: Aggregate United States, 1980 (universe data)

Private

IndependentType of school Total schools Public Proprietary nonprofit

Vocational/technical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 591 85 13Technical institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2 96 9Business/commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,388 3 1,348 37Cosmetology/barber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,128 3 2,125 0Flight school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 1 926 1Trade school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 8 739 26Arts/design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 0 233 17Hospital school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 171 51 637Allied health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 117 220 47Junior/community college. . . . . . . . . . . 1,116 905 86 125College/university . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 260 11 376Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 0 221 3

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,493 2,061 6,141 1,291SOURCE: “Statistics of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, ” National canter for Education Statistics Ear/y

Re/ease, September 1981.

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States w 87

Table 16.—Number of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, ByControl and By Type of School: Aggregate United States,

1980 (accredited schools onlya)

Private

IndependentType of school Total schools Public Proprietary nonprofit

Vocational/technical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 591 64 6Technical institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2 83 7Business/commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 3 731 9Cosmetology/barber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,713 3 1,710 0Flight school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 1 712 1Trade school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 8 398 14Arts/design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 0 136 10Hospital school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 171 39 599Allied health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 117 161 23Junior/community college. . . . . . . . . . . 1,112 905 84 123College/university . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 260 11 376Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 0 22 3

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,383 2,061 4,151 1,171alnclurjes all Schools accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting association, whether Institutional or specialized. or

eligible for participation in cerlain Federal programs

SOURCE: “Statistics of Postsecondarv Schools With Occut3atlonal Proorams.” Natior)a/ Center for Ecfucat/on Statistics EarlyRelease, September 1981 “

who were successful in their ventures pos-sessed both educational expertise and businessknow-how. More often than not, in the earlyyears, ability as an educator was subordinateto that of entrepreneur.

At the end of this period, however, the en-trepreneur without considerable sophisticationin educational matters was unable to competein the industry.

83 Perhaps the entrepreneurialskills of these early business educators andtheir counterparts in trade and technicalschools enabled them to identify significantmarkets, while their educational skills enabledthem to translate market needs into educa-tional programs.

Some view proprietary education as fillinga vacuum in occupational training that wascreated by the failure of continued develop-ment of apprenticeship education and thepublic vocational education system in theUnited States. In Europe, where these twotypes of educational experiences are thriving,no private vocational school system hasevolved .84

‘3 Mellor, op. cit.“Dorothy Kile Cann, proprietary Vocational Schools: An Al-

ternative Lifestyle for the Disenchante&Disadvantaged paperpresented at the National Center for Research in VocationalEducation’s Employability Conference, Columbus, Ohio, Oc-tober 1981.

Characteristics of ProprietarySchools

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristicof proprietary schools is their flexibility.Because they are operated as businesses, theyare constantly monitoring the needs of theirrespective markets, for their survival dependson how well they meet the needs of their cli-ents who are seeking adequate preparation foremployment. The balance that must be main-tained between providing suitable training andmaking a reasonable profit results in continu-ous assessment of and changes in operationand instruction.85

Proprietary schools are totally dependent onstudent tuition income. Rarely if ever are theyendowed or do they provide student scholar-ships. As a result of the Education Amend-ments of 1972, their enrollees are eligible forfinancial assistance from such Federal pro-grams as Basic Educational OpportunityGrants and Federally Insured Student Loans.In comparisons of the costs of private versuspublic vocational education programs, in-cluding Federal and State assistance to publicinstitutions, proprietary school programs are

86A. H~vey Belitsky, l+jvab Vocational Schools ~d ThetiStudents: Limited Oh~ectives; Unlimited Opportunities (Cam-bridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1969).

88 s Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

less costly, although tuition for studentsenrolled in private, profit-seeking institutionsis higher.86

The course offerings of these institutionstend to be shorter than those of their public-ly funded counterparts, and liberal arts re-quirements are usually not a part of their cur-ricula. Because enrollments are much smallerthan those in publicly funded vocationalschools and their administrative structures areless complex, they can develop materials andintroduce new courses more quickly in the oc-cupational fields that are in demand in the in-dustrial job market (e.g., data processing).More often than not proprietary schools in-clude as course content only those principleswhich are directly related to and necessary formastery of a specific occupation. A year-roundschedule of day and evening classes is com-mon.87

Instructors in proprietary schools tend tobe selected because of their work experienceand craftsmanship rather than on the basis oftheir experience in the classroom or their aca-demic degrees. They are not tenured employ-ees, and are constantly evaluated in terms oftheir achievement of student satisfaction andgraduate employability .88 In some proprietaryschools, instructors also serve as placementcounselors. This is seen by some school admin-istrators as yet another way to ensure thatwhat is taught in the classroom is appropriatepreparation for entry or reentry into the jobmarket .89

Another characteristic of proprietary schooleducation is its emphasis on the developmentof what might be called widely accepted workbehavior in enrollees. Students are expectedto attend classes or risk suspension, to com-plete assignments in a timely fashion, and,especially in business school programs, dressaccording to common business standards,since all these characteristics are seen as

‘aJung, op. cit.a7Belitsky, op. cit.“Cann, op. cit.“Interview with Stephen Friedheim, President, Association

of Independent Colleges and Schools, falllwinter 1981.

necessary for successful, long-term employ-ment.9O

Markets Served byProprietary Schools

A 1980 study that used 1975 data suggeststhat, in general, proprietary school studentsshare the following characteristics:

●

●

●

A larger percentage are female and blackas compared with students in communitycolleges;They are more likely to come from lowerincome backgrounds and be older, mar-ried, and out of high school for a longertime; andThey are more likely than community col-lege-freshman to receive financial aid-fromFederal funding sources. The most fre-quent source is the Basic Education Op-portunity Grant, which supported 4 outof 10 students. The greatest source of dol-lars is the Guaranteed Student LoanPrograms.

Further comparisons in the study of studentswithin the proprietary school sector revealtheir diversity:

●

●

●

The enrollees in independent businessschools are largely women, while enrolleesin trade and technical schools are consid-erably older and are comprised of a highproportion of veterans, married students,and minorities.More trade and technical school studentscome from wealthier families than dothose in business schools.Independent business school students aremore likely to participate in college workstudy programs, and trade and technicalschool students are more likely to supporttheir studies through GI benefits andmoney earned from full-time work.91

‘Ibid.olMWci L. Cox, charac~rigtics of Students

prietary Schools and Factors Influencing Their InstitutionalChoice 1980 doctoral dissertation, University of California, LosAngeles.

.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States s 89

A study of proprietary schools and collegesconducted in 1975 found that students who at-tend proprietary schools are, for the most part,ignored by institutions of higher education.Proprietary schools do not compete for stu-dents with colleges and universities, but in-stead meet a specific market need. Their great-est potential impact on higher education is indiverting Federal assistance from collegiateinstitutions.92

In the 1978 survey of postsecondary schoolswith occupational programs conducted byNCES, 32 percent of men and 38 percent ofwomen attended private schools (includes non-profit). The survey results show that, duringthe period 1974 to 1978, more women thanmen were enrolled in private (includes non-profit) schools. As illustrated in table 17,female enrollments fluctuated from 52.9 per-cent to 54.2 percent. Enrollments for males inprivate schools increased significantly from 61percent to 67 percent during the same 4-yearperiod. Increases in enrollment levels in pri-vate schools from 1974 through 1978 accountedfor most of the enrollment growth in postsec-ondary occupational education.

While individual enrollees represent the pri-mary target audience for all types of propri-etary education programs, business and indus-try, as well as State and local education agen-cies, have been looked on by some segments

“J. Michael Ervin, The Proprietary School: Assessing Its Im-pact on the Cdegiate Sector (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Universityof Michigan, Center for the Study of Higher Education,February 1975).

Table 17.—Percent Distribution of Men andWomen by Control of School

Control Total Men Women

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 58,5 41.5Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 47.1 52.9

Total, 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 51.0 49.0

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 54.7 45.3Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 45.8 54.2

Total, 1976 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 48.8 51.2

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,0 53.1 46,9Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 45.8 54.2

Total, 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 48.0 52.0SOURCE Evelyn R Kay, Enrollments and Programs m Nonco//egiate Postsecond

ary Schoo/s, 1978 (Wash Ington, D C Nat tonal Center for Educat!onStatistics), p 5

of the profit-seeking educational system as im-portant markets. Prior to and during WorldWar II, for example, extensive amounts oftraining for industry were carried out by trade,technical, correspondence, and home studyschools. After the war, however, there was adramatic drop in the volume of contract train-ing, as companies who had not already doneso began to establish their own in-house train-ing capabilities.93

Although relations between proprietaryschool educators and nonprofit educators havebeen and continue to be strained due to theirdifferent views about the profit motive in edu-cation, State education agencies and localschool districts are beginning to approachprofit-seeking institutions to operate specialprograms. The Vocational Education Act of1963 cleared the way for public agencies to es-tablish contractual relationships with proprie-tary schools where such schools can “ . . .make a significant contribution to attainingthe objectives of the State plan for vocationaleducation and provide substantially equiva-lent training at a lower cost; or provide equip-ment or services not available in public institu-tions." 94

Despite this enabling legislation, contract-ing between public and proprietary institu-tions remains at fairly low levels. In 1977, con-tracting between local school districts andprivate vocational schools made up between0.6 and 1 percent of Federal outlays for voca-tional education under Part B of the Voca-tional Education Act. Barriers identified tomore extensive utilization of proprietaryschools included a distrust of the profitmotive, a concern over highly publicizedabuses of Federal student loan programs bysome profit-seeking institutions, and theabsence of administrative systems that wouldencourage more working agreements.95

s31n~rview ~th willi~ A. Goddard, Executive Director, Na-tional Association of Trade and Technical Schools; Interviewwith Michael P. Lambert, falliwinter 1981.

giEducation~ ‘1’eSting servi~, Education Policy Research in-stitute, Private Schools and PubLic Policy (Washington, D. C.:Office of Education, September 1978).

‘sIbid.


Applications of InformationTechnology in Proprietary

Education

All proprietary education industry leadersand school administrators interviewed in thisinvestigation expressed awareness of the in-creasing role of information technology. How-ever, differences of opinion exist as to howuseful such technology is in specific types ofproprietary institutions. It is interesting tonote the applications of information technol-ogy within a group of institutions forced to bewary of high administrative costs, and knownfor their ability to be flexible and responsiveto frequently changing needs in their respec-tive markets.

Trade and Technical Schools

Little or no use of any form of informationtechnology is being made by accredited tradeand technical institutions. This type of pro-prietary school tends to be highly instructor-oriented, to emphasize learning by doing, andto restrict the amounts of theory presented inthe classroom to that which is directly job-related. Video tapes are sometimes used todemonstrate equipment operation and to pro-vide individuals with performance feedback.Costs associated with the use of educationaltechnology are cited as a reason for its limiteduse. Data processing schools are the only pos-sible exceptions.

Licensed Occupational Schools

To date, schools of cosmetology and barbercolleges have made very little use of informa-tion technology in their occupational pro-grams. The most commonly utilized forms oftechnology in the cosmetology field tend to bevideo tape, used to record remarks of visitinginstructors or to demonstrate particular proc-esses and/or techniques, and audio cassettes,used to record instructor presentations. Al-though the potential for the use of educationaltechnology is recognized, the relatively smallsize of most licensed occupational schools and

the investment required for equipment andsoftware result in few applications.96

Proprietary Business Schools

Video tape, closed-circuit television, compu-ter-managed instruction (CM I), and computer-assisted instruction (CAI) are all in use at pres-ent in profit-seeking business schools. Videotape is by far the most common form of tech-nology being applied, closely followed by CMI,which is used for tracking applications, enroll-ments, financial aid, grading, and placement.97

At Johnson and Wales College in Providence,R. I., closed-circuit television is used to linktwo classrooms and to provide better viewingof cooking demonstrations for students at-tending the culinary arts program.

An electronics school affiliated with John-son and Wales also makes use of closed-circuittelevision in selected classroom sessions. Al-though cost remains a major deterrent to fur-ther use of these and other technologies, theadministrator of this school feels that pro-prietary business schools will be forced tomake greater applications of technology in theclassroom, given what he calls the “videoorientation” of today’s students.98

Coleman College, located in LaMesa, Calif.and founded in 1973, offers programs in dataprocessing and computer electronics to a stu-dent body of 800. Closed-circuit television isutilized in every course offered. The college hastwo large viewing rooms as well as individualviewing stations for student use, and its ownvideo tape studio. Video tape is used to recordlectures prior to delivery, and then to highlightthem with graphics. Coleman has a CM I sys-tem used to monitor student progress, to se-lect appropriate readings, and to administertesting. 99

‘Interview with Gerald Donaway, Executive Director, Na-tional Association of Trade and Technical Schools, fall/winter1981.

sTIn~rview with ~phen Friedheim; also interview with JackYena, Executive Vice President, Johnson and Wales College,fall/winter 1981.

‘aIbid.‘Interview with Coleman Furr, Chairman of the Board, Cole

man College, fall/winter 1981.


Home Study Schools

At present, the home study industry re-mains very print-oriented. The National RadioInstitute (NRI), a wholly owned subsidiary ofMcGraw-Hill, Inc., and the largest technicalcorrespondence school in the country, with anaverage annual enrollment of 60,000, uses aCMI system that permits student examina-tions to be graded, annotated with personal-ized comments and mailed back to the enrolleewithin a 24-hour period. The admissions andfinancial records of NRI have just recentlybeen converted to a computer format. Lesson-grading records will be automated in the nextphase.

As part of a video cassette repair course nowoffered by the school, two instructional videotapes have been developed that soon will bedistributed to enrollees. Plans for 1982 call forthe addition of CAI to the microcomputertechnology course, which begins by taking thestudent through basic electronics and endswith microtechnology. A TRS-80 computer, in-cluded in the cost of the course, is shipped toeach student after successful completion of acertain number of lessons on basic electronics.Enrollees learn how to repair the computer andhow to develop and run simple software pro-grams. Through CAI units, to be added nextyear, students will learn how to do elementaryprograming in BASIC. Cost is a major deter-rent in conversion of additional courses toCAI, video disk, or any other form of tech-nology. 100

Future Uses

By far the segment of the proprietary schoolindustry doing the most to encourage addi-tional applications of information technologyin future education programs is the homestudy group. A recent review of current prac-tices in home study suggested that greater useof educational technology is one way to ensureregeneration of the industry.101 In May 1981,

Ioorntemiew With John F. Thompson, President, NationalRadio Institu@; also interview with Louis Frenzel, Senior VicePresident, Ptiuct Development, National Radio Institute,fall/winter 1981.

‘“’ Louis E. Frenzel, “Ten Reasons Why Home Study May NotSurvive the 80’s, ” NHSC News, fall 1981, pp. 11-18.

the National Home Study Council (NHSC) es-tablished a forum for educators known as theGreen Chair Group to predict what shapehome study will take by 2000.

In addition to a series of papers producedby selected individuals, the end-product of theeffort will be a predictive model, developedfrom a Delphi survey series administered togroup members. From the first round ofpapers submitted to NHSC in 1981, it is clearthat these educators see extensive use of in-formation technology in “distance educa-tion’’—the new name they have coined forhome study–in the very near future. Whilethey see the continued use of print media,some predict that in most homes there will beinteractive video and voice units with hard-copy capability that may be utilized by dis-tance educators. Others feel that home studystudents will be offered a choice of straight lec-ture or interactive systems similar to today’sPLATO. There is speculation that laser-basedholography will be perfected to the point thatit will be used to bring the instructor—life-sized and three-dimensional-into the home.There will also be interactive computer simula-tion capability.

Some see enrollment as a process that willbe handled through home-based electronic de-vices or through home study industry-spon-sored centers set up for this purpose. Industry-supported regional counseling centers willoperate as nonprofit cooperatives. Counselorswill be trained and compensated by distanteducation suppliers who are cooperative mem-bers. Satellites will be the most likely modeof transmission and will create a climate inwhich transnational education programs willbe commonplace.

Technologies currently available, such asvideo tape, video disk, CAI on microcom-puters, and cable will increase in use. Onepanel member expressed the view that in thefuture information technology will allow dis-tant educational institutions to offer their stu-dents personalized instruction and servicescomparable to those of residence training pro-grams, while at the same time continuing toallow them “ . . . to study at their own paceand to have a full-time job while they are pur-


suing a program of study. ” One representa-tive cautioned however, that the major prob-lems in application will come, as they have todate, from “ . . . enthusiasts for technologywho are long on fervor and short on under-standing, not from those who resist itsutilization. 102

Future Uses by OtherIndustry Segments

While cost will remain a prohibiting factorfor the foreseeable future, other proprietaryeducators, especially business schools, arespeculating on how existing technologies will

‘“’Green, Chair Group, Unpublished Papers (Washington,D. C.: National Home Study Council, 1981).

be applied in the future in their institutions.For example, local television stations may beused to broadcast courses emanating from in-dependent business schools.103 One businesscollege administrator suggested that his in-stitution might adapt its culinary arts pro-gram for delivery to the home market via tele-vision. Another business school official feelsthat within 3 to 5 years, video disk will becomepractical for acquisition, due to considerablecost reductions. He also hopes that increasedavailability of video teleconferencing equip-ment through local telephone company offices,plus cost reductions associated with its use,will make application of this technology fea-sible.

IOSIn@~iew with Stephen Friedheim.

Education in the Home

The family household has always been a cen-ter of learning, and its members have alwaysplayed a key role in providing educationalservices. Grounded in the social and economicorder, the family household mediates the cul-ture, helping to provide the behavioral andcognitive skills members need to perform ef-fectively in society.

Learning within a household is a loose andinformal process. Family members act as bothteachers and learners. By interacting with oneanother, they adopt roles, acquire personali-ty traits, form values, and pattern their be-havior . 104 Of all of the institutions thateducate, the family is the most versatile andthe least restricted with respect to the educa-tional methods and the technologies it can use.Given this versatility, the household may pro-vide a particularly suitable environment forusing the new information technologies. Ifwidely used for educational purposes in thehome, the new information technologies couldmake the household an increasingly importantcenter of learning.

1°4Jarnes Garbarino, “The Family: A School for Living, ” N~-tional Elementary School Principal vol. 55, May 1976.

Status of Educationin the Home

Although most people receive most of theirformal education in institutions outside theirhomes, the home has always played an impor-tant role in education, particularly in theeducation of the young. For even though fami-ly members are not primarily responsible forthe instruction of cognitive skills, theirbehavior in the home strongly affects at-titudes about learning. Recent studies haveshown that the home environment is the mostsignificant single factor that determines aca-demic achievement.105

Adults also learn in the home, either in-directly through interaction with others orthrough deliberate efforts to acquire certainkinds of knowledge and skills. Books, maga-zines, radio, and television can all be used athome as learning resources. Some adults maycontinue to receive formal education in theirhomes through correspondence courses.106 *

I°KJarnes S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity,Amo Press, 1979.

‘O’Dede, op. cit.*The Nation~ Home Study Council estimates that there me

4 million correspondence students in the United States. Because

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 9 3

Today the American family is undergoingsome radical changes that could significantlyaffect its ability to provide educational serv-ices in the home. At present, for example,about 40 percent of all American families arestructured or operating in a way that marked-ly varies from the traditional norm. Since1960, there has been, for example, a 100-per-cent increase in the number of single-parentfamilies, and, since 1970, a 33-percent increasein the number of households headed by wom-en. 107 Because single parents have less timeand fewer resources to spend in or on the homethan do couples, these changes may seriouslyreduce the ability of some families to providefor the educational needs of their children. Arecent study found that children from single-parent families fare less well in school, bothsocially and academically.108

The educational needs of the family are alsochanging. Until recently most people had bythe end of their childhood developed and ac-quired the skills and resources they needed tooperate effectively in society. Today, however,with the explosive growth in the fund ofknowledge, people are becoming increasinglydependent on continuing education for boththeir social and their economic welfare. It hasbeen estimated that the average Americangrowing up today will have to be retrained fourtimes during his working life. He will also needmore education if he is to participate in mak-ing decisions about his life and environment,and if he is to make effective use of his in-creased leisure time.l09

How well families of the future can meetthese enhanced educational needs will dependnot only on the organization of the family and

education in the home is such an informal process, it is difficultto determine its extent. A number of recent surveys have con-cluded, however, that nearly 90 percent of all adults undertakeat least one major project a year.

‘“’Winifred I. Warnat, “Future Families as Household SchoolInstitutions, ” Education: A Time for Decisions, Kathleen M.Recid and Arthur M. Harkins (eds.), selections from the SecondAnnual Conference of the Education Section of the WorldFuture Society, 1980.

‘WDavid Melendez, “A Developing Paradox: The Role of Fami-ly Education, Clearing House, vol. 55, No. 5, January 1982.

‘OsKatherine Patricia Cross, Adults as Learners (San Fran-cisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1981).

on its relationship to the rest of society, butalso on the kind of technologies that are avail-able to assist them. Printing and the masspublication and circulation of books, news-papers, and periodicals, for instance, havegreatly improved the possibilities for learningin the home. And the invention and widescaledeployment of radio and television has alsohad an extraordinary impact with respect towho learns, and what is learned at home.110

Many new educational technologies such ascable, video disks, and the personal computerare now being made available for use in thehome at more affordable costs. In 1981, therewas a market for about 1 million personal com-puters. It is estimated that by the late 1980’sas many as half the families in the UnitedStates will have them in their homes. It is pre-dicted, moreover, that, by the end of the1980’s, the percentage of homes wired for ca-ble will increase from the present 28 to 50 per-cent. 111

Because the widespread deployment of in-formation technologies will significantly affecthow members of a family interact and use theirtime together in the home, it will have a signifi-cant effect on education. It is difficult to pre-dict, however, what that impact will be.

The new information technologies could sig-nificantly improve the learning environmentfor children in the home. Parents often lackthe time and expertise necessary to effective-ly supplement their children’s education athome. Traditional resources such as books,television programs and recordings are essen-tially passive and cannot be tailored to meetindividual needs. The new technologies are in-dividually oriented and interactive. Becausethey can rapidly process information, they canbe used, moreover, to assist parents in diag-

1 locl~k C. Abt, ‘‘what the Future Holds for Children in theTV Computer Age: Unprecedented Promises and IntolerableThreats to Child Development, ” an adapted version of thekeynote address to the National Council for Children and Televi-sion Symposium on Children, Families, and the New Video Com-puter Technologies, Princeton, N. J., Mar. 10, 1980.

Inclement Bezold, ~Orne (%mputers and

May 1980, for the Foundation for Child Development by theInstitute for Alternative Futures.

94 ž . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

A family leaves a store in Yonkers, N. Y., with a computer andsoftware to be used by an oceanographer father and his

high-school-age children

nosing learning problems and in developingcreative approaches to remedy them.112

If they enhance the household resourcesavailable for instruction, the technologies willmake it easier for the growing number ofparents who, dissatisfied with formal educa-tional institutions, would prefer to educatetheir children at home.113* The technologiesmay make it easier for parents to meet theeducational standards required by many Statecompulsory education laws.

“zVictor Walling, Thomas C. Thomas, and Meredith A. Lar-son, Educational Implications of In-Home Electronic Technol-ogy, SRI prepared for the Department of Health, Education,and Welfare, Washington D. C., May 31, 1979.

“sLeah Beth Ward, “What Happens When Parents TurnTeachers, ” The New York Times Winter Survey of Education,sec. 13, Sunday, Jan. 10, 1980.

*The num~r of parents who choose ta educate their c~tienat home is difficult to estimate, since many parents do itclandestinely so as to avoid court battles. According to the Na-tional Association for the Legal Support for alternative schools,the number of families, now about 1 million, is rapidly growing.

While the new technologies may serve to en-hance the possibilities for learning in allhouseholds, they could be of special educa-tional value to those individuals who havetraditionally found it difficult to learn in for-mal educational settings or institutions. Manyadults, for example, have often been inhibitedfrom participating in traditional educationalprograms because they felt too self-consciousor because such programs were too expensive,time-consuming, or inconvenient. Educationalservices delivered directly to the home couldovercome such barriers. In addition, childrenliving at home with a single parent who works,and handicapped individuals, confined morethan usual to the home, may also find that thenew information technologies have, for them,a special educational potential.114

On the other hand, it is possible that thetechnologies may actually diminish the oppor-tunities for home education. Like television,they may be more of a technological than acultural success. Instead of increasing individ-uals’ access to information, and providing newways of problem-solving, they may, in fact,lead to an unproductive use of time, providechildren access to pornography and violence,and replace formal learning activities withmuch less valuable ones. 1 1 6 M o r e o v e r , i f t h etechnologies are primarily designed for andmade available to middle-class families, theycould increase rather than diminish the gapbetween the educationally advantaged and dis-advantaged.

“’Walling, op. cit.l15Abt, op. cit; and J. Weizenbaum, “once More-A ComPutir

Revolution, ’ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 34,September 1978, pp. 12-19.

LibrariesAs institutions that acquire, store, manage, dividuals of all ages are free to come and go

and disseminate information, libraries provide as they please; to learn on their own, and ata variety of educational services. The learning their own pace. Information is presented inenvironment in a library is unstructured. In- general terms so as to be most relevant to a

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 95

broad, undifferentiated clientele. The tradi-tional medium by which learning takes placeis the printed word.

Today, libraries are at a turning point. Theymust make some major decisions aboutwhether and how they should employ the newtechnologies-decisions that will significant-ly affect their ability to perform what has beentheir traditional educational role. Taking ad-vantage of these technologies, libraries mightincrease and/or enhance the educational ac-tivities that they provide. On the other hand,libraries might use these technologies as themeans of shifting their role from one of pro-viding public services such as education to oneof providing information on a fee-paying basis.

Education in the Library

In the United States, libraries have alwaysbeen regarded as popular, educational institu-tions. Like the public schools, they derivedtheir support from the public education andreform movements that developed after theCivil War.116 Traveling libraries were foundedto bring news and reading materials to ruralareas where book deposit stations were set upin grange halls, neighborhood stores, fire sta-tions, and women’s clubs. In the cities, librar-ies were established not only to provide accessto books but also-like the settlement houses—to provide a haven and adult education pro-grams for a growing number of working-classimmigrants. These libraries developed rapid-ly during the post-Civil War period, and evencontinued to thrive in the depression years.117

More recently, libraries have tried to provideprograms, materials, and services that couldhelp all individuals, whether they could reador not, to attain their educational goals. TheNational Commission on Libraries and Infor-mation Sciences, for example, recentlyadopted the goal of:118

. . . providing every individual in the UnitedStates with equal opportunity of access to

that part of the total information resourceswhich will satisfy the individual’s working,cultural, and leisure time needs and interest,regardless of the individual’s location, orsocial or physical level of achievement.

The important educational role that librariesperform has been recognized and supported bythe Federal Government. Federal aid to librar-ies was first granted, in fact, as part of theFederal Government’s efforts to enhance andequalize educational opportunities.

Status of Libraries

There are in the the United States today29,446 individual libraries, some publicly andsome privately supported. These include14,390 public libraries or library branches,4,676 academic libraries, 489 military librar-ies, 1,451 civilian government libraries, 5,294special libraries, 429 law libraries, 1,705 med-ical libraries, and 1,012 religious libraries. Inaddition, there are library media centers in 85percent of the public schools.119

Not all of these institutions provide educa-tional services. Unlike public libraries, speciallibraries, for example, are supported and main-tained to provide a specific kind of informa-tion to a particular clientele. They are notnecessarily open to the public.

Although libraries were once a major centerof activity in many communities, they havebecome increasingly irrelevant to many Amer-icans. Television and the inexpensive paper-back book have replaced the library as a ma-jor source of information and entertainment.Now only about two-thirds of the populationof a typical community use the public library.Another third have never used it at all.120

Lacking public support, many libraries op-erate under severe economic constraints. Mostnegatively affected are those that provideeducational services—public libraries, schoollibraries, and universities. Public libraries, forexample, are dependent for their financing and

‘“V. H. Mathews, Libraries for Today and Tomorrow (GardenCity, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976).

“’Ibid.“’Ibid.

“gThe Bowker Annual of Library and Book IYade Informa-tion, 25th cd., 1980.

‘z’ Mathews, op. cit.


support on local communities that are them-selves experiencing severe economic difficul-ties. Approximately 81 percent of their financ-ing comes from local property taxes, funds forwhich many social services compete. Of thesefunds, public libraries typically receive lessthan 1 percent. Unable to meet increased costswith declining budgets, many libraries havehad to cut back their services, buy fewer mate-rials, shorten hours and share resources.121

Also vulnerable are academic libraries—some of which have, over the last decade, hadto reduce their expenditures for materials by20 to 40 percent.’” To meet the rising costsof operations, the Firestone Library at Prince-ton University is now considering chargingfees for all nonaffiliated users.123

The major research and special librarieshave had fewer of these problems. Becausethey have a more clearly defined and econom-ically valued role in their institutional en-vironments, they are more financially secure.

The growing demand for information andthe development of information technologiesoffer libraries an opportunity to establish anew rationale for their existence and a newbasis of economic support. Demographicchanges, new lifestyles, and changing valuesmay create new library users with greater anddifferent information needs, and the new in-formation technologies may provide possibleways of meeting them.124

Taking advantage of these developments,some libraries are already moving ahead todefine a new role for themselves as informa-tion brokers.

126* If they are to move in this

direction, many libraries may, however, have

“’Ibid.“ZIbid.“$Princeton Apr. 19, 1982.‘z’ Leigh Estabrook (cd.), Industrial Socie

ty (Oryx Press, 1977); Into the Information Age: A Perspectivefor Federal Action on Information (Chicago: American LibraryAssociation, 1978); Robert Taylor, “Professional Education andthe Information Environment,” lh”brary~oumal Sept. 15, 1979,pp. 1871-1875.

lZ5Estabrwk, op. cit.; Taylor, Op. cit.*El~tronic technologies are already beginning to reshape the

traditional library as software becomes commercially availablefor carrying out overall library operations.

to reconsider their traditional policy of pro-viding free services to the public. To competeeffectively with the growing number of otherinformation enterprises, they will have torestructure their operations to meet the spe-cific needs of their paying clientele. Unlesslibraries receive increased public support orsubsidies from their private operations, fewerhuman and economic resources will be avail-able to provide educational services to thepublic.

Not all libraries will use the new technol-ogies to compete in the information market.Some libraries are trying to regain a base ofpopular support by using the new technologiesto enhance the public services that they per-form.126 In the Plattsburg public library inupstate New York, for example, a microcom-puter has been used successfully to develop

‘*eInto the Information Age, op. cit.*competing with libraries in the information market me a

growing number of profit-making institutions that, taking ad-vantage of the new information technologies, provide a broadrange of information services for a fee. Describing themselvesas information brokers or as information specialists, they pro-vide such services as supplying bibliographies and documents,and, in some cases, conducting substantial research. Large orga-nizations bill their clients at about $100 per hour; the smallerones at about $25 to $35 per hour. The business of providinginformation is a thriving one, and one that is predicted to dou-ble in volume over the next 10 years.

At the Trediffrin Public Library, Trediffrin, Pa., the public paysfor access to the computer

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States . 97

computer literacy among rural children. *127 Ifpublic libraries are to expand their educationalprograms in this way, they may need some ad-ditional support. Given the recent poor sup-port for libraries, the economic situation inmany communities, and the limited awarenessof the potential use and value of the new tech-nologies, libraries may find it impossible toraise the initial capital needed to undertakenew programs of this sort.

Whether because they lack funds or becausethey lack initiative, some libraries will notutilize the new technologies at all. Using in-

*The new ~hno]ogies will, moreover, dow libraries to servebetter as centers of information. The Los Angeles County PublicLibrary, for instance, now uses cable to provide informationservices in over 100 libraries to the 2.6 million residents of LosAngeles County. These services are designed for both the tradi-tional library user and the nonuser, including the nonreader.As part of this program, librarians continually learn how toassess the informational, cultural, and recreational needs of theircommunities, and the best methods for handling, retrieving,storing, and disseminating information (Los Angeles CountyPublic Library Draft Cable TV Policy Statement).

‘*’Anne F. Remans and Stanley A. Ransom, “An Apple a Day:Microcomputers in the Public Library, ” American Libraries,December 1980.

house information and traditional means ofdelivery, they will continue to provide freeeducational, recreational, and cultural servicesin local library buildings to those citizens whovalue them. If libraries follow this path,however, they may become less and less rele-vant to a public that increasingly values infor-mation and is computer-literate. As on-line in-formation takes the place of books, these li-braries will have less that is of interest to thepublic. It is conceivable, moreover, that as theproprietors of nonprint media are paid fees forthe use of their materials, the authors of bookshoused in public libraries may seek greatercompensation for the use of theirs. *128 Withdiminished public support and a shrinking cli-entele, these libraries may be unable to gen-erate the economic resources necessary tomaintain even their traditional services.

*This Pro=m has been quite successful in meeting itS gOZd.Attracted to the computer, more and more children are becom-ing regular library visitors. Adults use the computer on off-hours to try out their own programs or to develop software forbusiness use.

‘*”B. Benderly, “Libraries Do Exploit Authors, ” Letters tothe Editor, The Washington POS6 June 26, 1982, p. 15.

MuseumsThe museum is an institution that houses

a collection of objects of cultural and scientificsignificance. The museum documents, orders,and preserves these objects for others to ex-amine. It often helps to interpret and to ex-plain them and to provide a context in whichthey may be best understood and enjoyed.

Museums in their current form are onlyabout 200 years old. They were established fora variety of purposes: members of royal andaristocratic families built them to house theirtreasures; religious orders established them toenhance their places of worship; governmentsused them to cultivate national sentiments;scholars and artists established them to fosterresearch and to publicize their achievements;manufacturers and industrialists used themto publicly display their wares; and wealthy

individuals built museums as memorials tothemselves .*129

M u s e u m E d u c a t i o n

Although education has never been their pri-mary function, all museums possess valuableeducational resources. The objects from muse-um collections can be used not only as self-con-tained exhibits, but also as illustrations forcourses, lectures, and other educational pur-poses. Designed to be relevant to a diverse laypublic, museum education is relatively un-

*Enghsh authors are compensated, for example, in accordancewith how often their books are borrowed from public libraries.Since the money to pay the authors comes from the govern-ment, the books are freely available to the public.

“gUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization, the Organization of Museums, Paris, 1960.


structured. Visitors can come and go at will,drawing whatever they please from the experi-ence. The exhibits they view are not alwaysordered in a typical pedagogical fashion; thatis, sequentially and according to a lesson plan.More often, their arrangement is designed toenhance a particular display.l30

Museum education is also more active thanthe passive education that takes place in aclassroom. It facilitates individual participa-tion, interaction, and response.131 Museum vis-itors are, for example, often encouraged to in-teract with museum guides, to make drawingsof art objects, to feel the texture of materials,and to pull the levers on machines.132 In itsvaried purposes, its lack of educational struc-ture, and its openness to the public, themuseum is similar to the library. In fact,together they have been described as con-stituting the two halves of the public’smemory. But museum education, while similarin purpose, is different in method. It is moresensory, using experience itself as a pedagog-ical tool. In comparing the two it has beensaid, for example, that whereas the museumrepresents the right half of the educationalhemisphere, the library represents the left.133

In the United States, museums have alwaysbeen conceived of as having an important ed-ucational function. Education was consideredto be so important, in fact, that in somemuseums educational programs were set upeven before buildings were built or before col-lections were assembled. Many museums wereexpected to provide vocational training to-gether with more general educational serv-ices.134 The Cleveland Museum, for example,was required by its charter to maintain an in-dustrial training school.135 Several other

ISOMUseU~s ud Education, Eric Larrabee (cd. ) (Washington,D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968).

“’Ibid,“’Barbara Newson, “The Museum as Educator and the

Education of Teachers, ” February1978, vol. 79, No. 3.

‘‘gIbid.‘“Ibid.‘S6Barbara Newson and Adele Silver (eds.), The Art Museum

as Educator (Berkeley, Calif.: The Council on Museums andEducation in the Visual Arts, University of California Press).

museums began conducting vocational coun-seling and training during the depressionyears. Today, American museums have sub-stantially increased their educational offeringsto the public.

Status of Museums*

There are approximately 1,821 museums inthe United States. Of these, 62 percent areorganized around a historical theme, 34 per-cent around an art theme, and 34 percentaround a science theme. A large majority offersome educational programs. The most com-mon programs involve school children and arejointly sponsored by museums and State andlocal educational departments.136 Programsdirected at elementary and secondary schoolsoften entail museum visits designed to ac-quaint children with a museum’s resources.Some museums also provide classes for in-dividual students at this age level. For juniorand senior high school students, there areclasses in special subject areas. Museum pro-grams for university students and post-graduates are least well developed.137

Museums also provide educational servicesaimed at other members of the community.These programs include adult educational pro-grams and some special programs designed tomeet the unique educational needs of par-ticular groups such as the economically disad-vantaged or the blind.

The ability of museums to provide educa-tional services is circumscribed by the limitedresources available to them. Most museumsare small, operating with budgets of less than$50,000. Only 10 percent have operatingbudgets of $1 million or more. Museum re-sources are, moreover, relatively insecure. Forexample, two thirds of all museums in theUnited States rely on private sources for finan-cial support, and more than half provide ad-missions free. Museums must also rely heavi-

*As defined by the National Council for the Endowment forthe Arts in their study, MUSEUMS USA 1974.

‘WIbid.l~T~useums USA, National Endowment for the Arts, Wash-

ington, D. C., 1974.


ly on volunteers, who outnumber the full-timeand part-time professionals working in muse-ums.138

Because much of their distinction and ap-peal derives from their ability to communicatein a sensory, unstructured fashion, museumsmay be particularly vulnerable to competitionfrom the new information technologies thatwill have a similar appeal. On the other hand,

by their very nature, they may be particular-ly well-suited to acquaint the public with thesetechnologies. Some museums are, in fact, al-ready offering the public first hand experiencewith microcomputers and video disks. The ex-tent to which museums will be able to continueto provide this service will depend not only onthe amount of resources that they have attheir disposal. It will also depend on thereadiness of both museum leaders and the pub-lic to view museums as relevant and dynamic

13a Ibid. institutions.

In the Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington, D. C., children are provided with their first contact with the computer, Theytake their first steps tentatively but soon find that the computer itself is an interactive teacher, rewarding them immediately

for the right moves

Business and Labor1 3 9

Advanced training and education are assum-ing special roles in the lives of Americansemployed in all sectors of the economy, butespecially among those who work in businessand industry. Continuing breakthroughs intechnology and their subsequent applicationsin the workplace change the working lives ofprofessional employees, skilled craftspeople,semi-skilled workers, and office support per-

sonnel. Such change may take the form ofslightly modified practices and procedures or

even of entirely new job functions for whichindividuals must be retrained. This processnow occurs as often in older industries suchas steel, rubber, and auto, as it does in thenewer high-technology firms, even if the de-gree of change and the reasons for it differsignificantly.

Both groups are faced with the need to con-lsQBeth A. Brown, Characteristics of Industry-Based ~dLabor-Based !i%iningand Education I+ograms, Including Uses stantly reexamine methods and processes inof Information Technology in Such Programs: An Overview order to improve efficiency and remain com-(w@@@n, D. C.: OTA, 1981); and Beth A. Brown, Cb~8C-tcnstics of Industry-Based Training and Education Programs,

petitive in the marketplace. This reevaluation

Including Uses of Information Technology: S4ected Case Stud- is especially necessary when the markets areies (Washington, D. C.: OTA, 1981). international in scope and when competition


must take into account many variables suchas wage levels, government subsidies to busi-ness and export levels. The day is fast ap-proaching when career-related training andeducation at all occupational levels will be alifelong process and possibly a mandatory one.

Role of Education inthe Workplace

Even in periods when there are no majorchanges, work force expansion and employeeturnover require that training and educationprograms be provided by companies for newpersonnel. In addition, current staff must beprovided with opportunities to upgrade theirskills and to acquire new ones if they are tobe effective in the jobs or to prepare them-selves for advancement opportunities. Com-panies sometimes also provide special pro-grams for employees wishing to make majorcareer changes. Whatever events or policiesmake it necessary, more and more corporateresources are being earmarked for instruc-tional activities.

The delivery of educational services toemployees in business and industry is ac-complished in a number of ways. A large por-tion of it is provided through establishedpublic and private, nonprofit and for-profiteducational institutions, either by contract orin the form of cooperatively designed and ad-ministered programs. But an equally large por-tion is being sponsored, designed, and oper-ated by companies themselves. Labor unionsand labor organizations also are heavily in-volved in work-related training and education,both as cosponsors and as initiators.

Some say that the movement of industryand labor into the educational arena reflectstheir dissatisfaction with existing educationalstructures and is a comment on educators’lack of responsiveness to the needs of in-dividuals for some degree of work preparationprior to employment. Others feel that tradi-tional educational institutions cannot be ex-pected to keep up with rapid changes in equip-ment and procedures. Still others argue that

the sheer size of the task of necessary train-ing, retraining, and professional developmenthas demanded that industry and labor becomemore deeply involved, and that a little healthycompetition among a broader base of alter-native education providers can do nothing butimprove the quality of education overall. How-ever one views the situation, all the signs pointto increased involvement of industry and laborin training and education.

Industry-Based Trainingand Education

Growth in industry-based training and ed-ucation has been particularly pronounced sincethe end of World War II, although most largerfirms have been engaged in some forms of in-struction since their founding. While no oneactually knows how many employees partici-pate in instructional programs each year, somemeasures of the degree and scope of activitiesare available. The American Society for Train-ing and Development (ASTD) estimates thatcorporations spend $30 billion annually forprograms, staff, and materials. ASTD has alsocalculated that in the United States there areat least 75,000 individuals engaged full-timein-house training and development activities,plus another 75,000 who are employed on apart-time basis. Approximately two-thirds ofASTD’s 40,000 members are employed in theprivate sector, either as training consultants,as staff members within corporate training de-partments, or as managers, directors, or vicepresidents of those departments.

A Conference Board survey of industry ed-ucation conducted in 1974 indicated that 75percent of the 610 companies responding pro-vided some in-house courses for employees; 89percent had tuition refund programs; and 74percent authorized and paid for selectedemployees, usually managers and other pro-fessionals, to take outside courses duringworking hours. The Conference Board esti-mates, moreover, that, among the 32 millionindividuals employed by companies that re-sponded to the survey and that had staffs of500 employees or more, about 3.7 million-or


11 percent—took part in in-house coursessponsored by their firms during workinghours, and approximately 700,000, or another2 percent, participated in company coursesdelivered during nonworking hours. Exemptemployees were more frequent enrollees thanthose in the nonexempt category. Only thosefirms that had 1,000 employees or fewer ap-peared to place greater reliance on hiring pre-trained personnel or to utilize on-the-jobtraining.140

Broad estimates of worker participation areprobably lower than the estimates that mightbe found today, especially given the presenttrend within U.S. factories towards installingcomputer-assisted design and computer as-sisted manufacturing systems (CAD/CAM),and the retraining requirements that accom-pany their use. In a study comparing the ef-fects of technological change on the need forhuman resources in the chemical and alliedproducts industries in the United Kingdom,Japan, and the United States, it was predictedthat major U.S. companies, in order to meettheir need for retrained production workers,would be compelled within the next 5 years toset up special training schools to provide“craftsmen’ level instruction to their processoperators. 141

In addition to these changes, one can alsoexpect that the increased use of robots andother forms of computer-assisted productionmay result in widespread restructuring of es-tablished occupational groups. This may, inturn, create a need for more job-related in-structional programs.

Today’s corporate training programs coveralmost all aspects of company operations, notjust manufacturing. Typically, instructionalofferings address the following skills and cor-porate program areas:

. manufacturing and technical;● specialized skills development;

““Seymour Lusterman, Education in Industry (New York:The Conference Board, 1977).

“’Frank Bradbury and John Russell, Technolo~ Change andIts Manpower Implications: A Comparative Study of the Chem-ical and Allied Products Industry m the U. K., U. S., and Japan,Chemical and Allied Products Industry Training Board, 1980.

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

sales and marketing;safety;data processing;management and executive development;clerical and secretarial;basic education (remedial programs inmath and oral and written communica-tions for hourly as well as salaried em-ployees);tuition assistance (now considered bymost companies to be part of the instruc-tional program, rather than just an ele-ment of the corporate benefits package);trainer’s training (which is offered in firmswith many small or broadly scattered in-stallations where supervisors and othersmust assume responsibility for adminis-tering training packages or managingsome form of instructional program); andretraining.

Trend Toward DecentralizedInstruction

The size of the work force, the numbers ofpersons to be trained, the existence of multi-ple facilities, and the complexity of instruc-tional needs have all led to the decentraliza-tion of corporate training operations. Whilesome firms maintain control of training de-sign, development, and delivery functions atthe corporate level, others handle some or allinstructional responsibilities at the divisionalor plant level. In these situations, the role ofthe corporate-level training group is usuallyone of encouraging the sharing of informationamong all personnel involved in the develop-ment of human resources. Industrial trainingactivities tend to be based in the personnel,industrial relations, or engineering depart-ments. Sometimes three or more departmentsshare the responsibility for instructional de-velopment, focusing on one or more of the fol-lowing staff groups:

production line (unskilled and semi-skilled);skilled trades;technical (usually engineering, data proc-essing, and R&D);


● management;● supervisory (first-line); and● professional (specialists who are not tech-

nical staff and who may not supervise ormanage operations).

Training: Investment v.E x p e n s e

In companies that have a staff of over 500,size does not appear to be important in deter-mining perceptions about employee education.If training is viewed as an investment that hasa long-term payoff, even firms that have ex-perienced economic difficulties may be willingto provide adequate financial support for in-structional programs. Some corporate train-ing groups, when they have the support of topmanagement, are able to obtain the resourcesnecessary to expand into new instructionalareas and to use the latest equipment. Man-agement has recognized a direct correlationbetween training, reduced turnover, andhigher productivity. In some companies, how-ever, training personnel have small budgets.They have to prepare in-depth justificationsfor refunding even at current levels of expend-itures, and to prepare elaborate documentationfor proposals to expand instructional activitiesand to utilize new equipment.

Relationship With LocalEducational Institutions and

Industry-SponsoredEducational Institutions

One-third of the 50 companies that OTAcontacted in the course of this study, haveestablished some sort of working relationshipwith high schools, vocational/technicalschools, and colleges and universities in orderto train or educate employees.

Companies and educational institutionsjointly develop and administer programs, forwhich the firms provide ongoing financial sup-port and donations of equipment. One com-pany works with 10 local vocational/technicalschools and community colleges to deliver

entry-level, production-line training on an as-needed basis. Another firm has established itsown in-house associate degree program, withassistance from several local colleges. In yetanother case, a corporation has been the majorforce behind the establishment of an independ-ent, degree-granting institute that offers grad-uate-level instruction in software engineeringto personnel of high-technology firms in theNew England region, as well as to other inter-ested individuals in the United States andabroad.

It has been suggested that such corporate-founded institutions compete with, and willthus detract from, established college anduniversity programs. Predictions have beenmade, for example, that as many as 300 col-leges may close their doors during the 1980’sdue to declining numbers of high school grad-uates, at a time when 300 company-sponsoredinstitutions of higher learning will begin op-erations. 142 However, companies do not seethemselves as being in direct competition withtraditional institutions of higher education.They maintain that they have establishedtheir programs to meet needs that the tradi-tional education community never addressed;that their needs are so specialized that theymust be met in-house; and that traditional in-stitutions do not have the capacity, either interms of resources or in terms of schedulingflexibility, to provide for their needs.

Information Technology inCorporate Instruction

Communications technology is being ap-plied to a limited extent in the instructionalprograms of both centralized and decentral-ized corporate training operations. However,the trend toward the decentralization of train-ing in larger firms has increased the potentialfor more widespread use. First of all, while thefront-end development time may be increased,the use of technology allows more standardiza-tion in instructor-dependent designs than

‘42Henry M. Brickell and Carol B. Aclanian, “The Collegesand Business Competition, ” New York Times Survey of Clm-tinuing Education, Aug. 30, 1981.

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 103

could otherwise be achieved, especially incases involving the direct transfer of largeamounts of knowledge. Second, while the costof development and the expenditures forequipment are greater, the low costs of repro-ducing the instructional package for distribu-tion to the field offices or plants, or of the com-puter time necessary for field staff to accessa centralized instructional system, makes theutilization of the technology an attractiveoption.

Third, especially in the case of self-instruc-tion packages, there is greater flexibility in thescheduling of training sessions and more op-portunities for employees to participate, re-gardless of the nature or location of their worksite. Also, travel cost for employees attendingcentralized instructional programs are elimi-nated, and greater integration of instructionalprograms with actual worksite operations be-comes possible.

One company has developed an instructionalpackage for production-line equipment main-tenance personnel that is run on a microcom-puter integrated with a video disk unit thatallows for both graphics and text display. Thepackage is used in classroom instruction ses-sions, but several units have been installed onthe production line, where the maintenanceand repair staff are assisted on an ongoingbasis. Finally, in both centralized and decen-tralized instructional settings, technology-based training modules or programs, (particu-larly those that are computer-assisted) may beused to bring course participants to a desiredlevel of competency or to determine initialcompetence levels for designing classroominstruction.

Factors That May AffectInstructional Use of

Technology

While communications technology hasachieved acceptance within industry-based in-structional programs over the past few years,there are still a number of obstacles to be over-come before more widespread utilization willbe achieved. Cost is most frequently cited asa major deterrent, particularly for computer-

based instructional systems and newer formsof technology such as video disk, teleconfer-encing, and closed-circuit television.

Another problem area is that of hardware-software compatibility, especially for cor-porate trainers who want to purchase commer-cial courseware but who have in-house com-puter capabilities on which they want to build.Many companies have made the decision todevelop their own instructional packagesrather than invest in a new system of hard-ware on which commercially available course-ware would run. The frequency with which in-structional programs must be modified—as,for example, in R&D-related training-maymake the use of computer-based programs andvideo disk impractical.

Even the type of instruction itself may pre-clude the use of technology. For example, com-puter-assisted instruction has, to date, beenfound to be of little value in advanced engi-neering and software development courses, aswell as in apprenticeship skills training. Thisis due to the complexity of the informationthat must be conveyed and, in the case of ap-prenticeship, to the need for repeated demon-stration by a knowledgeable instructor whocan respond to a trainee’s questions and whocan demonstrate on actual equipment. Manycorporate trainers still feel that classroom in-struction is the best approach. Others resistthe use of technology in their programs be-cause they feel that they are often being soldtechnology for technology’s sake, rather thanas a tool to be utilized within the frameworkof an existing instructional system.

Computer -Based Instruct ion

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) ap-pears to be a commonly utilized technology forindustrial training. A recent survey of the usesof microcomputers in the training programsof selected Fortune 500 companies revealedthat, of the 56 firms responding, about 50 per-cent were utilizing either mainframes or mi-crocomputers. 143 In companies contacted by

“SGreg Kearsley, Michael J. Hillesohn, and Robert J. Seidel,The Use of Microcomputers for I%uhing: Bustiess and Indust@(Alexandria, Va.: Human Resources Research Organization,March 1981).


OTA for this study, technical personnel suchas entry-level engineers, field service repre-sentatives for computerized equipment, devel-opment programmers, and applications pro-grammers are frequently trained using CAIpackages.

Some companies develop their own CAIsoftware; others purchase commercial pack-ages. The airline industry makes extensive useof this mode of instruction for ground person-nel. Some particularly interesting applicationsmay be seen in pilot training, where CAI isused in combination with video disk to replacemore expensive flight simulators. The insur-ance industry is beginning to utilize CAIcourses with selected field office staff, such astheir claims representatives and premium aud-itors. Occupational groups most infrequentlymentioned as potential trainees are adminis-trative/secretarial personnel and production-line staff.

Computer-managed instruction (CMI), un-like CAI, is rarely found in the industrial set-ting, although there are cases where it is usedin airline and insurance companies. Corporatetraining personnel may not yet appreciate thepossible advantages of CMI; they may feelthat functions are best handled by instruc-tional staff; or they may view CMI as beingtoo costly an application.

Video Disk

The most controversial form of technologyfor use in corporate training is video disk.Many firms have investigated its potential ap-plication, but few seem to be utilizing it atpresent. One automobile manufacturer has de-veloped a video disk program to train autodealer mechanics on how to repair the new carmodels. A computer hardware and softwarecompany uses video disk in training i tscustomer service engineering staff. It hasrecently converted all of the instructional pro-grams used in its 60 field centers for customerand staff education from video tape to videodisk.

Most corporate training representativeswho are enthusiastic about video disk mentionits random access capability and its ability toexpand its utility through integration with amicrocomputer. However, many instructorsdo not believe that the differences betweenvideo disk and video tape warrant the addi-tional investment, especially if video tapeequipment has recently been purchased. Otherconcerns have to do with the cost of video diskequipment, the cost of producing master disksrelative to the number of copies required, andthe inability of revising a video disk programonce it has been created. It appears that it willbe several more years before many industrialtraining applications of video disk will berealized.

Teleconferencing

At present, teleconferencing is of limited usein industry-based training and education pro-grams. Industry representatives feel, for themost part, that costs are still too high to makeapplications feasible unless the technology hasbeen acquired for other uses, such as businessmeetings, and is accessible at a subsidizedrate. One firm, experimenting with audio tele-conferencing to link an instructor with a groupof trainees assembled several hundred milesaway, found that the lack of visual stimulidistracted many of the participants who, inthis case, were midlevel managers.

Another company, engaged in hotel, motel,and food service operations, uses a full tele-conferencing system, initially establishedamong 70 of its facilities for conventionclientele, for in-house quarterly business per-formance conferences. Some firms have ten-tative plans to experiment over the next fewyears with teleconferencing in field staff train-ing.

Satellite Communications

Applications of satellite technology withincorporate training and education programs arerare, but many companies with extensive na-

Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States w 105

tional or international field office networksplace it high on their lists for future use, oncecosts come down and they are more certainabout how it can be more effectively used. Thetechnical instruction group of one major high-technology firm is now looking into how sat-ellite technology might be used to beamclasses that originate at the corporate engi-neering and development installations aroundthe world.

Another high-technology corporation, hav-ing looked into the use of satellite communica-tions for initial and repeated instruction ofmarketing personnel based in various parts ofthe world, decided against pursuing the proj-ect because of the cost and the uncertaintiesinvolved in securing information transmittedin this way.

Implications

There is considerable potential for the morewidespread application of communicationstechnology in instructional programs withinbusiness and industry. Training requirementswill increase tremendously through the year2000 and beyond, and there are sufficient fi-nancial resources to invest in equipment andcourseware. However, the presence of com-puters and other equipment in the plant doesnot necessarily guarantee that educational andinstructional applications of the technologywill be made. Neither the level of sophistica-tion of the training system nor the degree ofcorporate support for employee education en-sure that the technology will be used. Thosewho are employing the computer, the videodisk, and other forms of technology in theirinstructional programs seem to have takentheir own initiative to find out how these toolsmight be most effectively applied.

The educational technology industry has notyet developed a comprehensive sales strategyto use with the corporate market. A numberof training administrators who have contactedsales representatives reportedly felt that theywere being sold technology for technology’ssake rather than as an instructional tool. If

broader and deeper utilization of technologyin corporate instruction is a future goal, pres-ent marketing strategies may have to be re-viewed and altered significantly.

Union-Sponsored Trainingand Education

Labor unions and labor organizations havea long history of involvement in training andeducation. The American Federation of Labor(AFL) began to provide such services to mem-bers in 1881, the year of its founding. In 1921,the AFL was instrumental in establishing aWorker’s Education Bureau, a separate bodythat carried out programs for its affiliateunions. By 1929, the Bureau had become theformal education arm of the AFL. In 1936, 1year after its establishment, the Congress ofIndustrial Organizations (CIO) created aneducation department.

When these two labor groups merged in1955 to form the AFL-CIO, the emphasis ontraining and education was continued. A neweducation department was formed, and even-tually the Human Resources Development In-stitute (1968) and the George Meany Centerof Labor Studies (1968) were created to ad-dress the expanded needs for apprenticeshiprecruitment and instruction and to train unionmembers to assume leadership positions with-in the labor movement.

At present, the AFL-CIO has 102 affiliateunions which, together with a few independentunions, constitute the labor movement in theUnited States.144

Education Programs

The majority of the educational programsoffered, sponsored, or otherwise supported bythe labor movement, fall into one of threecategories:

1. College Programs: These are usually 2-and 4-year degree programs in labor stud-

“’Interview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, Assistant EducationDirector, AFLCIO, fall/winter 1981.


2.

3.

ies offered through community colleges,colleges, and universities. In some casesthey are single for-credit courses jointlydeveloped by unions and local postsecond-ary institutions around such subjects ascollective bargaining or leadership tech-niques.Apprenticeship Programs: Apprentice-ship programs usually entail specializedtraining in a skilled trade, craft, or occu-pation that is provided at the worksiteand in off-the-job instruction of sometype. Most of these programs are oper-ated by the unions themselves or arejointly sponsored by unions and industry.However, a fair share are now offered bycommunity colleges under contract or viajoint ventures with unions. All 17 of thebuilding trade unions offer apprenticeshipprograms, as do the maritime trade unionsfor those engaged in shipbuilding, ma-chining, and seafaring.

Other unions with apprenticeship sys-tems include those who represent mold-ers, pattern makers, and upholsterers, toname a few. According to figures suppliedby the Human Resources DevelopmentInstitute, there were, at the close of 1979,323,866 persons enrolled in apprentice-ship programs. Of this number, 18.2 per-cent were minorities, 6.4 percent werefemale, and 23.7 percent were veterans.The Labor Department’s Bureau of Ap-prenticeship and Training has set a long-range goal of having 500,000 registeredapprentices by 1984.Special Programs: The largest number oftraining activities available to unionmembers are special, or noncredit, coursesoffered by the education departments ofindividual unions to representatives onvarious levels—from that of shop stewardto local president. Collective bargainingtechniques, labor law, and parliamentaryprocedures are popular subjects.

Tuition assistance programs provided bymanagement under negotiated contracts withunions are not considered to be a part of thetraining and education programs provided by

the labor movement. However, thousands ofunionized workers take advantage of this ben-efit every year and enroll in courses, most ofwhich are required by companies to be job-related.145 Because of the availability of thesebenefits, a number of college programs havebeen established in union halls and otherfacilities near industrial plants. Classes are of-fered at hours that will allow workers to at-tend on hourly shifts.

Courses are offered year-round, and the ex-istence of weekend classes permits partici-pants to earn bachelor’s degrees in 4 yearswhile they continue to work full-time.146 Thefirst such program, Wayne State University’s“Weekend Worker College” (Detroit), was de-veloped in conjunction with the United AutoWorkers. The curriculum consists of 1 year ofhumanities, 1 year of social sciences, 1 yearof physical sciences, and a fourth year devotedto a major field. A 2-year associate degree isalso offered. 147 Some 20 programs of this kindwere expected to be under way by the end of1981, and the American Federation of Teach-ers is now trying to establish similar projectsin six other locations.148

Other Types of InstructionalPrograms

Various unions have been active in pro-viding other training and educational servicesto their memberships and to the communityas a whole. Unions and companies in someareas of the country have cosponsored train-ing designed to prepare individuals for ad-vancement from entry-level positions or whatwould otherwise be considered jobs with nopromotional opportunities. Funding, in mostcases, has been provided by the Comprehen-sive Employment and Training Act (CETA)title II and title III grants, although some pro-

“’Interview with John Carney, Education Director, UnitedSteelworkers of America, fall/winter 1981.

“’Interview with Jane McDonald and John Good, Human R+sources Development Institute (AFL-CIO), faU/winter 1981.

147” Worker V: More Colleges Offer Programs for Blue CollarEmployees, ” Wall S&et Journal May 12, 1981, p. 1.

‘481nterview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, faU/winter 1981.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States . 107

grams have been privately funded by labor,by industry, or jointly by labor and industry.

Where other jobs are available within areasonable geographic range, unions have alsoengaged in the retraining of members whohave lost their jobs due to plant closings andsite relocations. The “Mass Layoff Job SearchClub” was formed in Midland, Pa., to providesuch assistance to 300 former Crucible Steelworkers whose jobs were eliminated. The pro-gram is jointly sponsored by the United Steel-workers local and Crucible Steel. In St. Louis,Me., a joint labor-management committee hasbeen formed through which local unions, busi-nesses, educational institutions, and com-munity-based organizations are workingtogether to identify ways of dealing with thelarge numbers of displaced workers in the area.On the campuses of local community colleges,career readjustment and reemployment cen-ters have been set up to handle the needs ofan expected 1,000 participants.149

For several years, the AFL-CIO’s HumanResources Development Institute has oper-ated a nationwide apprentice outreach pro-gram for minorities and women to recruit andprepare them for available apprenticeshipslots. Many AFL-CIO affiliates and independ-ent unions conduct preapprenticeship trainingsessions and basic education programs foryoung people who wish to improve their read-ing, math, and other skills so that they mightqualify for participation in apprenticeship pro-grams. Career education and vocational ex-ploration programs sponsored by local schoolsystems and others also receive substantialsupport from labor unions and labor organi-zations. 150

Information Technology inUnion-Sponsored Instruction

There is no evidence in the literature or inthe interviews conducted by OTA with laboreducation directors to suggest that unions are

“gInterview with Jane McDonald and John Good, falllwinter1981.

““Ibid.

taking great advantage of information tech-nologies. These technologies may be con-sidered inappropriate to the apprenticeshipsystem. The importance of the individual in-structor, the duration of the apprenticeshipperiod, lasting usually 4 years, and the uniquefunds of information that must be conveyed,such as local building codes which differ fromarea to area, tend to discourage the use of tech-nology such as computer-assisted instruction.

In the college programs and special pro-grams, there is also little use of informationtechnology. One reason for their infrequent useis that the lecture method has generally beenconsidered to be successful in labor educationprograms. Films, slides, and video cassetteswere most often used by those who were in-terviewed. The United Steelworkers of Amer-ica, for example, uses video tapes and cas-settes in mock arbitration exercises at theunion’s Linden Hall Residential Training Cen-ter, but they use no other form of technology.The cost of computer-based learning systemswas cited as a deterrent to their use. 151

A national AFL-CIO training representativestated that most member unions were just be-ginning to use video cassettes in arbitrationsimulations and for circulating messages oftheir presidents to State and local chapters.He also described a model communicationsproject, “To Educate the People Consortium, ”which was staged by Wayne University as apart of its local instructional program. Tostimulate interest in using the medium as aneducational device, union representatives in100 cities across the country were connectedby a network via two-way, closed-circuit televi-sion. The demonstration was so successfulthat another model broadcast, “Safety andHealth for Women, ” is now being planned.152

A Texas State AFL-CIO representative re-ported that video cassettes were used in educa-tion programs, but he indicated that none ofthe other newer forms of technology werebeing used because they were inappropriatefor the kinds of programs offered–mostly

“’Interview with John Carney, fall/winter 1981.“’Interview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, fall/winter 1981.


workshops—and because they were too cost-ly.153 A Dallas AFL-CIO representative couldidentify no applications of technology. Heregards classroom training with lectures as themost popular format. However, he hopes touse cable television once it becomes availablein the Dallas area as a way of more effective-ly reaching the membership (1985).154 TheUnited Rubber Workers do not use educa-tional technology either, and they have notthought about it for the future.155

The International Brotherhood of ElectricalWorkers (IBEW) employs computer systemsto track apprentices in training. It hasestablished some joint information systemswith the Department of Labor’s Bureau of Ap-prenticeship Training. In addition, an IBEWrepresentative reported that video disks are

—.IS~lnteWiew With RUth Ellinger, Education Director, Texas

State AFL-CIO, fall/winter 1981.I“Interview with Willie Chapman, AFLCIO, Dallas, Tex., fall/

winter 1981.ISSInterview with Jg.mes Peake, Education Director, United

Rubber, Cork, Linoleum and Plastic Workers, fall/winter 1981.

used in labor education seminars. Unions thatare using video cassettes in training packagesinclude the United Carpenters and Joiners ofAmerica and the American Postal Workers.156

In contrast to industry-based instructionalactivities, there seems to be less potential forapplications of information technology inunion-sponsored training and education pro-grams, primarily because such programs arestill highly instructor-centered and classroom-oriented. However, the success of closed-cir-cuit television experiments initiated by thelabor movement suggests that this form oftechnology might achieve more acceptanceand be utilized for national and regional educa-tional sessions in the future. Perhaps unionassociation with colleges and universities thatutilize educational technology in labor educa-tion courses and degree programs may resultin more widespread application in union-spon-sored training and education activities.

“’Interview with Kenneth Edwards, Director, Skill Improve-ment Training, International Brotherhood of Electrical Work-ers, fall/winter 1981.

Chapter 7

State of Researchand Development in

Educational Technology

. I 41

I·t ===' . " " ~-.

"'~t "' ... : -.: < ! ,,': :~

Child watcher of Sesame Street Dr. Palmer records the viewing habits of two Intent preschoolers with a simple aet-up Including a TV set which recelvM pretaped material and

a slide projector which exhibits fresh stili photographs every few seconds

Chapter 7

State of Research and Developmentin Educational Technology

Support of basic research and development (R&D) in most fields of technol-ogy has traditionally been a function of the Federal Government. The Govern-ment has also funded applied research when its purpose was to advance certainnational goals or to serve the mission needs of Federal agencies. R&D not onlygenerates important new knowledge about educational technology, but, when donein academic centers, it can also provide an instructional base with which to trainexperts needed to create effective instructional materials.

Findings

Gaps in our knowledge about informationtechnology could limit our ability to use iteffectively, and, if leading to its inappropri-ate implementation, could negatively affectboth the learners and the institutions usingthe technology.

The Department of Defense (DOD) now pro-vides the bulk of R&D support in the fieldof learning technology.

Civilian agency funding for R&D in learn-ing technology, the majority of which comesfrom the Department of Education, hasfallen precipitously from a temporary short-term peak in the late 1960’s.

If Congress wanted to stimulate effectiveeducational applications of informationtechnology, it would have to undertake orfoster a substantial program for R&D. TheSecretary of Education has stated that aprogram of research support is a major ad-

●

●

ministrative priority, and that such a pro-gram has been built into the 1983 budgetrequest.

Given the number of agencies that have anexisting or potential interest in R&D in thisarea, the Federal Government may want tocoordinate these efforts so as to allow fora greater exchange of information and amore efficient and effective allocation ofresponsibilities. The responsibility for suchcoordination could be vested in a singleagency, or existing interagency group, or anagency especially established for that pur-pose.

In light of the tight Federal budget and thepotential interest of the private sector ineducational technology, mechanisms forleveraging Federal support to stimulate in-dustry and foundation funding for R&Dmight be investigated.

Introduction and BackgroundSince the 1950’s, R&D in educational tech- of the Federal Government has been to pro-

nology has been funded by the Federal Gov- vide initial and limited ongoing support thaternment, by foundations, by the business com- might serve to attract other sources of fund-munity, and, in some cases, by all three in col- ing. The Federal agencies most deeply in-laboration with one another. To date, the role volved have been the National Science Foun-

111

112 . lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

dation (NSF), the Department of Education(OE) (formerly a part of the Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare), and DOD.

Acting on a legislative mandate to fostercomputing in science education, NSF, throughits Science and Engineering Education Direc-torate, has funded a variety of computer-assisted learning research efforts, includingthe initial development of the PLATO instruc-tional system at the University of Illinois in1959. ’ Grants have been made to provide ini-tial and ongoing support of educational televi-sion projects such as NOVA and 3-2-1 Con-tact, both of which have received worldwideacclaim and have served as models for pro-grams in other nations. NSF has also fundedefforts to determine how computer-controlledvideo disk may be used to enhance scienceeducation in physics and biology. It has issuedgrants for science news coverage broadcast on227 public radio stations, and has sponsoredearly satellite experiments. In addition, in fis-cal years 1980 and 1981, NSF and the Nation-al Institute of Education (NIE) jointly funded‘‘Mathematics Education Using InformationTechnology, ” a program that, through the useof small grants, has encouraged the develop-ment of computer software for use in mathe-matics curricula.

Support of educational technology R&Ddates back to the early 1960’s with the incep-tion of the Educational Broadcast FacilitiesProgram, which was designed to improve thenational capabilities of public radio and televi-sion. In fiscal year 1968, OE funding of theChildren’s Television Workshop, along withthat of the Carnegie and Ford foundations, ledto the creation of Sesame Street and The Elec-tric Company, two programs that have woninternational recognition. Computer-based in-structional materials on the elementary, sec-ondary, and college levels for target popula-tions such as the handicapped, video disks forclassroom use, and experiments with educa-

IThe National Science Foundation Act, Public Law 81-507.

tional broadcasts via satellite, have all beenundertaken with OE support.

DOD has also made significant contribu-tions to the R&D of educational technologies.Faced (since the 1970’s) with a greater needto provide basic skills instruction to recruits,to train individuals to operate more complexequipment, and to deliver instruction in thefield in multiple locations, the military hasplaced renewed emphasis on developing appli-cations of technology. Through the tri-servicesof the Army, the Navy/Marine Corps, and theAir Force, DOD has, since then, sponsoredR&D projects in the areas of:

● computer-based education;● computerized-adaptive testing;● simulation and gaming;● video disk technology;● artificial intelligence;● instructional development/authoring aids;

and“ job-oriented basic skills training.2

Other agencies that have made grants on aperiodic basis include the National Aeronau-tics and Space Administration (health/educa-tion satellite projects in the 1970’s), the En-vironmental Protection Agency, the Depart-ment of Interior, the National Institutes ofHealth (contributions to NSF grants in sciencebroadcasting), and the Department of Com-merce (telecommunications projects jointlyfunded with OE).

In recent years, the Federal Government’sinvolvement in and support for educationalhardware, software, and basic research has de-creased. A brief review of the current trendsin R&D, and of the comparative roles that thepublic and private sectors have played in thisarea will contribute to an understanding of thecauses and potential impact of declining Fed-eral support.

‘B. K. Waters and J. H. Laurence, Information TechnologyTransfer From Mi.h”taty R&D b Civih”an Education and !lkain-ing, report prepared by Human Resources Research Organiza-tion for the Office of Technology Assessment, January 1982.

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 113

Changing R&D ClimateSince 1980, the industrial sector has pro-

vided more funding for all types of R&D ac-tivities than the Federal Government. Recentprojections indicate that, in 1982, industrialfunding will rise to $37.7 billion, which repre-sents an 11.4-percent increase over 1981, and48.6 percent of the total $77.6 billion availablefor support of R&D. Federal funding will riseto $37 billion, an increase of 13.3 percent over1981, and 47.7 percent of the total R&D ex-penditure for 1982. Academic institutions areexpected to contribute $1.7 billion (2.2 percentof total), while other nonprofit groups will pro-vide $1.1 billion (1.5 percent of total). Industrywill perform 70.8 percent ($55 billion) of allR&D, while the Federal Government will carryout only 13 percent ($10.1 billion-a large por-tion of this defense-related). Academic institu-tions will perform 12.5 percent of all R&D($9.7 billion) and other nonprofit groups 3.6percent ($2.8 billion). Thus, although once atthe center of basic research and R&D efforts,colleges and universities will now receive onlyone-fifth of the moneys earmarked for theseactivities. 3

The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981may improve the universities’ chances ofreceiving basic research grants from industry,since it allows companies to treat such grantsas qualified research expenses on which 25 per-cent tax credits may be claimed. The act is alsoexpected to encourage corporations to donatescientific equipment to universities for R&Duse.4 Some firms are also establishing long-term working relationships with universitiesfor the performance of basic and applied re-search. These arrangements are economical tothem because of lower labor costs. In addition,faced with increased international competi-tion, firms are more interested in tapping thereserves of university research talent.5

3J. J. Duga, Probable Levels of R&D Expen&”tures in 1982:Forecast and Analysti (Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Laboratories,December 1981).

‘R. W. Wood, “Research and Development ExpendituresUnder the Economic Recovery Tax Act, ” Taxes, November1981, pp. 777-783.

“’Industry Funding of Research at Schools Grows as FirmsFind the Work a Bargain, ” Wall Street Journa4 vol. 102, June24, 1980, p. 14.

Shifts in the source of funding of and in themajority of performers of R&D from the publicand nonprofit sectors to the private sectorhave occurred after a period in which the busi-ness community (especially manufacturing in-dustries) had sharply reduced involvement inbasic research and long-term R&D projects.As reasons for these changes, business leaderscite increased Government regulation, in-creased rates of inflation that make return onlong-term investments more questionable andan increased concern for the short-term effectsof R&D on profits. As a consequence, manycompanies have focused their R&D efforts onshort-term, low-risk, incremental projects.6

Industrial R&D funding has also been af-fected by the availability of R&D tax shelters—limited partnerships formed to finance newproduct development. These provide compa-nies with virtually free money until their prod-ucts can be marketed. But these shelters areused only in selected parts of the country, andthen, only in newer firms willing to take great-er risks.7

To complicate matters further, a severeshortage of scientists and engineers, projectedto last through the 1990’s, has had a tremen-dous impact on U.S. R&D efforts in all sec-tors. The most alarming effects are seen in thefaculties of colleges and universities, where,at the start of the 1980-81 academic year, ap-proximately 10 percent of the teaching/re-search engineering positions remained vacant.Only 5 percent of engineering undergraduatesnow choose to pursue doctorates in contrastto 11 percent in the 1970’s. Those who earnhigher degrees are electing to start careers inindustry, where salaries are considerably high-er and equipment and resources are more plen-tiful. In a recent NSF study of engineeringschools conducted by the American Council onEducation, 35 percent of the respondents re-ported that, because of shortages in person-nel, their institutions had to cut back research

6E. Mansfield, ‘‘How Economists See R&D, Harvard Busi-ness Review, November-December 1981, pp.. 98-106.

7“R&D Tax Shelters Are Catching On, ” Dun BusinessMonth pp. 86-87.


efforts, increase faculty teaching loads, andcurtail certain courses when demand for engi-neering talent, especially in high-technologyindustries is at an all-time high.8

8F. J. Atelsek and I. L. Gomberg, R.ecruitrnent and Reten-tion of FiuYl%ne Engineering Faculty, Fa 1980 (Washington,D. C.: American Council on Education, October 1981).

The shift in sources of funding and in theamount of R&D performed by industry, aswell as the critical shortages of scientists andengineers, have weakened the ability of theUnited States to compete in worldwide R&Dactivities, and have hampered U.S. manufac-turing firms from effectively competing in in-ternational markets.

Federal FundingEven more critical than the state of R&D

in general is the current state of R&D for edu-cational technology. Analyses made in March1981 of the Federal budget proposals for fiscalyear 1982 indicate that education and researchprograms, which accounted for approximately4 percent of all Federal spending in 1980, willconstitute 13 percent of the total spending re-ductions. Even with the approved fiscal year1982 funding levels established by Congressin December 1981, Federal expenditures foreducation and research in constant dollars willbe well below actual 1980 levels. In 1982,spending will be about 20 percent below 1980levels, and, by 1984, it may fall by as muchas 53 percent below.

Federal support represents a significant por-tion—in some cases up to 25 percent—of fundsthat the nonprofit sector, including univer-

sities and other educational institutions, usesfor operations and programs. Federal supportgrew over the past 20 years, as the FederalGovernment came to rely increasingly on non-profit organizations to deliver and/or evaluatefederally funded programs. While foundationsand corporations have been generous withfunding, their contributions will probably notmake up for reduced Federal involvement, es-pecially since nearly one out of every four ofthe dollars eliminated from the Federal budgetfor fiscal year 1982 would have gone to a non-profit organization.9

‘L. A. Salamon with A. J. Abramson, The Federal Govern-ment and the Nonprofit &ctor: Implications of the ReaganBudget l+oposals (Washington, D. C.: The Urban Institute, May1981).

Private FundingFoundations have also played an important

educational role by financing coremissions andstudies, funding development and demonstra-tion projects, organizing conferences, and sup-porting think-tanks. Recently, the Sloan Foun-dation supported a conference at which educa-tors and representatives of industry discussedhow mathematicians might be retrained forcareers in applied computer science in orderto alleviate severe occupational shortages. The

Carnegie Foundation has participated in joint-ly funded broadcasting projects produced byNSF. The Hewlitt Packard Foundation has ex-pressed an interest in supporting NSF-spon-sored science programs for commercial televi-sion. Plans for the project may be jeopardized,however, because of funding reductions withinNSF’s Office of Science and Engineering Edu-cation (formerly the Science and EngineeringEducation Directorate).

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology “ 115

In the past, selected companies have beengenerous in their support of education. Somehave participated with Federal and Stategovernments in jointly funded computer-based learning projects as well as other tech-nology-based activities. Although it is difficultto estimate the amount of corporate supportfor educational technology, education hasalways been a high-priority area for support.The Annual Surveys of Corporate Contribu-tions, a series conducted by the ConferenceBoard for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980,shows that contributions made to educationalinstitutions and organizations for a wide vari-ety of purposes have increased from $256.3million to $375.8 million-from 37 percent ofthe total contributions of reporting companiesin 1978 ($693.2 million) to 37.7 percent of thosefirms reporting in 1980 ($994.6 million) .’” Sup-port of education measured as a percentage ofpretax net income has increased from 0.179 in1978 to 0.220 in 1980. ” However, if fundingfor such activities is to remain at the 1980levels (in constant dollars), private donationswill have to increase substantially in all pro-gram areas, including education and research.An Urban Institute study of how the Federalbudget cuts, as proposed in March 1981,would affect the educational programs of non-profit institutions showed that they will re-ceive $0.7 billion dollars less in income frompublic sources, and they will receive $7.3billion from private sources. To maintain theexisting value of private support, contribu-tions from the private sector must increase by17.9 percent:

. . . private giving would have to increase b y144 percent between 1980 and 1984 in orderto keep up with inflation and makeup for rev-

enue lost to nonprofit organizations as a con-

‘“It is important to note that response rates to the AnnualSurvey of Corporate Contributions varied for the years cited:1978–759 companies; 1979–786 companies; 1980–732 com-panies. Annual tabulations of corporate contributions publishedby the American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel, showthat giving levels for 1980 and 1981 were $2,7 billion and $3.0billion respectively.

‘‘Conference Board and the Council for Financial Aid to Edu-cation, Advance Report From the Annual Survey of CorporateContributions, 1980 (New York: The Conference Board, Inc.,1981).

sequence of the budget cuts. By comparison,however, during the most recent five-yearperiod, private giving in practice increasedonly 38 percent. In other words, in order forprivate nonprofit organizations to hold theirown . . . even using (administration) inflationassumptions, private giving would have to in-crease four times faster between 1980 and1984 than it did over the five-year period justended. 12

There is evidence that corporations are will-ing to increase their support of educational,arts, and social service programs affected byFederal budget reductions. Corporate givingclubs are being organized by business leadersin various part of the country to ensure thatcompanies set aside up to 5 percent of pretaxrevenues for this purpose. However, accordingto Internal Revenue Service records, onlyabout 35 percent of the Nation’s 1.5 millionprofit-reporting firms claimed any charitabledeductions in 1977 (latest figures available),with only 58,000 taking advantage of the full5 percent allowable deduction. Furthermore,most of these donations went to support localcommunity projects rather than national pro-grams. Few, if any, of these donations carrywith them the requirement that projects’ re-sults be widely disseminated.13

Hopefully, the founding of such clubs willoffset the potential negative effect that theprovisions of the Economic Recovery Tax Actof 1981 might have on charitable donations.Because the act allows faster depreciation andmore investment tax credits, it will have theeffect of reducing taxable income.14 A recentConference Board survey of trends in businessvolunteerism in the largest U.S. manufactur-ing, service, financial, and transport firms indi-cated that, for a variety of reasons—amongthem current economic conditions, companiesare not redirecting or expanding their programinterests in response to Federal budget reduc-tions. In fact they may not be able to give asmuch in the future as they have in the past.

‘Z%lamon and Abramson, op. cit.‘3’’ How Corporate ‘Clubs’ Fill the Gap in Giving, ” Business

Week NOV. 23, 1981, pp. 54 F-55.“’’More Tax Incentives for R& D,” Business Week Sept. 7,

1981, pp. 74L,P.

116 ● lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Some respondents said that they thought that place of, or in addition to, direct contribu-a lower corporate tax rate may well discourage tions.15

giving. Representatives of 6 of the 10 com-ISE. P. McGuire and N. Weber, Business Volunteerism: Pros-panies said that they do not expect to lend pects for 1982 (New York: The Conference Board, Inc., January

more executives to nonprofit institutions in 1982).

Federal Commitment to EducationalTechnology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982

Approved congressional budget levels andconversations with budget and program offi-cers in NSF, OE, DOD, and other agencies,suggest that the Federal investment in educa-tional technology R&D in fiscal year 1982 willamount to $273.915 million, $256 million ofwhich will be utilized by the tri-services(Army, Navy/Marine Corps, and Air Force) asa part of the Training and Personnel SystemsTechnology Program (TPST). Ongoing pro-gram elements of TPST, according to whichspecific projects are funded, are listed in table18; selected project topics funded within theseprogram elements are listed by service branchin table 19.

Of the remaining $17.915 million (non-DODfunding), the largest percentage-an estimated$5.55 million-will go to support computer re-search, including software development in sci-ence, math, reading, and written communica-tions. Educational television projects willreceive the second highest amount-an esti-mated $5.236 million. The remaining $7.129million will be used to support educational ap-plications of video disk and teleconferencingand to develop special technology applicationsfor educating the handicapped.

Breakdowns of R&D funding within NSF,OE, and DOD and estimates of the dollars setaside for educational technology R&D projectsin fiscal year 1982 are given in tables 20, 21,and 22. NSF has provided $4.536 million—0.457 percent of the agency’s total projectedR&D expenditure ($991 million) -to grants ofthis type. Educational technology projects w-illbe funded to varying degrees within six pro-gram areas in OE. The total projected amountis $13.379 million, 12.45 percent of the ap-

Table 18.— Department of Defense Training andPersonnel Systems Technology R&D Program

Elements and Funding Levels—Fiscal Year 1981-82

Program element

ArmyTraining, personnel, and human

engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Human factors in systems developmentHuman performance effectiveness and

simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Manpower, personnel, and training . . . . . .Nonsystem training devices technology.Synthetic flight simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . .Manpower and personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nonsystem training devices developmentHuman factors in training and

operational effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . .Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Training and simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Synthetic flight training systems. . . . . . . .Nonsystem training devices engineering .

Navy and Marine CorpsBehavioral and social sciences . . . . . . . . .Human factors and simulation

technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Personnel and training technology . . . . . .Human factors engineering development.Manpower control system development .Man-machine technology . . . . . . . . . . . . .Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Navy technical information presentation

system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Marine Corps advanced manpower

training system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Training devices technology. . . . . . . . . . . .Training devices prototype development .Prototype manpower/personnel systemsAir warfare training devices . . . . . . . . . . . .Surface warfare training devices . . . . . . . .Submarine warfare training devices . . . . .

Dollars in millions

Fiscal Year Fiscal year1981

$3.97.0

3.26.22.73.93.40.0

1.97.81.50.6

12.2

1982

$4,08.7

3.56.02.77.84,71.4

3,19.62.28.3

12.9

$54.3

7.7

5.95.72.93.10.04.8

1.8

1,36.0

13.91,1

13.734.42.9

$74.9

8.8

6.56.43.12.80.03.7

1.3

1.58.0

10.45.0

27.941.7

4,6

Air ForceHuman resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aerospace biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Training and simulation technology . . . .Personnel utilization technology . . . . . . . .Advanced simulator technology. . . . . . . . .Innovations in education and training . .Flight simulator development. . . . . . . . . .

$105.2

4.88.2

12.95.33.21.75.5

Total . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

$41,6

$201.1

$131.7

4.98.8

14.25.52.22.5

11.3

$49.4

$256.0SOURCE Department of Defense, Office of the Undersecretary for Research and

Engineering, comp!led January 1982

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology “ 117

Table 19.—Training and Personnel SystemsTechnology R&D Program: Selected Project

Topics— Fiscal Year 1981-82

ArmyMan-computer communicat ion techniquesApplication of video disk to tactical training and skillQual i f icat ion test ingTechnology-based basic skills and individual skil ls

development systemsComputer-based maintenance training aidsIntegration of microwave and computer technologiesComputer-based maintenance training aids

Computer-based maintenance training and othercomputer-based instructional systems

Individualized automated training techniqueComputer literacy (teaching computer programing skills)Advanced training technology developmentAdvanced voice interactive systems developmentComputer-assisted design and evaluation systemsComputerized personnel acquisition system developmentUtilization of computer graphics for maintenance

instructionComputer-based basic skills instructionAdvanced computer-aided instruction for complex skillsExperimental, technology-based combat team training

systemsComputerized course authoring systemsComputer-based speech recognition and synthesis

Human-computer combinationsComputer-aided technical instructionAdvanced visual technologiesComputer-based maintenance aids

proved R&D funding level of $107.4 million.Of $19.9 billion approved for DOD R&D fund-ing, 1.28 percent, or $256 million, will be spenton training and simulation devices, computerinstructional software development, and othertechnology-based projects. Government-widecommitment levels to educational technologyprojects are broken down by agency in table23.

SOURCE Department of Defense, Office of the Undersecretary for Researchand Engineering

Table 20.— National Science Foundation R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982for Selected Program Areas

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent ofProgram area funding level technology R&D program total

Mathematical and Physical Sciences . . $273 million o 0Engineering and Applied Sciences . . . . $92 million o 0Scientific, Technological, and

International Affairs and Cross-Directorate Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40 million o 0

Science Education, Development, andResearch a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $21 million Estimated $2.2 21 .60/0

million computingin education.

Estimated $2.336million sciencebroadcasting.

Subtotal, selected program areas. . . . $426 million $4.536 million 10.6Total (all R&D within agency) . . . . . $991 million $4.536 million 0.4570/0

aLeglsl ative mandate to foster computing in science education

SOURCE American Association for the Advancement of Science, National Science Foundation, and Off Ice of TechnologyAssessment


Table 21 .—Department of Education R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982for Selected Program Areas

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent ofProgram area funding level technology R&D program total

National Institute of Education. . . . . . . . $53.4 million $1.3 million (est.) 2.430/.National Institute for Handicapped

Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $28.6 million $0.2 million (est.) 6.99Bilingual Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6,0 million o 0Handicapped Research Innovation &

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.2 million $0.9 million 12.5Vocational Educational Programs of $5.5 million

National Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (est.) o 0Educational Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6.679 million $6.679 million 100Special Education Resources . . . . . . . . . $1.8 millionFund for the Improvement of

Postsecondary Education . . . . . . . . . . $10 million $2.5 million 40Total (all R&D within agency) . . . . . . . $107.4 million $13.379 million 12.450/o

SOURCE: Department of Education and Office of Technology Assessment.

Table 22.— Department of Defense R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982for Selected Divisions

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent ofDepartment funding level technology R&D program total

Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3.6 billion $74.9 milliona (est.) 20.80/oNavy and Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.9 billion $131.7 milliona (est.) 2.23Air Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8.9 billion $49.4 milliona (est.) 5.55Defense agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.7 billion o 0

Total (all R&D within department) . . . $19.9 billion $256.0 million 1.280/oaAdditlonal R&D efforts may exist that are not captured within training and personnel technology program data base.SOURCE: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Department of Defense; and Office of Technology Assessment

Table 23.—Projected Federal Expenditures for Educational Technology R&D,Fiscal Year 1982

Projected expenditure educational Total R&D budgetDepartment technology—R&D (approved levels)

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . $4.536 million (est.) $991 millionDepartment of Education . . . . . . . . . . $13.379 million (est.) $107.4 millionDepartment of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . $256 million (est.) $19.9 billion

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $273.915 million (est.) $20.99 billionSOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment and American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Discontinued and Consolidated ProjectsResearch on the educational applications of

satellite technology will not be supported bythe Federal Government in fiscal year 1982,with the exception of one small project spon-sored by NIE and conducted by a regional edu-cational laboratory. Support for Federal tele-communications research and demonstrationhas been discontinued, except for two projects

that will receive some funding for fiscal year1982. The Deafnet Telecommunications Mod-el, the product of a 3-year effort that involvedmodifying existing electronic mail technology,will be disseminated to potential users undera $300,000 grant. OE’s Division of Education-al Technology (Office of Educational Researchand Improvement) will provide $1.1 million to

Ch. 7--State of Research and Development in Educational Technology . 119

support “Project Best, ” a series of telecon-ferences designed to help officials in 45 Statesto understand the potential of the technology.The National Telecommunications Programestablished by Congress in 1976 to “promotethe development of nonbroadcast telecommu-nications facilities and services for educationand other social services” was not reauthor-ized for fiscal year 1982. It would also appearthat a 3-year project that was designed todemonstrate the use of teletext in the UnitedStates and that was jointly sponsored by OE,NSF, the National Telecommunications Infor-mation Administration, and the CanadianGovernment, will be discontinued. (In fiscalyear 1981, OE contributed $1 million to theeffort.) The Television and Radio Programauthorized by the Emergency School Aid Act

of 1972 under which grants to reduce minor-ity isolation in the media were made, as wellas the Basic Skills and Technology Programauthorized by the Education Amendments of1978, designed to encourage research into theapplication of technology to problems in basicskills instruction, have been consolidated withother programs into a State educational blockgrant at overall reduced levels of funding. (In1981-82, the combined support for these twoprograms amounted to $6.5 million.) OE sup-port for video disk development will not bepursued due to lack of funds. However, severalvideo disk projects included within a group ofmultiyear contracts previously awarded byOE (an estimated $20 million investment forall such contracts) are scheduled for comple-tion in fiscal year 1983 and fiscal year 1984.

Continuing ProjectsMultiyear grants that will continue to be

funded in fiscal year 1982 are listed by agen-cy in table 24. Seven ongoing educational tele-vision projects will be supported by OE. Theuse and adaptation of technology for the hand-icapped and for special education will be en-couraged. And, through the Fund for the Im-provement of Postsecondary Education, grantswill be made to local educational projects thatuse teleconferencing, computer-aided instruc-tion, video disk, and other forms of technol-ogy (estimated $25.7 million). NSF will con-tinue its science broadcasting program ($2.336million) and will review its computer-basededucation projects and others similar to them($2.2 million). Support has been discontinuedfor the Mathematics Education Using Infor-mation Technology Program, designed to en-courage computer courseware development,and previously supported jointly with OE. To

date, NSF has contributed $3.5 million, andNIE has contributed $0.5 million to this proj-ect. In fiscal year 1982-83, NIE will provide$0.6 million in support.

Information about which specific projectswill be funded in this fiscal year underelements of DOD’s Training Personnel andSystems Technology Program is still unavail-able. However, some idea about the nature ofthese activities can be gained by looking atselected tasks that are under way at the ArmyResearch Institute (ARI). ARI will continuedevelopment of a hand-held computer for vo-cabulary building, a computer-assisted careercounseling system, and a special data manage-ment system that will integrate video disktechnology with a computer for basic skills in-struction (estimated at $2.25 million).


Table 24.—Continuation Grants for Educational Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982a

Program Grant description Funding level

Department of EducationDivision of Educational Technology(Office of Educational Researchand Improvement

National Institute forHandicapped Research

Special Education Resources

Handicapped Research—InnovationDevelopment

National Institute of Education

Fund for the Improvement ofPostsecondary Education

National Science FoundationOffice of Science and

Engineering Education

Department of DefenseArmyNavy and Marine CorpsAir Force

Microcomputer SoftwareDevelopment: Elementary grades (3 yrs. funding at $150,000 per project)Ohio State: mathematics; development and testing in 25 schools byfiscal year 1963.

Wycatt: reading; Bolt, Beranek and Newman: written communicationcomposition

Video diskUniversity of Nebraska: development of Spanish-English dictionary andmicrocomputer software.

American Institute of Research: video disk for music and math curriculafor elementary grades; 45 site demonstrations and electronic mailcomponent.

Teleconferencing“Project Best:” assistance to officials in 45 States in understandingpotential of technology; electronic mailbox component;8 teleconferences.

TelevisionSeven projects: (selected grants highlighted)“3-2-1 Contact:” production funds to Children’s Television Workshop($1 million).

“Power House:” health and nutrition—economically disadvantagedminority youth ($3.5 million).

“Kids:” program for elementary grades on radio broadcasting($1 million).

Adaptation of educational technology for use by handicapped

Deaf net Telecommunications Project—model dissemination($0.3 million).

Line 1 Caption Broadcasting Program ($1.5 million).Technology Utilization Project

“Mathematics Education Using Information Technology:” (until fiscalyear 1982-83 jointly funded with NSF; $0.6 million). Computercourseware development “Calculator Information Center” ($0.1 million).

“Computer Software Clearinghouse” ($0.2 million). Portion of RegionalEducational Laboratories budget utilized for educational technologyprojects: courseware development; satellite telecommunications project(est. $0.4 million).

Educational television, teleconferencing, computer-aided instruction, andvideo disk (local projects)

Computer-based education, CAD/CAMb education, and other projectscurrently up for review.

science BroadcastingPrism Productions, Inc., “How About:” 90 second science series forcommercial television (syndicated to 140 stations—jointly funded withGeneral Motors Research Labs; NSF contribution: $0,208 million).

Children’s Television Workshop, “3-2-1 Contact:” science programing;National Public Radio, “Science Information on Public Radio:”establishment of science production capabilities and provision for sciencecoverage for distribution to 227 public radio stations ($0.198 million).

See tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topics.See tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topicsSee tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topics.

$2.25 million

$0.225 million

$0.250 million$1.1 million

$16.175 million

$0.2 million (est.)

$1.8 million (est.)

$0.9 million (est.)

$1.3 million (est.)

$1,5 million (est.)

$1.7 million (est.)

$2.336 million

$73.5 million$131.7 million$49.4 million

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $284.336 million

%orne funded with fiscal year 19S0 and fiscal year 19S1 moneys.bCAD/CAM.Computer. assist ed designlcornputer-assisted manufacture.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment.

—.—-

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Education/ Technology ● 121

New Grants for Fiscal Year 1982A breakdown of the funds that have been

tentatively earmarked or committed for newprojects within OE, NSF, and DOD is shownin table 25. Approximately $6.8 million areavailable, $5.4 million within OE. The Armyhas established a new Non-System TrainingDevices Development Program with an initialbudget of $1.4 million. NSF will fund only onenew project in fiscal year 1981—a $0.5 millioneffort to foster innovative ideas for using com-puters in science education. The project wasconceived after NSF had been approached byseveral manufacturers who offered to providefree microcomputers for experimentation ineducational institutions.

A revealing analysis of Federal support ofR&D for educational technology in fiscal year1981 is shown in table 26, which presents esti-mates of funding levels for particular types oftechnology. Educational television will receive

more money than any other form of technol-ogy-an estimated $21.411 million, a sum thatincludes grants for local demonstrations. Fromfiscal year 1968 through fiscal year 1980, theChildren’s Television Workshop receivedgrants from OE totaling $46.3 million for thedevelopment and production of SesameStreet and The Electric Company-an averageof $3.56 million per year.16 If the increasedcosts of television production and general in-flation are taken into account, the $21.411million Federal support level for fiscal year1982 will clearly be insufficient to maintain thesame volume of programing that previouslyexisted. This year, OE’s Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement (Division of Edu-cational Technology) has plans to award only

16A. A. Zucker, Support of Educational Technology by theU.S. Department of Education: 1971-1980 (Washington, D. C.:U.S. Department of Education, February 1982).

Table 25.—New Grants for Educational Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982

Program Grant description Funding level

of EducationDivision of Educational Educational television projects $2.9 million (est.)

TechnologyNational Institute for Adaptation of educational technology for use by

Handicapped Research handicapped; other topics to be identified.Bank Street College: 26- to 15-minute programs for ITV or $1 million (est.)

ETV use, plus computer game software, computergraphics, and video disk application.

“Careers in Electronics and Computers” (working title):two 60-minute programs that focus on opportunities foryoung people and displaced workers.

Special Education Resources NoneHandicapped Research— Technology utilization projects

innovation anddevelopment

National Institute of NoneEducation

Fund for the Improvement of Based on proposals received to date (40 percent are forPostsecondary Education education technology projects

National Science FoundationScience and Engineering “Gift Program:” (in response to gift of microcomputers

Education Office offered by two producer companies) foster innovativeideas for using computers in science education.

Department of DefenseArmy Nonsystem Training Devices Development $1.4 millionNavy and Marine Corps None oAir Force None o

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6.8 million (est.)SOURCE” Office of Technology Assessment

o0

0

$1 million (est.)

$0.5 million


Table 26.—Federal R&D Funding for Educational Technology Fiscal Year 1982By Type of Technologya

Technology Agencies funding Funding level

Computer-based instruction

Educational televisionTeleconferencingVideo diskElectronic mailSatellite

CalculatorsOther

National Science Foundation;Department of Education;Department of Defense

Department of EducationDepartment of EducationDepartment of EducationDepartment of EducationDepartment of Education (Funding

of Regional Laboratories)Department of Education

million (est.)

$21.411 million$1.1 million (est.)$0.975 million (est.)$0.3 million (est.)

million (est.)

$0.3 million (est.)$4.55 million (est.)

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $34.236 million (est.)alnclude~ ~ultiyear projects funded with fiscal Year 19S0 and fiscal Year IW1 ‘oneys


two new educational television grants that (at a total level of $5.55 million). Other tech-amount to $2.9 million. Computer-based in- nologies, such as video disk, electronic mail,struction (including software development) is and calculators, will each receive between $0.2the only technology that will be supported in million and $0.3 million in Federal support, allfiscal year 1982 by all three Federal agencies of it coming from OE.

Federal Support for EducationalLaboratories

With the Cooperative Research Act of 1963and the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct of 1965, the U.S. Office of Educationestablished regional centers and laboratoriesfor educational research to focus efforts andto encourage experimentation under controlledconditions. In fiscal year 1982, NIE will pro-vide $28 million for these centers and lab-oratories. Of this amount, about $335,000 willbe used to support educational technologyprojects. The Wisconsin Center for Educa-tional Research at the University of Wiscon-sin at Madison, Wis., will investigate possi-ble uses of microcomputers in problem-solvingand language skills instruction. The Univer-

sity of Pittsburgh’s Learning Research andDevelopment Center has initiated small curric-ulum software development projects in devel-opmental reading, writing, and mathematics.Through a communications skills project, theSouthwest Regional Laboratory hopes to de-velop microcomputer software for student usein generating, manipulating, and editing textin an interactive mode. Some of the fundingfor educational technology R&D projectscomes from the States, as do some of the fundsto support the Northwest Regional Education-al Laboratory educational satellite project forR&D dissemination.

Educational Technology R&D Support byOther Nations

While the U.S. Government is reducing its formation technology in education, a numbercommitment to develop new applications of inof other countries are planning or initiating


major programs. Some have succeeded in at-

tracting U.S. researchers as major partici-pants.

France

In January 1982, France announced plansto establish a World Center for ComputerScience and Human Resources for the ex-pressed purpose of designing personal com-puter systems for use in training and educa-tion projects in industrialized and Third Worldcountries. With an initial annual operatingbudget of $20 million, the center staff has ten-tative plans to develop computer-based educa-tion projects in Senegal, Kuwait, Ghana, andthe Philippines. The center will most probablyreceive additional financial support from thosecountries. Programs to retrain workers whosejobs have been eliminated through automationare also under consideration.

Some see the establishment of the center asevidence that the French Government regardsthe computer as an important agent of socialchange and that it views its development asan important factor in determining how wellthe French will compete with the UnitedStates in the field of microelectronics.17

Although the center’s board of directors willhave international representatives, at leastnine French cabinet ministers will be amongits members.18 The chairman of the World Cen-ter will report directly to President FrancoisMitterand, an indication of the importancethat the French Government attaches to theproject.

Two U.S. scientists have accepted positionswith the center. Nicols Negoponte, a professorof computer graphics at the Massachusetts In-stitute of Technology (MIT), will assume thepost of director. Seymour Papert, founder ofMIT’s artificial intelligence program and de-veloper of the computer programming languageLOGO, will serve as its chief scientist.

“’’Micros Are This Year’s Paris Fashion, ” New Scientist Feb.2.5, 1982, p. 486.

‘8M. Schrage, “France Plans Computer World Center, ” Washington POS6 Jan. 28, 1982.

Testifying on May 19, 1982, before the Sub-committee on Investigations and Oversightand the Subcommittee on Science, Research,and Technology of the House Committee onScience and Technology, Jean Jacques Servan-Schreiber, chairman of the World Center, de-scribed it as the first of a network of suchfacilities that will focus on human resourcedevelopment through application of computertechnology. He expressed the hope that theUnited States would establish the next suchcenter, encourage the funding of others, andcooperate with France in “ . . . the implemen-tation of a policy aimed at the stimulation ofworldwide economic activity and employ-ment. "19

European Commission

The European Commission, the independentpolicy-operating body of the European Com-munity, plans to launch a 10-year, $1.6 billionprogram to aid research in computer-relatedtechnology. Funding will come from the com-mission, from the industrial sector, and fromother sources. These funds will be distributedas grants to European research groups, pri-vate laboratories, and universities for concen-trated efforts in such areas as office technol-ogy, factory automation, software, advancedmicroelectronic chips, and artificial intelli-gence. European researchers and business rep-resentatives will discuss the project during1982. Plans call for the program to be initiatedbefore the end of 1983.20

United Kingdom

Britain believes that its future role in inter-national markets will be largely affected by theinvestments it makes now in fostering the de-velopment of information technology. Withthis in mind, the British Government is estab-lishing a comprehensive policy for information

“J. J. Servan-Schreiber, testimony of Jean Jacques Servan-Schreiber, before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Over-sight and Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology,Comrni ttee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Repre-sentatives, May 19, 1982.

~“EEC Stakes 855 Million on Tomorrow’s Computers, ” NewScientis6 Jan. 7, 1982, p. 5.


technology that will have the following keyelements:

●

●

●

●

A

provision of a national telecommunica-tions network;the development of a statutory and reg-ulatory framework designed to encouragefurther growth of information technologyproducts and services;initiation of actions to create an aware-ness of the inherent advantages of infor-mation technology and to stimulate in-terest in utilizing new services and equip-ment; anddirect support to the development of newproducts and techniques.

Ministry for Information Technology hasbeen created within the Department of In-dustry, to serve as the point of coordinationfor all government activities. Apart fromdesignating 1982 as Information TechnologyYear, the British Government has launcheda $1.2 million public awareness campaign. Itis, moreover, in the process of initiating a vari-ety of projects, including one designed to placea microcomputer in every secondary school bythe end of 1982, and another-known as theMicroelectronics in Education Program-thatwill provide instruction to teachers on the useof the computer as a classroom learning aid.

Clearly, the actions that nations are takingto encourage basic research and product-related R&D in information technology are inaccordance with the ideas U.S. researchershave about Government support and par-ticipation. In hearings before the Subcommit-tee on Domestic and International ScientificPlanning, Analysis, and Cooperation of theHouse Committee on Science and Technology,held in 1977, researchers from educational in-stitutions and other nonprofit settings, as wellas representatives from the computer hard-ware and software industry, advocated the es-tablishment of large-scale, “critical mass proj-ects” through which continued innovations ineducational technology could be achieved. Anumber of participants cited the need for con-tinuity in funding and ongoing support forprojects lasting from 6 to 10 years rather than

for the traditional 1- to 3-year cycles charac-teristic of Federal funding. They frequentlymentioned the vital role that the Governmentplays in fostering development of the technol-ogy and in eliminating constraints that inhibitapplications. William C. Norris, Chairman andChief Executive Office of Control Data Corp.,one of the U.S. firms most active in computer-based education, underlined the importance ofthe Federal Government’s role in encouraging,through funding and other means, cooperativeR&D efforts between universities and in-dustry, in order to ensure that basic researchis undertaken and new products continue tobe developed and disseminated to specificmarkets. Recommendations made at the hear-ings also included the establishment of a na-tional center and/or regional centers thatwould focus on further developments in educa-tional technology .21

Implications of the PresentFederal Role in Educational

T e c h n o l o g y R & D

Commitments made to R&D for educationaltechnology at the level of fiscal year 1982 fund-ing do not permit the Federal Government tocontinue to serve as a major participant in,and catalyst for, new research activities. Givendecreased Federal funding levels and staffshortages, the degree to which the universitycommunity will participate in the future is alsoin question. Thus, private industry will haveto provide the largest percentage of researchdollars, and to perform most R&D functions.In a climate of increasing international com-petition, in which industry will tend to investmore in product-related R&D that ensuresreturn on investment rather than in more fun-damental research, the future of U.S.-basedbasic research and other nonmarket-orientedefforts is in doubt. This situation contrastssharply with the European examples where na-

21 Committee on Science snd Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, hearing beforethe Subcommittee on International Scientific Plannin g, Analy-sis, and Cooperation, Oct. 4, 6, 12, 13, 18, and 27, 1977 (Wash-ington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978),

Ch. 7–State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 125

tional governments are becoming active par-ticipants in establishing national programs. InThird World countries, governments are alsoeager to utilize information technology to im-prove their training and educational programs.

Plans are underway at OE to establish anEducational Technology Initiative, a $16 mil-lion program that, over a 3-year period begin-ning in fiscal year 1983, will focus on the de-velopment of educational software. This initia-tive will also set up lighthouse school demon-strations, where applications of educationaltechnology may be observed by school admin-istrators and others, and an information clear-

inghouse and exchange.22 By leveraging funds,the proposed program seeks to attract match-ing funds from industry to develop educationalsoftware to meet school specifications. Givenpast levels of Federal involvement in suchpublic-private R&D projects, it is questionablewhether the Federal contribution of $3.3 mil-lion extended over a 3- to 5-year period will beenough to stimulate private investments.

“Department of Education, Office of Educational Researchand Improvement, FY/83 l?rogram/Budget Plan: SecretaryTechnology Im”tiative (Washington, D. C.: Department of Educa-tion, February 1982).

Present and Future Support forEducational Technology R&D

Arguments favoring Federal involvement inR&D stress the riskiness of investment inthese early stages of market development andthe fact that much needs to be learned abouthow to use these new media most effectively.Some of the case studies that follow suggestthat Federal support has been a critical fac-tor in bringing experiments such as SesameStreet and PLATO to the point where com-mercial success stimulates private interest. IfCongress decides to emphasize R&Din educa-tional technology, several issues must beresolved.

● Source of Funding. —The Federal Govern-ment is only one of several potential sourcesof R&D support. Are there ways of pro-viding Federal support that encourage in-vestment in R&D by private industry, foun-dations, and even local and State educationagencies? Mechanisms for coordinating andpooling research funds from multiplesources have to be explored.

● Level of Funding. —Several experts have ex-pressed the opinion that current funding isfar below the critical level necessary tomake significant and rapid improvementsin the state of the art. They point out thatthe French World Center has a starting

●

●

budget of over $20 million per year and thatprevious Federal efforts in educational tech-nology were funded at a significantly higherlevel than at present.

Stability of Support. –Perhaps more impor-tant than the particular funding level is thefact that in order to encourage the forma-tion of high-quality centers of research andto foster the entry of capable researchersinto the field, there will need to be a long-term commitment to support R&D at what-ever level is deemed appropriate.

Type of Research .-There are four broadareas of research in learning technology:1) research on the hardware technology it-self to develop appropriate educationaldevices; 2) research on software develop-ment and courseware authoring techniques,such as how to make the best instructionaluse of information technology; 3) researchon human-machine communication and in-teraction such as that on languages, key-board and screen design, and the use ofgraphic images to transfer information; and4) research on cognitive learning and on howindividuals interact with educational sys-tems.


● Basic Research or Development —The prop- —what is the appropriate overlap betweener role of the Federal Government in fund- Government and private funding, anding research, however, is more clearly estab- —assuming that a Government funded proj-lished in basic research and becomes less ect turns out to be a commercial success,clearly so as the work is more developmen- how can it then best be moved quicklytal in nature. The closer a project moves to into the private sector?developing a potentially marketable applica-tion, the more these issues come into focus:

Case Studies of Landmark R&D DisseminationEfforts in Educational Technology

This section includes four case studies of ed-ucational technology projects initiated part-ly or wholly with Federal funding. These proj-ects have significantly affected the educationalprocess, in some cases broadening the defini-tion of what education is and where it can takeplace. The first case study describes the for-mation of the Children’s Television Workshop;the second, the development, production, andmarketing of PLATO, a computer-based learn-ing system; the third, the establishment of theComputer Curriculum Corp. as an outgrowthof federally supported, university-based re-search in computer-based instructional sys-tems for schools; and the fourth, the creationof CONDUIT, a nonprofit group that evalu-ates, packages, and distributes computer-based learning materials to secondary andpostsecondary institutions.

Case Study 1: The Children’sTelevision Workshop

The Children’s Television Workshop (CTW),the creator of the prize-winning educationaltelevision series, Sesame Street and The Elec-tric Company, was the first television programproducer to design educational programs ona large scale specifically for preschool children.The CTW experience illustrates the highly suc-cessful use of technology for educational pur-poses, a substantial Federal Government in-vestment and role, and the creation of a uniqueorganization. It can therefore provide usefulinsights into and lessons about, the interrela-

tion of public policy, technology, and educa-tion.

C o n t e x t

CTW was formed in 1968 at a time whenearly childhood studies had established howimportant the preschool years are inlaying thefoundation for subsequent intellectual devel-opment. It was a period when educators, in-creasingly aware of the exceedingly largenumber of hours that young children werewatching TV each day, were becoming con-cerned about the kind of programing being of-fered. There was at the same time a growingsensitivity to the disparity in school readinessbetween advantaged and disadvantaged chil-dren.

CTW decided to experiment with a showthat would attempt to capture the attentionof young children, particularly those from low-income families. It was suspected that childrenfrom disadvantaged families watched TV evenmore than middle class children. Surveysshowed that 90 percent of all families with in-comes below $5,000 owned at least one televi-sion set and that disadvantaged families withpreschool children had their sets on for anestimated 54 hours per week.

Budget and Organization

In 1968, CTW was setup as an autonomousunit within National Education Television,which served as a corporate umbrella for the

.


purpose of receiving grants. Two years later,it became independent as a nonprofit corpora-tion. The budget for its initial 2 years was $8million-the first year for preparation, and thesecond for production and broadcast. The U.S.Office of Education agreed to pay 50 percentof this cost; the remainder was funded primari-ly by the Ford Foundation and the CarnegieCorp.

The present CTW budget is around $33 mil-lion, most of which is spent to pay the costsof its nonbroadcast enterprises such as theprinting and postage for three widely cir-culated magazines.

Foundation support has tapered off, andFederal support for Sesame Street ended infiscal year 1982. As a result, the staff wasrecently cut back, and CTW’s community out-reach program was reduced. While new pro-graming continues for existing series, no newlarge-scale projects have been announced.

An effort has been made to generate newrevenues through a whole series of productsbased on CTW programs. These include books,records, toys, games, and even clothing. CTWestimates that in 1982, royalty revenues fromthe sales of nonbroadcast materials will total$22 million, $16 million of which will go tocover costs, leaving an anticipated net revenueof $6 million to be applied to the continuingcost of Sesame Street and other educationalprojects.

CTW has also established a unique educa-tional park known as “Sesame Place” in BucksCounty, Pa. Designed for children age 3 andup, it is of special interest because, in additionto having dozens of outdoor play elements andindoor science exhibits, it provides 60 Applecomputers on which children can plan educa-tional games developed by CTW. A secondpark was opened in the summer of 1982 nearDallas, Tex. CTW also has a traveling road-show called Sesame Street Live.

As another potentially important new rev-enue-producing venture, CTW is developingand marketing game software for the personalcomputer. While these games are intended to

be educational, one of their design criterion isthat they also be entertaining.

C T W P r o g r a m s

CTW created three highly successful large-scale educational series for children: SesameStreet, The Electric Company, and 3-2-1 Con-tact. Sesame Street, the pioneer program,demonstrated that high-quality education pro-grams could win mass audiences of children.After Sesame Street, CTW went on to developanother equally successful show in its readingprogram for young children called The Elec-tric Company. Supplementary reading mate-rials to reinforce both these programs weredeveloped for students, teachers, and parents.

The most recent series, 3-2-1 Contact, wasdesigned for children between the years of 8and 12. Its aim was to acquaint children withthe nature of scientific thinking and with someareas of scientific investigation. The initialseason ran daily for 26 weeks. Five programsper week were built around a weekly themesuch as light/dark, hot/cold, growth/decay, andfast/slow. As with Sesame Street and TheElectric Company, actual production waspreceded by careful study beginning with anexamination of need. It was discovered, for ex-ample, that half of the States had no sciencerequirements for teacher certification at theelementary school level, and that only 6 per-cent of 9-year-old students ranked science astheir favorite subject. The developmentalstages of 3-2-1 Contact involved 6 months forfeasibility studies, 6 months for testing anddevelopment, and 6 months for production.

CTW also produced Feeling Good, an adultseries on health; Best of Families, a series inAmerican social history; and a commercialtelevision family special: The Lion, the Witch,and the Wardrobe, which won an Emmy as theoutstanding animated television special of theyear.

CTW considers none of its program seriesto be a finished product. Programs are con-stantly brought up-to-date, expanded, andrevised for greater audience appeal and educa-


tional impact. Sesame Street went on from itsemphasis on cognitive learning to include suchsocietal goals as cooperation, conflict resolu-tion, and fair play. Sesame Street and TheElectric Company programs were also adaptedto the special needs of the mentally retarded,the deaf, and the Spanish speaking. 3-2-1 Con-tact was incorporated into museum programsthroughout the country and was made an inte-gral part of the Girl Scout program for obtain-ing a special 3-2-1 badge. 3-2-1 Contact hasbeen used in prisons, and Sesame Street hasbeen used with the refugee boat children.

Impact of C T W

With Sesame Street and The Electric Com-pany, CTW proved that skillful educationalprograming could win a mass audience. Theircombined audience in the United States hasbeen estimated at 15 million people. They arethe two most watched programs on public tele-vision. Sesame Street regularly commands alarger audience among 2 to 5 year olds thanany other commercial television program.Studies conducted in low-income neighbor-hoods suggest that from 80 to 90 percent ofthe children watch. CTW programs are alsocost effective. Cost per viewer per program,for each CTW program, has been less than 1percent per day.

Teachers throughout the United States re-port that children arrive in school moreknowledgeable and more able to master fun-damental skills in reading and arithmetic. TheCTW style has been copied by other televisionproducers, and many parents and teachershave reported a change in their own thinkingabout education.

CTW programs are now offered in at leasteight different languages and are shown innearly 50 countries and territories. They havereceived 18 Emmy’s, the European Prix Jeu-nesse, the Japan Prize, and numerous otherawards and commendations. In 1979, theSmithsonian Institute’s Museum of AmericanHistory celebrated CTW’s 10th birthday witha 3-month long exhibit.

Among the factors cited as contributing toCTW’s success are:

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Generous Funding. –The large initialfunding for Sesame Street was essentialfor achieving high quality.Planning.– Each project has beenplanned very carefully and in great detail,beginning with a feasibility study andworking through all stages; from the timea CTW project was first considered to thetime it is first broadcast typically takes2 years.Producer Freedom. –CTW had completecontrol over the content and design of itsprogram, and could make all programingdecisions without outside interference.A Delivery System Already in Place.–Almost every household had a televisionset and the broadcast time and transmis-sion facilities were available through thepublic broadcasting system.Available Professional Expertise.--CTWcould draw from commercial television.Personnel–The project was initiated byhighly competent, creative people.

Case Study 2: Development,Production, and Marketing

o f P L A T O

PLATO, a computer-based education sys-tem designed for use with conventional andmultimedia learning aids, was developed at theUniversity of Illinois under the guidance ofDonald Bitzer. Since its initiation in 1959, ithas been supported by a combination of Fed-eral, State, industrial, and private agenciesand organizations. Most of the financial assist-ance was provided by NSF with some fundingfrom OE. When OE discontinued its support,several corporations also withdrew theirs. Con-trol Data Corp. (CDC) was eventually licensedby the University of Illinois to produce andmarket the PLATO system.

CDC is a worldwide computer and financialservices company based in Minneapolis,Minn., employing 60,000 people and market-


ing products and services in over 47 countries.In 1981, CDC’s net earnings totaled $171 mil-lion on combined revenues of $4.2 billion. Since1962, the company has invested more than$900 million in its educational products andservices.

CDC maintains that, in addition to its otherprofitmaking activities, it can also make aprofit by addressing itself to the most intran-sigent problems of our society. In cooperationwith business, educational, and religious or-ganizations and government agencies, CDChas developed projects relating to the innercity, low achieving students, prison inmates,small businesses, and independent farmers.Some projects are entirely devoted to educa-tion and some are only partially so. ThePLATO learning is heavily used in many ofthese efforts.

P L A T O C o m p u t e r - B a s e dEducation

In 1981, there were 18 PLATO systems, 10owned and operated by CDC and 8 by univer-sities. Nine of the eighteen are located in theUnited States and Canada, and nine are over-seas. The cumulative number of terminal con-tact hours on PLATO IV passed the 10 millionmark in 1979. This is by far the most exten-sively used system of computer-based instruc-tion in the world.

A PLATO system consists of one large cen-tral computer that connects to many terminalsby long-distance telephone lines or satellite.There is no technological limit to how far a ter-minal might be from the main computer; hun-dreds of miles is not uncommon. At the ter-minals, individuals or small groups of studentscan have access to a wide range of instruc-tional materials, which include presentations,drills, tutorials, dialogs, simulations, problem-solving, and games.

PLATO learning can also be delivered onmicrocomputers using disks that store thelearning materials. In 1981, CDC announcedits own microcomputer, the Control Data 110,which runs PLATO as an application. The 110also serves as a small business computer and

can be hooked up to the central PLATO sys-tem to deliver PLATO learning on-line.

The nature of the conversation or interac-tion between a student and the computer de-pends on the way in which the author has writ-ten the instructional materials. Generally, theinteraction has these characteristics:

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The student gets immediate responsefrom the computer whenever the studentasks or answers a question.The computer adjusts its lesson to meetthe particular needs and abilities of theindividual student at that moment.The computer keeps track of what the stu-dent has already learned.The student can work in private withoutfear of exposing his weakness to otherpeople.The student can use the computer toassist him in visualizing ideas throughgraphics, computations, examples, andsimulations.

In addition to interacting with the computerprogram, the student can use the PLATO net-work to discuss his studies with teachers orother students, even though they may be phys-ically located thousands of miles away. Thecomputer can diagnose, evaluate, teach, test,and keep records. The terminal screen is tac-tile-sensitive. If a child is learning to read anddoes not know a word–e.g., “mouse’’ -he cantouch the word and, as the word mouse isspoken, it will be replaced by a picture of amouse.

Avai labi l i ty and Use of PLATO

In 1981, about 6,000 PLATO terminals w e r eused in diverse settings. One type of settingwas the CDC Learning Center, which is opento the general public and which offers coursesfrom a third grade level to advanced postgrad-uate work. There are 115 CDC Learning Cen-ters throughout the United States, the sub-jects taught at these centers include business,industry, and computer-related subjects aswell as foreign languages, English, math,sciences, education, psychology, the arts, and


career counseling. Learning centers offerbusiness, industry, government agencies, andschools a cost-effective alternative to tradi-tional training programs. A company or agen-cy can have PLATO programs written oradapted to their particular training needs andhave the programs made available to theiremployees throughout the country.

Customers can install terminals that deliverPLATO CBE, either on-line or off-line, on theirown sites. Schools have terminals onsite in allcases. With the release of PLATO coursewareto other micros, however, the use of PLATOlearning will be able to increase greatly at ahighly reduced cost.

I n d u s t r y

To date, the primary use of PLATO hasbeen for inservice training in industry. Coursesinclude basic management training, account-ing, economics, equipment operation andmaintenance, powerplant operation, computerfundamentals, and computer programing.

Examples of training needs to whichPLATO has been adapted include:

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United Airlines uses PLATO to bring 367new trainees each year up to entry levelfor transitional training. The PLATO-assisted program takes 11 days comparedto the 15 days formerly required withoutPLATO. United Airlines estimates thatit saves $29,827 per year by using thePLATO systems.Control Data Institutes train 7,000 pro-grammers, operators, and technicians year-ly for the computer industry. In theUnited States, 60,000 people have re-ceived this training since the first ControlData Institute started in 1965. More than50 percent of the training is on PLATO.The Navy successfully adapted CDC’sBasic Skills Learning System to train re-cruits at the Navy Recruit Training Cen-ter in Orlando, Fla. With the help ofPLATO, two to three times the usualnumber of recruits were trained by thesame-sized staff, and they completed theirrequired course work in fewer hours. This

PLATO program was administered byregular noncollege Navy personnel afteronly 2 weeks of specialized training.

Higher Education

Many colleges and universities use PLATOCBE. Some examples of the different ways inwhich PLATO has been integrated into educa-tional curricula are:

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The University of Colorado uses PLATOfor developmental English, physics, elec-trical engineering, accounting, educa-tional psychology, and astronomy.The Reading Pennsylvania Area Com-munity College offers PLATO courses inbasic skills, training for local industry,and enrichment programs in math, Rus-sian, and other subjects for exceptional-ly advanced high school students.The University of Delaware uses PLATOin its School of Music to provide drill andpractice with musical notes played by asynthesizer connected to the terminal andoffers PLATO courses in dressmaking,nursing, and agriculture.The American College offers courses inlife insurance and related financial sci-ences to students in all 50 States and 12foreign countries. The networking powerof PLATO is ideal for this widely dis-persed student body.The University of Quebec has eight termi-nals in almost continual operation on theTrois-Rivieres campus. Faculty memberscreate their own lessons in French, chem-istry, English, physics, geometrical op-tics, data processing, and psychology. Itsometimes takes as long as 250 hours toproduce a 60-minute lesson.

Public Schools

Although CDC is interested in introducingPLATO into public elementary and secondaryinstitutions, PLATO has not been utilized bypublic schools primarily because of its cost.However, with PLATO learning new beingdelivered on micros-both on CDC microcom-puters and those of other companies-costs

Ch. 7–State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 131

may drop substantially. One example of a suc-cessful application of PLATO is in an inner-city school in Baltimore. In 1979, 200 of Wal-brook High School’s 538 seniors failed the Cityof Baltimore math and reading proficiencytests. After 60 days of using PLATO, all butnine passed the test. PLATO has helped Wal-brook’s low achieving students to increasetheir academic levels as many as three gradesin 1 year.

Today, 180 Walbrook students each receive25 minutes of PLATO instruction daily on oneof the school’s 12 terminals. At midterm, a sec-ond group of 180 students is chosen. Thus in1 school year, 360 of the school’s 2,350 stu-dents will have received PLATO-assisted in-struction. In addition, two junior high schoolshave two terminals each, and six elementaryschools have one terminal each. The BaltimorePLATO project, initially subsidized by CDC,is now funded by the Baltimore City SchoolSystem.

Special Populations

American Indians.–The American IndianProject of St. Paul, Minn., used the PLATOBasic Skills Program to meet the remedialeducational needs of 1,200 American Indianstudents in 65 urban areas. Some studentswere able to raise their academic levels by 5years in only 6 months of work.

Home Workers.–PLAT0 is used to trainand provide employment for homebound, dis-abled employees. CDC has created jobs in pro-graming for businesses and in developingcourses for the PLATO system. The computernetwork makes communication possible be-tween employers, employees, and fellow work-ers, thus establishing a community that cangive peer support to homeworkers nationwide.

Prisoners. --In 1974, CDC chose correctionalinstitutions as one entry point for its BasicSkills Learning System. A pilot PLATO BasicSkills Learning program was installed in theMinnesota State Prison in Stillwater. Afteronly 7 hours of PLATO study, inmates aver-aged gains of 1.6 grades in reading; after 12hours, they averaged gains of 2.16 grades

in math. Students were anxious to use thecomputer, and here again, as in the case ofthe Indian program, academic success wasmatched by improved social attitudes. PLATOis now used in 29 correctional institutionslocated in 10 States and in the United King-dom.

Unemployed.– A CDC program specificallydesigned for the hardcore unemployed, calledFair Break, consists of the PLATO BasicSkills courses in math, reading, and language,as well as a course in how to choose and geta job. The coursework is supplemented by acounseling and referral program that helpsadult students cope with problems relating tohealth, finances, drugs, and interpersonalproblems. The program also involves peer-group counseling. CDC provides part-timework to program participants for the durationof the course.

Assessing Benefits and CostE f f e c t i v e n e s s o f P L A T O

In attempting to assess the benefits or costeffectiveness of a given PLATO application,three factors must be taken into account: thedelivery system, the implementation, and thecourseware.

PLATO as a Delivery System.—While someevaluative reports criticize minor aspects ofthe central delivery system, most regard thecentral delivery of PLATO learning as beingexceptional, and believe that its full potentialis still unrealized. The major criticism ofPLATO as a delivery system has been its cost.The most clear-cut beneficial or cost-effectiveuses of PLATO are those in which:

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Educational opportunities are deliveredthat would otherwise be unavailable tothe learner population in question.Instruction is brought to learners whowould otherwise have to be transportedto a distant site for training.Needed skills and knowledge can be ac-quired more quickly through a PLATOcourse than they can through an alter-native instructional method.


Implementation of PLATO. --Implementa-tion refers to the setting and manner in whichinstruction is taken-the institution, the learn-er population, the role and personality of theteacher, the relationship of the PLATO learn-ing experience to other instructional compo-nents, the motivational aspects of the environ-ment, and so forth. In a study conducted bythe Educational Testing Service, the use ofPLATO in four community colleges was foundto have no significant effect on student attri-tion, student achievement, or student atti-tudes toward their academic experience. Parti-cipating instructors tended to view PLATOfavorably, but teachers judged their PLATOstudents less favorably than their non-PLATOstudents in ability, motivation, and achieve-ment.

Implementation in Military Training Set-tings.—The cost effectiveness of computer-based instruction in military training has beeninvestigated by analyzing 30 studies of com-puter-based instruction, seven of which usedPLATO; the rest of which used all othercomputer-based systems. It was concludedthat, on the whole, computer-based instructionreduced the time normally needed by studentsto complete courses using conventional in-struction by 30 percent. The difference in theamount of time saved by individualized self-paced instruction compared with computer-based instruction was found to be relativelysmall. The PLATO system was not found tobe more effective than other computer-basedsystems’ studies. Furthermore, according totwo cost-effectiveness evaluations, the ArmyPLATO IV system was judged to be less effec-tive than individualized (noncomputerized)instruction.

Implementation in College Settings.–Acomprehensive analysis of computer-based col-lege teaching was made that included 59 stud-ies of which an unspecified number were ofPLATO courses. Although about 20 differentcharacteristics of these courses were analyzed,they were not classified according to the par-ticular delivery system that was used (e.g.,PLATO, TICCT). It was found that a typicalcomputer-based institution class raised stu-

dent achievement by about one-quarter of astandard deviation unit.

Courseware.--The term courseware refers tothe programs on PLATO that contain both thecontent and logic of the instruction. An exten-sive variety of different kinds of coursewarehave been developed for this system.

Seven evaluation studies of the PLATOBasic Skills Learning System have indicatedthat the curriculum is at least as effective assome conventional methods in providingremedial instruction in math and reading. Inone such study, 236 high school students inFlorida received remedial instruction inmathematics via PLATO. The median gain forall students was 1.5 grade equivalents afterthey have spent an average of almost 20 hoursin the math lessons. This equivalent equatesto about 1.0 grade equivalent gain for 13 hoursin the curriculum.

Because there was no control group in theFlorida study or in several of the other evalua-tions of the basic skills curriculum there is noway of knowing whether other instructionalmethods might have been as effective or ascost effective. Where control groups were in-cluded in basic skills evaluations, the resultshave been mixed or inconclusive.

Students using PLATO Basic Skills course-ware tend to cover subject matter more quick-ly than do control groups. For example, at aMinnesota correctional facility, 20 readingstudents gained an average of 1.02 points intest scores after 9.6 hours of PLATO-assistedinstruction. The control group of 6 studentsthat had 15 hours of instruction gained 0.08points. Twenty math students gained 1.75points after 17.6 hours of PLATO. After 25hours of non-PLATO instruction the cor-responding 6 control students gained anaverage of only 0.35 points. In a comparisonof 15 PLATO students with 15 controls atBexar Detention Center, the PLATO studentsgained 1.13 points in math tests. The controlgroup, after more than twice the amount of in-struction time, gained only 0.19 points.

PLATO and other computer-based instruc-tion methods have capabilities that provide


unique learning experiences that are impossi-ble or impractical using other means. One ex-ample is a cardiology course at the Universi-ty of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. These pro-grams can simulate virtually any heartbeat.The student is aided by a “stethophone,” anelectronic stethoscope that amplifies the low-frequency sounds of the heart, and a terminalscreen that displays a diagram of the patient’sbody. The student can hear heart sounds in-dicative of virtually all coronary conditions,providing an experience which traditionallywould have required first visiting the radi-ology department to review X-rays, and thenthe wards to see the patient. Because of thewide variety of cardiac dysfunctions, theurgent nature of cardiac lesions, and the largenumber of medical students, students normal-ly would not have the opportunity while inmedical schools to observe every kind of heartdisease. Previously, classes as large as 118students would spend 50 hours in a traditionallecture environment. With the PLATO sys-tem, that instructional time has been reducedto an average of 20 hours and with a higherlearning rate.

Case Study 3: ComputerCurriculum Corp.

Computer Curriculum Corp. (CCC) is a for-profit company that develops and marketscomputer-assisted instruction (CAI) systemsto schools. It was founded in 1967 by PatrickSuppes as a marketing outgrowth of R&D inCAI that began in 1963, at the Institute forMathematical Studies in the Social Sciencesat Stanford University. The institute’s firstinstructional program was a tutorial curricu-lum in elementary mathematical logic. A pre-liminary version of its elementary mathemat-ics program was tested in 1964. The first useof CAI in an elementary school took place in1965, when fourth-grade children were givendaily arithmetic drill-and-practice lessons intheir classroom on a teletype machine con-nected by telephone lines to the institute com-puter. (Before that, the children were trans-ported to the campus.)

During this time, the institute engaged inR&D on the use of CAI in teaching reading.In 1964, this effort was developed into theStanford Initial Reading Project, the purposeof which was to provide a comprehensive, in-dividualized curriculum that would improvebasic reading skills. First, however, the proj-ect analyzed the obstacles encountered byculturally disadvantaged children in acquiringreading skills.

CCC P r o d u c t D e v e l o p m e n t

With private financing, CCC began develop-ing a marketable CAI package based on theresearch that had been done at Stanford. Byabout 1973 the hardware became inexpensiveenough to develop a system that could be mar-keted at a reasonable cost. Thus, CCC startedas a marketing organization in about 1974. Atthat time, about 20 schools throughout thecountry were using CCC’s curricula. Duringthe 1970’s, CCC had the only commerciallyviable and extensively validated computer-based curriculum for elementary schools.

CCC Products and Services

The CCC staff–about 200 employees—pro-vides a turnkey system that includes com-puter hardware, software, curriculum, andsupport services (e.g., teacher training andequipment maintenance). A typical system ina school has about 16 terminals in a CAIlaboratory, although this amount varies per

school.

The curricula consist of drill-and-practicecourses that supplement regular instructionin basic skills, primarily in reading andmathematics. In each course, students use thedrills for 10 minutes per day. The three mostwidely used curricula are the mathematicsstrands, grades 1-6; reading, grades 3-6; andlanguage arts, grades 3-6. Newer courses, suchas reading for comprehension and problemsolving, are rapidly being adopted.

Funding for R&D

Initial support for the work in elementarymathematics and reading came from a private


foundation and was followed up by supportfrom NSF and OE. Since 1963, NSF has sup-ported work with elementary school giftedchildren and OE funded the reading projectat $920,000 from 1964-67. From 1966-68 OEsupported related work in CAI at Stanford.Work with disadvantaged students was sup-ported by title III of the Elementary and Sec-ondary Education Act of 1965, and work withthe handicapped, especially deaf students, wasfunded by the Bureau of Education for theHandicapped from 1970 to 1973.

A reoriented project in elementary readingand math was conducted from 1967 to 1970with a grant from NSF. Its aim was to designand implement a low-cost CAI curriculum thatwould act as a supplement to classroom in-struction. Because the institute lost its Feder-al R&D support in elementary and secondarycurriculum development after 1970, it had toreuse the elementary school curricula, makingsome special applications for hearing-impairedstudents. The institute then turned most ofits attention to the development of university-level curricula.

I m p a c t s

Nearly 1 million students have used CCCcurricula over the past 10 years. In the 1981-82school year, about 200,000 students from 30States, most of whom are from disadvantagedhomes in inner-city and rural environments,used them on a daily basis. CCC educationalmaterials are paid for with title I and otherFederal categorical aid.

Evaluation Studies

CCC curricula have been extensively eval-uated by many groups, including individualschool systems. A wide variety of populationswere studied including inner-city students;students in different sections of the country;rural students in Appalachia; American Indianstudents in New Mexico; and bilingual, deaf,and mentally retarded students.

The studies have shown that, when used asrecommended, CCC’s elementary CAI curric-ula are effective in increasing student achieve

ment levels. Studies comparing gains of CAIstudents with gains of non-CAI students showthat the curricula serves as an effective formof supplementary instruction. Studies compar-ing CAI programs with other supplementaryprograms suggest that CAI participants aremore likely to meet achievement objectives.Longitudinal data indicate that achievementlevels can be expected to increase steadily overseveral years of CAI participation and thatover summer holidays students do not seemto forget the concepts reviewed.

The studies also showed that several bene-fits can be associated with the use of CCC cur-ricula. First, because of the categorical aid pro-vided by the Federal programs, CAI was in-troduced on a broad scale among disadvan-taged students, including those that comefrom low-income backgrounds, that are mem-bers of minority groups, or that are handi-capped. Traditionally, innovation takes placein affluent schools. Second, through the de-tailed and highly individualized feedback pro-vided by the computer, students acquire hab-its of precision in their work. Third, increasedstudent motivation and decreases in vandal-ism and truancy were reported. Finally, stu-dents learned basic skills in reading and math.

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Federally supported R&D had a major im-pact on the state of the art in computer-based learning and teaching. Supportfrom OE and NSF R&D at Stanford Uni-versity significantly influenced the devel-opment of curricula and methods of com-puter-based learning.The focus of the Elementary SecondaryEducation Act on the disadvantaged re-sulted in the development and implemen-tation of high-technology systems thatare effective in providing such studentswith basic skills.Numerous evaluations of the use of CCCcurricula by a wide variety of studentshave all clearly demonstrated that, whenused as recommended, they are effectivein increasing achievement levels in basicskills.

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C a s e S t u d y 4 : C O N D U I T

CONDUIT is a 10-year-old nonprofit orga-nization that packages and distributes high-quality computer-based instructional materi-als to colleges, universities, and secondaryschools. In 1971, when CONDUIT was con-ceived, the major barrier to instructional com-puting was a lack of quality learning materialsand computer software. Although materialshad been developed at universities and col-leges, they were being used only at theoriginating institution. No organization ex-isted to distribute instructional programs.Because there were so few programs available,there was no visible market large enough tojustify investment by commercial publishers.Without distribution mechanisms or author in-centives, few high-quality materials suitablefor distribution were being developed.

Established as a partial solution to thisproblem, CONDUIT was intended to providethe organizational link that would search formaterials, test and review them, revise themso that they could be used at different institu-tions or on different computers, and distributethese packages to other institutions.

P r o f i l e o f C O N D U I T T o d a y

CONDUIT has received support from NSFand the Fund for Improvement of Post Sec-ondary Education (FIPSE). It distributes NSFeducational materials that are reviewed, welldocumented, programed for ease of transferto different computers, and kept up-to-date.The instructional materials are all reviewed byexperts in each subject area for conceptualvalidity, instructional usefulness, and overallquality.

A typical institutional package consists ofa computer program written in BASIC or For-tran, a student guide explaining objectivesand methods of its use, an instructor guide il-lustrating course applications, notes explain-ing how to install the program on the com-puter, and the programs written in a form thatcan be read by the computer. Programs areprovided both for use on small personal com-

puters and for use on the large timesharingcomputers typically found on university cam-puses.

As of August 1981, CONDUIT distributedabout 100 different packages for use in collegeand precollege courses in biology, chemistry,economics, education, geography, humanities,management science, mathematics, physics,political science, psychology, sociology, andstatistics. CONDUIT has gained an interna-tional reputation, distributing nearly 9,000packages to 1,500 institutions in all 50 Statesand 12 foreign countries.

Budget and Financing

CONDUIT currently operates on a monthlybudget of about $30,000. Two-thirds of thisamount is derived from revenues from the saleof packages and other publications. One-third,or about $10,000, is provided from grants fromNSF’s Office of Science and Engineering Ed-ucation Directorate and FIPSE. Since its in-ception in 1971, CONDUIT has received about2.5 million of support from NSF.

Benef i ts

The direct beneficiaries of CONDUIT opera-tions include students, teachers, and authors;commercial publishers; and other groups ben-efit indirectly.●

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About 1 million students have benefitedfrom using CONDUIT materials, based onconservative estimate of 120 student usersper package. (At a large university, onepackage might be used by hundreds of stu-dents over several years.)

At least 18,000 teachers have benefitedfrom the availability of CONDUIT materi-als, at an average of two teachers perpackage. Because CONDUIT materials areso well documented, teachers may readilytailor the materials to fit their own courseand teaching style.

Authors of computer-based learning materi-als also benefit from CONDUIT. Over 2,000copies of CONDUITS guidelines for authors


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have been distributed and over 100 havehad their materials packaged. Authors arerewarded by having their materials widelyused, and they receive royalties on sales.

Commercial publishers are also indirect ben-eficiaries. Now that the commercial viabilityof instructional computer materials hasbeen demonstrated, commercial publishershave become more interested in marketingsuch materials.

CONDUIT serves as a useful model to othergroups both within the United States andin other countries. The Northwest RegionalEducation Laboratory drew on CONDUITexpertise in establishing MicroSift toevaluate educational software for precollegeapplications. The British have drawn heav-ily on the CONDUIT model in establishinga similar network.

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Sustained Support. –CONDUIT receivedsustained support at somewhat below halfa million dollars per year, from NSF for sev-eral years before there was any significantpayoff.

About 40 percent of CONDUIT packageswere originally developed under Federalgrants. Thus, it has provided an importantdissemination function for curriculum devel-opment work.

It is possible for the Federal Governmentto make a major contribution to improvingeducation through a minimal dollar invest-ment, by the creation of an appropriate or-ganizational entity. By 1972, numerousstudies had concluded that no existingorganization could perform the functionsnecessary to break the cycle of barriers todevelopment and dissemination of educa-tional computing materials. A new kind oforganization would be needed. Many dif-ficulties were encountered in attempting toestablish such a new organization. A fewkey individuals in academia and NSF werecommitted to the idea, however, and it was

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through their sustained efforts that theorganization finally became a viable entity.CONDUIT’s relatively low level of Federalsupport, and thus low visibility for severalyears, was probably an advantage in work-ing out the numerous technical, political,and educational problems involved.

CONDUIT could not have become a viableorganization had it not been able to use therevenues from the sale of packages for itscontinued operations. This posed manylegal and contractual difficulties for NSF.However, after prolonged negotiations, fi-nancial arrangements were made that en-abled CONDUIT to become close to self-sustaining.

Coordination With Other Programs andProjects. —The NSF Science Education Di-rectorate encouraged projects supported byits other program areas to collaborate withCONDUIT. This collaboration provided im-portant links to developers of exemplarymaterials and also provided the develop-ment projects with guidance on how tomake useful products.

The support of established institutions,while essential initially, has become less im-portant over time. CONDUIT was original-ly established as a consortium of majoreducational computing networks and uni-versity computer centers. These institutionsand networks provided the testing groundand data base for the early CONDUIT in-vestigations into the area of sharing andtransporting educational software.

It is possible to increase the supply of high-quality, marketable materials by conveyingappropriate guidelines and standards toauthors and developers. CONDUIT hasfound that as more authors and develop-ment projects use its guides, the amount ofquality materials available for distributionhas increased.

From 3 to 4 years are needed in order torealize a return on investment for qualitycomputer-based instructional materials.

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology c 137

This figure may be shortened somewhat as the number of computers increases. How-ever the present situation is such that thetime period required for return on invest-ment is too long for most commercial pub-lishers.

In creating and demonstrating the marketfor high-technology materials, quality ofproducts is more critical than quantity.

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Chapter 8

Conditions That May Affectthe Further Application of

Information Technologyin Education

Chapter 8

Conditions That May Affect theFurther Application of Information

Technology in Education

When attempting to forecast how, when, and where information technologymight be utilized in the education process, particularly by publicly funded institu-tions operating on the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary level, it is nec-essary to look at what is and what is not known about present uses and potentialapplications. While certain forms of information technology-television, forexample-have been in use in education for a number of years and maybe evaluatedbased on widespread applications (e.g., the programming developed by the Children’sTelevision Workshop), other forms of technology-such as the microcomputer andthe video disk-are relatively new and in what might be described as the initialstages of utilization.

Whether or not these technologies live up to their potential in educationalenvironments such as the school, the workplace, and the home is difficult to predict,even in light of successful demonstrations made possible through public and privatefunding. A discussion of what is known about current conditions and commonperceptions in segments of the education community where technologies have hadsome impact and a description of perceptions of hardware and software vendorsabout the structure and potential of the education market are the best means togain an understanding of the circumstances that now prevail.

Available Data on Educational ApplicationsSince few measures have been made of how

information technology is presently being ap-plied in public and private schools, this discus-sion is limited to interpretations of data col-lected about the use of microcomputers, ter-minals, video cassette recorders, and videodisks.

Microcomputers and Terminals

Based on results of a 1980 survey of a sam-ple of 579 of 15,834 school districts in theUnited States, it was projected that about one-half of all districts had one or more computerterminals available for student use. Withinthese districts, approximately one out of fourschools (or one-half of all public institutionson the secondary level, 14 percent of those onthe elementary level, and 19 percent of the

vocational, special education and other types)had at least one microcomputer or terminaldedicated to student instruction (see table 27).This number seems large in the aggregate.However, within individual school districtscomputer availability to individual studentsis severely limited. About 18 percent of thelocal education agencies—the majority smalldistricts of 2,500 students or less–had noplans to initiate computer-based student in-struction for the following 3 years (see table28). It was determined that some 52,000 micro-computers and terminals were scatteredthroughout local school districts for studentuse, with microcomputers outnumbering ter-minals by 3 to 2.1 A 1982 industry survey con-

‘Student Use of CimputeIS in Schools (WaAington, D. C.: Na-tional Center for Education Statistics, 1981).

141


Table 27.—Public School Districts Providing Students Access to at Least One Computer for EducationalPurposes: United States, 1980 (table entries are school districts providing access)

Type of school, by grade level

Combined elementary/Total (at least secondary schools More than

one level) Elementary level Secondary level and special schools one levelType of access (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

At least one microcomputer orone terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,606 2,196 6,161 678 1,884

(in percents of column 1)At least one microcomputer or

one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,606 29 87 9 25At least one microcomputer . . . . . . 6,631 29 84 9 22At least one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,973 21 99 5 25At least one microcomputer and

one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,998 17 95 3 15NOTE :Column 1 represents the unduplicated number of districts providing access to computers at any level, Since some districts make computers available at more

than one type of school, the percepts in cols. 2-4 include duplicated counts of districts. The difference between the total duplicated counts (cols. 2-4) and theunduplicated count (col. 1) represents the percent of districts providing computer access at more than one level (coI. 5).

SOURCE: Student Use of Computers in Schools (Washington, DC.: National Center for Educational Statistics, 1981).

Table 28.—Availability of Computers WithinDistricts: United States, Fall 1980

By number of computers per district

Number of available Districts providing access

computers per district To microcomputers To terminals

At least one . . . . . . . . . 6,631 2,973(in percents)

At least one . . . . . . . . . 100 100One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 352-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 375-1o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1411-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6More than 20 . . . . . . . . 3 8

By the number of schools with access, per district

Number of schools Districts providing access

with access per At elementary At secondarydistrict schools schools

ducted by Strategic, Inc., provides forecastsof microcomputer usage in public and privateelementary, secondary, and postsecondaryschools as well as projections of micro-computer courseware sales through 1990.Assuming a total new shipment base of 36,000

units of hardware in 1980, there will have been,by the end of 1990,2,030,000 such shipmentsto schools. In addition, by the end of 1990 theinstalled base of microcomputers will growfrom 70,000 in 1980 to 8,860,000, with theaverage cost per unit dropping from $2,100 in1980 to $1,100.2 Computer courseware salesare expected to increase during the sameperiod from $4.7 million to $257.5 million. Ifthe projected aftermarket (the sales carriedover from previous years, including course-ware sold with microcomputer systems and re-placement software) is factored into the pro-jection, the total sales figure is expected to risefrom $6.4 million in 1980 to $599.1 million (seetable 29.)

In yet another study of the potential 1980educational market for hardware sales, schoolsrepresented the smallest of five potentialmarkets. The other four—in rank order—weresmall business, scientific, home and office, buta projected growth rate of 300 percent by 1985would place annual sales at $145 million bythat year.3 However, by 1985, the school

‘The newest generation of home computers now sell for be-tween $300 and $1,000, which has made it possible for manymore parents to consider purchasing them as educational aidsfor their children (“The Home Computer Arrives,” New YorkTimes, June 17, 1982, D-1, D-6).

‘Interview with Denis P. Hoye, Director, U.S. Client Services,Strategic, Inc., San Jose, Caiif., regarding report entitled Update on Educational Software: (2mverging Technologies andStrategies, report No. 1500, 1982.

Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of Information Technology in Education ● 143

Table 29.—Total Shipments of Microcomputersin Public and Private Schools Operating on the

Elementary, Secondary, and Postsecondary Levelsand Forecasts of Courseware Sales

Total shipments 1980 1985 End of 1990Total new

shipments . . 36,000 600,000 2,030,000Installed base . 70,000 1,630,000 8,860,000Average cost

per unit . . . . $2,100 $1,600 $1,100

Courseware salesNew courseware

sold . . . . . . . . $4.7 million $77.3 million $257.5 millionAftermarket

sales (carry-over frompreviousyears andcoursewaresold withsystems). . . . $1.7 million $51.5 million $341.6 million

Total . . . . . . . $6.4 million $128.8 million $599.1 millionSOURCE Update on Educational Software: Converging Technologies and

Strategies (San Jose, Calif. Strategic, Inc , 1982)

market was projected to grow at a rate of 300percent, placing annual sales at $145 millionby that year.

Other factors complicate this picture of mar-ket potential. In a 1981 study of 15,442 schooldistricts, it was found that 42 percent had atleast one microcomputer (6,441) with 43 per-cent of these being senior high schools. Juniorhigh and high schools with larger enrollmentswere found to be the most likely to have ac-quired microcomputers, as were those schoolswith per-student instructional materials budg-ets of over $60,000.4

4“Market Survey Discovers Where the Micros Are, ” Ekc-tronic Learning, March/April 1982, p. 14.

Video Cassette Recordersand Video Disk

The growth rate of the general market forvideo cassette recorders is expected to be veryhigh, based on 1980 estimates of 1.5 millionrecorders and 6 million prerecorded cassettessold. However, there are no projections thatdifferentiate the education or school marketfrom other markets such as the home, sogrowth in this type of utilization is hard topredict.5

Views differ about the potential popularityof video disk, even in light of successful pro-grams such as the “First National Kidisc.”One study estimated that sales to all types ofconsumers were less than 50,000 in 1980, al-though manufacturers predicted that 250,000units and 5 million video disks would be soldin 1981.6 Another market analysis, conductedby Strategic, Inc., in 1982, suggests that by1985 when educational programs and disksbecome more widely available, over 250,000video disk players integrated with microcom-puters will be in use. Again, this analysis doesnot isolate the school market. At present,Department of Education officials estimatethat there may be less than 100 video diskunits in place in schools.7

“’Videopublishing: Licensing, Manufacturing and Distribu-tion, ” LINK Research Memorandum, vol. 2, No. 15, December1981.

‘Ibid.‘F. B. Withrow and L. G. Roberts, “The Videodisc: Putting

Education on a Silver Platter,” Ekctronic Learning, May/June1982, pp. 43-44.

Climate for Use of Informationin the Schools

Information gathered in this study about the most common

Technology

use, followed by drill andthe use of information technology in selected practice and some simulation exercises. Com-school districts seems to indicate that the puter literacy courses are particularly popularcomputer-based education is far and away the in some areas on the junior high level.8

most accepted at this time. As the case studiesin this report illustrate, computer literacy pro- 8A. Luehrmann, “Computer Literacy: What It Is; Why It’sgrams for instructors and students represent Important, ” Electronic Learning, May/June 1982, PP. 20, 22.


A 1980 survey of school districts sponsoredby the National Center for Education Statis-tics (NCES) confirms the widespread frequen-cy of computer literacy courses within schoolswith at least one terminal or microcomputer.NCES also cites cases where the computer hasbeen used to improve student learning inselected subject areas and to stimulate highachievers. Less than half of the districtsresponding to the survey utilize the computerin remedial and compensatory programs.When sample districts contacted in the courseof the survey were asked to identify opera-tional and planning needs critical to the initia-tion of use or to the expanded use of computer-assisted instruction, the two most frequentlymentioned were teacher training and greatervariety of instructional software programs.

Approximately one-third of all districts indi-cated the need for assistance in program plan-ning, technical support once programs are ini-tiated, and financial assistance for hardwareand software purchases.9 Taken together, theOTA case studies of local school districts showthat funding often became a critical factor inthe use of computers in education, especiallyin light of reductions in Federal support toschools, as well as diminishing State and localresources. When traditional funding sourcesin these districts were insufficient or unavail-able for establishing computer programs, com-

‘National Center for Education Statistics, op. cit.

puter manufacturers or foundations were ap-proached and/or individual parents or PTAsmade donations. These efforts were not equal-ly successful, since local communities varysignificantly with respect to the level ofresources that they can make available for ed-ucational activities.

The lack of available courseware was alsoidentified in the case studies as a majorobstacle to initiation and/or expansion of com-puter education programs in schools. Often,when hardware is available and when instruc-tors have a positive view of it, the lack of com-mercial courseware induces teachers to createtheir own courseware either through use ofschool purchased authoring systems or othermeans. The quality of this courseware variessignificantly, frequently because instructorshave mastered—usually on their own initi-ative—only the basics of the authoring systemor programing language.10

In some instances, the price of the course-ware may be an obstacle to more widespreadcomputer use. Table 30 includes informationon the average prices, which range from $37.00to over $200.00, for courseware available forsale through industry, Government, andfoundations. ll

‘OA. Bork, Large &ale Production and Distribution of Cbm-puterh’dedLaming Modukw (Irvine, Calif.: Educational Tech-nology Center, University of California, n.d.).

11 The Education] Microcomputer Software Mdcet (OAPark, Ill.: TALMIS, 1981).

Table 30.-The Educational Courseware Industry

Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of /formation Technology in Education ● 145

Incorporating the use of the computer in atraditional school environment-characterizedby set class schedules, primarily daytime pro-grams-can present some complex problems,even if the technology is highly valued as aneffective and efficient instructional resource.Teacher resistance may also be a factor, in theuse, or the extent of use, especially if limitedschool budgets have resulted in heavier teach-

ing loads and less time for teachers to considerpossible new pedagogical approaches. A lackof understanding of the potential of the tech-nology in the classroom and the lack of in-structor knowledge of programing or use ofauthoring packages for courseware develop-ment may also determine if and how informa-tion technologies will be applied.

Hardware and Educational SoftwareVendors: Views of the Education Market

In addition to conditions that might affectthe use of technology in the schools, there arecertain circumstances that may have a bear-ing on how producers of hardware and educa-tional software approach the education mar-ket–in particular, publicly funded institu-tions.

For several years, hardware producers, es-pecially manufacturers of microcomputerssuch as Tandy, Apple, and Commodore, haveattempted to develop the school market whilecultivating the home market. Apple and Com-modore have in some instances placed microsin schools free of charge, in order to createawareness in teachers and administrators aswell as to create opportunities for experimen-tation. In most instances to date, the com-panies were responding to requests of schooldistricts. Apple and other producers have alsobeen active in pushing for Federal legislationthat would create tax incentives for the dona-tion of computers and related equipment toelementary and secondary schools. H.R. 5573,“The Technology Education Act of 1982, ” in-troduced in the 97th Congress calls for rais-ing the maximum allowable corporate char-itable contribution from 10 to 30 percent ofannual income. The bill was stimulated by Ap-ple’s offer to donate computer centers to

75,000 elementary and secondary schools—agift valued at between $200 million and $300million.

The central problem faced by microcom-puter producers and manufacturers of othertypes of hardware, such as the video cassetterecorder and the video disk, is that they can-not define the real potential of the schoolmarket either in its individual segments or inits aggregate form. A recent industry-spon-sored market analysis for video disk, for ex-ample, cautioned against being overly opti-mistic about sales to all types of consumersover the next few years.12 And, as is illustratedby the variety of different projections onmicrocomputer sales in general and potentialsales to educators in particular, the futureresponse to this technology is still open toquestion. Because of these uncertainties, usingexisting sales strategies with the school mar-ket as a way of testing the market potentialwithout having to add significantly to marketoverhead. However, this approach may furtherimpede potential sales, if hardware and soft-ware specialists unfamiliar with curriculumdesign and other aspects of school administra-tion attempt to sell to educators.

“LINK Research Memorandum, op. cit.


Conditions Affecting CommercialCourseware

A recent issue of Electronic Learning con-tains a directory of zoo educational softwareproducers.

13 An industry-sponsored study con-ducted in 1980 identified some 304 educationalsoftware developers—including traditionalprint publishers, hardware manufacturers,software firms of various sizes, and founda-tions and government-sponsored projects (seetable 31). Although, these numbers would seemto suggest that the educational coursewarebusiness is thriving, this is not the case. Thereis considerable skepticism—especially withinthe software industry-about the school mar-ket and its potential. Industry representativesinterviewed in the course of the 1982 Stra-tegic, Inc., survey were concerned about thedifficulty of segmenting the software marketin order to develop products targeted to par-ticular grade levels and subject matter needs.Print publishers who have entered the in-dustry are doing so judiciously in most casesby adapting existing textbooks to machine-readable form or by creating software toenhance existing textbooks and other hard-copy materials. This situation differs fromthat in the software development market forpersonal computers where there are now some1,000 active firms and over 5,000 availableprograms.14 Some hardware and softwarefirms have developed authoring systems foruse by educators, but commercial coursewarenow available does not meet many of the needsof local school systems. Courseware quality isalso of concern to some educators. At the sametime, the up-front costs associated withcourseware development—estimated by oneindustry representative at over $250,000 perpackage—is more than most firms, given themarket uncertainties, want to risk on an“unknown quantity. ” The Department ofEducation’s recently announced “TechnologyInitiative” provides for matching funds to bemade available to commercial software devel-

●

‘s’’ Electronic Learnin g Software Directory,” Electronic Learn-ing, May/June 1982, 1-A-1O-A.

“’’Using Personal Computers, ” LINK Research Repor4 vol.3, No. 1, 1982.

DevelopmentTable 31.—What Are the Industries

Competing for Business

Education/AV publishers—Companies traditionally supply-ing books and AV products to the school marketplace.

12 companies during the period under study (18 withproducts as of September 1981) including:

Educational ActivitiesMillikenRandom HouseScott ForesmanSRASociety for Visual EducationSterling Swift Publishing

Hardware Manufacturers-- Microcomputers manufacturesdeveloping courseware products for the schools.

5 companies, including:AppleAtariCommodoreTandyTexas Instruments

Software houses—Software companies selling more than$85,000 in courseware or companies with total software salesover $150,000.

19 companies, including:Brain BoxCreative Computing SoftwareData CommandEdu-WareHartley SoftwareMicro-EdMicroSoftMUSEPrograms Design, Inc.

Small developers-Software companies selling less than$85,000 in courseware and with total sales of all products lessthan $150,000.

Approximately 250 companies (13.6°/0 sampled for thisreport-see app. IX), including:

Avant-Garde CreationsBetamaxBluebird’sCook’s Computer Co.Custom ComputerEducational CoursewareMicro piTeacher’s PetT. H. E. S.I.S.Teach Yourself by Computer

Foundations and Government-sponsored projects—Orga-nized development and dissemination projects sponsored byprivate foundations, schools, and local, State, or FederalGovernment.

Approximately 12 agencies, including:Apple Education FoundationCONDUITDepartment of EducationMECCNational Science Foundation

SOURCE: The Education/ Microcomputer Software Market (Oak Park l Ill,:TALMIS, 1981),

Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of Information Technology in Education ● 147

opers to assist in the creation of courseware unknown, however, whether this incentive willfor the schools that, because of market size, be sufficient to attract more commercialmay not otherwise be developed. It is still interest.

Summary of Current ConditionsGiven what is known about present applica-

tions of information technology in the schools,it is clear that the use of computers and otherforms of technology is far from being institu-tionalized at this time. Limited school funds,educators’ limited recognition of the potentialof the technology, limited computer literacyamong instructors and students, and the lim-ited variety and range in high-quality, com-

mercial courseware have all contributed to thissituation. It is difficult to predict when or ifconditions in publicly funded educational in-stitutions will change. However, expanded useof information technology-especially compu-ters—in the home and in the workplace mayresult in pressure from parents, students, andeven employers on local school districts toutilize technology in the instructional process.

Chapter 9

Federal Role in Education

Chapter 9

Federal Role in Education

The Federal Government has long been in-volved in encouraging or providing financialassistance to State and local educational agen-cies. The first Federal aid to education oc-curred with the passage of the Land Ordinancein 1785. Federal aid continues today in a veryexpanded capacity.

Most Federal education initiatives often at-tempted to address or remedy issues not di-rectly related to education. For example, theearly land grants were designed not only toensure public education in the newly formedterritories but also to “make public lands moreattractive to prospective buyers.”1 In the 19thcentury, the Merrill Act was enacted to re-spond to the growing educational need forpractical higher education in the areas of sci-ence, agriculture, and industrial training. Simi-——.-——

‘L. E. Gladieier and T. R. Wolanin, Cimgress and the CMlegw(Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976).

EducationThe Early Years: 1642-1860

In 1642, the Massachusetts General Courtpassed the Massachusetts Bay Law establish-ing a precedent of local responsibility for edu-cation. This act and the subsequent legislationof 1647, the Old Deluder Law, which called forthe creation of local public schools accordingto population size, were extended on a nationalscale in 1785 by the passage of land ordi-nances. Under these ordinances, moneys wereset aside from the sale of lands and dedicatedto the maintenance of public schools. Thisprinciple of Federal aid was consistently af-firmed through a series of land grants (State-hood Acts) throughout the next century. His-torians have debated the intent of the legisla-tors infied arights

these actions—whether this effort signi-concerted attempt to preempt Statein educational matters. Nevertheless,

larly, in 1917 a vocational education act waspassed to reorient local education programsto meet the needs of changing labor markets.

By the 1950’s, an expanded Federal role inproviding educational services was deemednecessary. Support came in numerous forms,from grants for school construction and veter-an assistance to impact aid programs. By 1965a Federal role in education had been generallyaccepted. The questions raised were no longer,what role, if any, should the Federal Govern-ment play; instead, Congress sought to deter-mine what type of investment should be madeand where and how it would be most effective.The “how” signified the next important shiftin the educational debate—from Congress tothe courts. Today many educational issues areresolved in the judicial arena. In resolvingthese issues the courts rely on interpretationsof the constitution as well as on recent educa-tional legislation.

Legislation98.5 million acres had been set aside for educa-tional purposes by the Federal Government.2

The omission of education from express in-clusion in the constitution has often been thefocus of the debate concerning the extent ofthe Federal Government’s role in the educa-tional system. Despite its absence, the framersand other leaders of the time repeatedly calledfor such a Federal role. Most of the proposals,however, were directed at higher education.For President Washington, a Federal role wasimportant for three reasons. First, there wasa desire to encourage a strictly American rath-er than a European education. Second, he per-ceived that nationally sponsored educationwould eliminate sectional and local prejudices.And third, as indicated in his Farewell Ad-

‘S. W. Tiedt, The Role of the Federal Government in Educa-tion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966).

151


dress, Washington considered “the promotionof political intelligence as a national safe-guard. ” Despite his urgings and the urgingsof other leaders, the principal of local controlas set forth in the Massachusetts Bay Law re-mained constant.3

The land grants and the Enabling Acts orStatehood Acts are the most comprehensiveFederal policy implemented during this time.Other individual educationally oriented proj-ects were passed by Congress but they wereaimed at specific educational concerns such asthe founding in 1802, of the U.S. MilitaryAcademy at West Point.

Other Federal aid during this era took theform of surplus revenue from the Treasury De-partment. Moneys were distributed to theStates but had no specific target. Much of thesurplus revenue was channeled into the publicschools by the States. Also the PreemptionAct of 1841 and the granting in 1849 of landsto the States by the Federal Government con-verted further Federal moneys to the publicschools.

During this time, universal public educationbecame accepted. This new system of publiceducation was accompanied by the develop-ment of a professional class of educators. Bythe closing years of the 19th century, thisgroup became a highly effective educationallobby.

The Years 1860-1930

Between 1860 and 1930, the role and influ-ence of the Federal Government in the educa-tional system increased markedly.4 Althoughthis growth was, to a great extent, the resultof the Civil War, it was also dictated by theNation’s shift to an industrial society, coupledwith great demographic changes. More impor-tantly, the U.S. Government in the post-Warperiod pursued many heretofore State and lo-cal concerns of which education was just one.

‘G. Lee, The Strategies for Federal Aid: First Phase, 187@1890 (New York: Columbia University Teachers College, 1949).

4Tiedt, op. cit.

Much of the post-Civil War activity was di-rected at rectifying regional inequities in theSouth. Educational measures enacted by theRepublicans allowed for unprecedented Feder-al influence in southern institutions. Also, theilliteracy rates in the Nation, particularly inthe South (42 percent rate of illiteracy), wereextraordinarily high, necessitating some sortof Federal remedy.

The passage of the Merrill Act of 1862,which set aside land for the establishment ofschools, signified the first such Federal aid toschools.5 However, unlike earlier land ordi-nances, the act’s target was institutions ofhigher education. The arguments in the debateover the Merrill Act are strikingly similar tothose raised in educational debates today: itsconstitutionality, the preemption of Statesrights, its selectivity of focus, and the cost ofthe legislation, were all cited as cause for de-feat. In its favor were arguments citing a dem-onstrated need for agricultural, industrial, andscientific and technological training, and citingregional inequities in need of remedy.6

The next significant Federal initiative wasthe creation of the Office of Education in 1867.The debate concerning its establishment, whilecontinuing to focus on what role, if any, theFederal Government should play in traditionalState and local affairs, also raised the ques-tion of public v. private education. A Federalrole was seen as posing a threat to private edu-cation, and the Catholic Church lobbied exten-sively against the bill. The education depart-ment that ultimately emerged was empoweredto collect educational data and statistics, todisseminate information concerning education,and to encourage educational endeavors. Es-tablishing a Federal role, the creation of theOffice of Education lead to the formation ofcongressional committees with specific educa-tional responsibilities. In 1869, the Depart-ment of Education was relegated to bureaustatus and was transferred to the Departmentof the Interior. By 1930, the bureau was af-filiated with the Federal Security Agency and

‘Lee, op. cit.‘Ibid.

Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 153

later with the Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare.’

Two other acts were passed before the closeof the century, the Hatch Act of 1887 and thesecond Merrill Act. The former added agricul-tural experimental stations to the land grantcolleges, and the latter committed additionalFederal funds to certain areas of higher educa-tion.

A number of other educationally related pro-posals were considered but not passed. Theseare pertinent because in many ways theyformed the framework of the educational de-bate that continues today. The Hoar bill, intro-duced in 1870, sought to establish a nationalsystem of education. It proposed the creationof “satisfactory common schools, and wherethe States failed to do so, to authorize the Fed-eral Government to provide them.”8 Hoar en-visioned his proposal as one of”. . . protectionfor American economic interests. No Americanstatesman will be unwilling to give the Ameri-can workman the advantage in the great in-dustrial competition which results from supe-riority of knowledge.”9 The bill did not specifyFederal aid, but instead advocated that a Fed-eral standard be set nationally for schools. Assuch, it represented to some an intrusion intoState concerns. As with other initiatives of thetime, it was specifically targeted at southerninstitutions.

The Hoar bill resulted in the coalescing ofpositions of professional groups concernedwith educational issues. It also created anawareness in Congress of the issues involvedin an educational debate. The National Educa-tion Association (NEA) roundly denounced thelegislation because it specified a Federal rolebut not Federal assistance. The Catholic lob-by viewed the legislation as an intrusion intoCatholic educational practices and as an attempt

‘Ibid.‘Ibid; and S. Tiedt, The Role of Federal Aid: First Phase,

18701890 (New York: Oxford University Press).‘Brookings Institution, The llff~ts of Federal Programs on

Higher Education (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution,1962); and C. Dobbins (cd.), Higher Education and the FederalGovernmen~ Programs and Problems (Washington, D. C.:American Council on Education, 1967).

to create one educational norm for the coun-try. Moreover, this bill, along with others dis-cussed below, raised issues concerning theFederal role and Federal assistance that werenot resolved until 1965 with the passage of theElementary and Secondary Education Act(ESEA). The issue of equity associated witha single national standard is in many respectssimilar to those parts of ESEA that allocatemoneys for the educationally disadvantaged.

Two bills, the Pearce bill of 1872 and theBurnside bill of 1879, proposed a national fundfor public education from the sale of publiclands. The earlier bill sought to assist Statesthat would provide free education to childrenbetween the ages of 6 and 16. The moneysraised were to be used for teachers’ salaries.It is interesting to note that the bill wasamended to recognize segregated schools;thus, it signaled a recognition of race as anissue in the educational debate. The latter billdiffered in that land grant colleges were eligi-ble to receive one-third of the educationalgrants from the land sales. In addition, theeducational fund was to be supported with sur-plus moneys from the Patent Office. Theserevenues, combined with those from the landsales, were to be invested in U.S. bonds, thusestablishing a permanent educational fund.Both bills failed to pass both houses. They alsosignified a return to the segmented as opposedto a national approach to educational con-cerns.

Although no education bills were passed inthis decade, they did serve to raise issues cen-tral to the education debate. A concurrent de-velopment was a significant growth in orga-nized educational advocacy groups and lob-bies. For example, NEA experienced unprece-dented development and growth as a profes-sional group and lobby that could, wholesale,either support or reject education measures.This had not happened previously.

The education legislation considered in the1880’s differed from previous funding mecha-nisms in that it sought to provide Federal rev-enue for education directly to the States. Italso proposed temporary aid as opposed to

154 ● informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

long-term aid. In this regard, the Blair bill, in-troduced five times in this decade and passedby the Senate three times, is of particular in-terest. It stipulated that Federal aid shouldbe provided for 10 years to address emergen-cy conditions in the South, that States wereto supply matching funds, that funds were tobe distributed according to State illiteracyrates (of persons over 10 years old), that de-nominational schools were to be excluded, andthat the funds were to be granted within Fed-eral guidelines.10

More than any other education legislation,the Blair bill brought educational issues to thefore. None of the measures incorporated intothe bill had ever been addressed together, insuch a comprehensive way, before. Publicawareness was stimulated and pressures wereexerted. Groups that actively participated inthe Blair bill debate included not only NEAand the Catholic lobby but also Protestant de-nominations, business interests, agriculturalinterests, the press, and political parties. Forthe first time, education was included as aplatform issue by the Republican Party. TheDemocratic Party strongly advocated State’srights and local authority over education pol-icy.

The first education-related proposal enactedin the early part of the 20th century was theSmith-Hughes Act of 1917. It provided match-ing funds to States for developing curriculain agricultural, industrial, and home econom-ics; for administrative costs; and for teachers’salaries. This act was amended continuouslyuntil 1968. The George-Barden Act of 1946 in-creased the number of vocational educationprograms and placed administration of theseprograms in the Office of Education. Fromthen on, the amendments to the legislationreduced the Federal role in agricultural areasand placed more emphasis on education for thedisadvantaged.

Very little educationally oriented legislationwas considered or passed during the next sev-eral decades. Between 1935 and 1943, the Na-

‘OP. Morgan, “Academia and the Federal Government, ” Pol-icy Studes Journal vol. 10, September 1981, p. 75.

tional Youth Administration (NYA) channeledfunds to a number of institutions in supportof work study programs. Over 600,000 stu-dents benefited from the NYA programs.ll

Some teachers and some school constructionwere funded under a variety of New Deal pro-grams (CCC, WPA, and the Federal Emergen-cy Relief Administration), but none of thesemeasures signified an increased Federal role.This scarcity of legislation was due primarilyto the Nations’ fiscal crisis and to the fear bylegislators that any program once institutedwould become permanent.

Several education bills were proposed dur-ing the 1930’s and 1940’s that reintroducedthe concept of general Federal aid, but nonewere successful. A bill for a student loan pro-gram, the first of its kind, passed in 1943. Jun-iors and seniors in high school and graduateand professional students in the fields of sci-ence, health, and engineering were eligible forfederally sponsored loans if, following comple-tion of their studies, they joined the war ef-fort. Also, the Serviceman’s ReadjustmentAct of 1944, the GI bill, and Public Law 16for disabled veterans were passed. The GI billwas amended to include Korean veterans. Aswith the case in secondary education, a pat-tern of connecting educational legislation toother national concerns was also set in highereducation. “Its (the Government’s) interestwas confined to using higher education to dealwith specific national problems. ”12 The legisla-tion did revive the religious and racial contro-versies. Federal aid to education was men-tioned in the Democratic Party platform in1944 with the stipulation that any aid pro-vided be administered by the States. Aid toeducation was not included in the Republicanplatform until 1948.

The Expanding Federal Role:1950-1970’s

By proposing school construction grants tolocal communities, most of the congressional

“Ibid.“J. L. Jundquist, PoL”tics and Policy, The Eisenhower, Ken-

nedy, and Johnson Years (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institu-tion, 1968.)

—-— ———

Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education “ 155

initiative relating to education in the 1950’ssought to circumvent the divisive religious is-sues inherent in the educational debate. Ittherefore became politically attractive to sup-port this form of Federal aid, which was basedon the increasing numbers of children enteringthe school population (baby boom.) In 1941,the Lanham Act was passed providing assist-ance to local communities in lieu of tax reve-nues to soften the impact of the war effort onState and local governments. Moneys wereallocated to nursery schools and other school-related needs and were later expanded into theImpact Aid programs. The funds and scopeof the Lanham Act were increased by PublicLaw 815 and Public Law 874, which providedconstruction and operating grants to Stateand local districts.

The continuing debate concerning an appro-priate Federal role led to President Eisen-hower’s establishing a White House Confer-ence on Education in 1954. The task forcerecommended that the Federal Governmentshould provide financial aid to State and localcommunities for educational purposes. It con-cluded that there was an appropriate role forthe Federal Government in educationalmatters.

The National Defense Education Act (NDEA)of 1958 was passed as a consequence of thewidely held belief that the educational systemwas inadequate in mathematics, science, andforeign language instruction. This belief wasdirectly related to the successful launching ofthe Soviet spacecraft, Sputnik. Moneys wereprovided on a matching basis to public schoolsand as long-term loans to private institutionsfor needed equipment in these instructionalfields, for curriculum development, for guid-ance counseling, for vocational education indefense-related fields, and for teacher trainingin foreign language instruction. The passageof NDEA resulted in a substantial increase inFederal aid to education. Since Federal dollarshad to be matched by State and local fundsunder provisions of the act, the overall invest-ment in NDEA programs was large. Between1958 and 1961, $163.2 million in Federal mon-ey were dispersed. Approximately 75 percent

of these funds were directed at developing sci-ence curricula.

The passage of NDEA led to an examina-tion of Federal role in postsecondary educa-tion. This examination was also fostered bythe increasing numbers of students enteringpostsecondary institutions. The educationallegislation passed in the 1950’s, which in-cluded postsecondary provisions, togetherwith the legislation passed in the 1960’s pavedthe way for major legislation in the 1970’s.This steady growth of Federal involvement,culminating with the passage of the Educa-tion Amendments Act of 1972 (Public Law92-318), was similar in process to the develop-ment of the Federal role in secondary educa-tion.

Two major pieces of legislation that Con-gress passed in the 1960’s were the VocationalEducation Act of 1963 and the Higher Educa-tion Facilities Act of 1963. The former was amuch expanded version of the Smith-HughesAct of 1917, establishing a permanent pro-gram for vocational education and settingaside 10 percent of the annual appropriationsfor research and development (R&D) projectsin vocational demonstration projects. Concom-itant to the passage of the Vocational Educa-tion Act was the passage of two amendmentsto NDEA, that extended the act and increasedthe amount of funds available for studentloans. The latter provided Federal aid for con-struction of facilities at postsecondary institu-tions. This act was aptly named the “bricksand mortar act. ” Community junior collegeswere covered by this legislation as was the con-struction of libraries at these institutions.13

The next major educational act, the Elemen-tary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA),was passed in 1965. Its passage signaled anunprecedented entry by the Federal Govern-ment into educational affairs. Between thepassage of these two landmark educationalacts, Congress and members of the education-al community continuously debated what anexpanded Federal role in education should en-

‘gIbid.


tail. In 1964, during the Johnson administra-tion, the War on Poverty had become a domes-tic priority. ESEA, which was one outcome,focused on the poor and disadvantaged child.It incorporated a wide range of programswhich, while ensuring the acts passage bytheir complexity, ultimately seriously hin-dered its effectiveness. However, a diversityof interests rallied to support the act. As withprevious educational legislation, a constituen-cy was built around a noneducational issue.At this time the three main issues to overcomein enacting any educational legislation at thistime were church and state relations, Staterights versus Federal control, and race rela-tions.14

ESEA provided funds for educational R&D,for promoting educational innovation, and forassisting State agencies to establish these pro-grams. The five original titles addressed manyissues. Title I provided Federal funds to areaswith concentrations of educationally and eco-nomically deprived children. Other titles of theact were designed to assist State agencies invarious areas: title II—school libraries, text-books, and instructional materials; title III–educational services and resource centers; titleIV–educational R&D; and title V–State ad-ministrative needs. (See appendix of this chap-ter.)

Initially, two poverty indicators were usedto distribute ESEA funds: based on the 1960census: 1) the number of children between 5and 17 from families with an income of lessthan $2,000, and 2) the number of children be-tween 5 and 17 from families with income ex-ceeding $2,000 receiving aid under title IV ofthe Social Security Act, Aid to Families WithDependent Children. Responsibilities for ad-ministering the act rested with both the Com-mission of Education and State and local edu-cation agencies.

The act was amended several times. Thesupplemental enactments titles focused on theissues of Federal regulation and grants, assist-

“F. J. Munger and R. F. Fenno, National Policies and FederalAid to Education (Syracuse, N. Y.: Syracuse University Press,1962); and J. L. Jundquist, op. cit.

ance to the handicapped, and bilingual educa-tion. ESEA was designed so that its programswould be administered by the State agencieswith local input. The Federal role would be todistribute funds and to influence the work ofthe States. Accordingly, control was main-tained in the State and local communities,resolving one of the major conflicts in the edu-cational debate.15

Many of the amendments and changes inESEA were effected for political as well as foreducational reasons. One unanticipated out-growth of the legislation was the use of ESEAas a means of desegregating schools. Title VIof the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that “noperson in the United States shall, on theground of race, color, or national origin be ex-cluded from participation in, be denied benefitof, or be subjected to discrimination under anyprogram or activity receiving Federal finan-cial assistance. ” ESEA was chosen as a con-duit to enforce this title and to desegregateschools. Another reason for modifying ESEAwas because its meaning was confusing. Everytitle involved different interested parties anddifferent funding mechanisms and addresseddifferent educational concerns. Enforcementand distribution of the funds was administeredby the Office of Education (OE), which tradi-tionally relied on the State and local agenciesfor advice and enforcement. OE was split overwhat this massive and complex educationallegislation meant and how to implement it.Many of the changes in the act reflected anattempt to resolve these problems.

Many of the original concerns surroundingESEA still exist; its complexity, the amountof funding, and dissatisfaction by State agen-cies over Federal regulations. Disillusioned by

‘6tJ. S. Berke and M. Kirst, Federal Aid to Education: WhoBenefik? Who Governs? (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1972);F. M. Wirt and M. Kirst, The Politi”cd Web of American Schools(Boston, Mass,: Little, Brown & Co., 1972); F. M. Wirt and M.Kirst, The Political and Social Foundations of Education (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Corp., 1972); and M. Kirst,“The Growth of Federal Influence in Education, ” in Uses ofthe Sociology of Education, C, Wayne Gordon (cd.) (The 73rdYearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,Part II) (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education,1974).


their concerns, both its proponents and oppo-nents sought to amend the act.

The total funds allocated to federally spon-sored programs appear to be a sizable Federalinvestment in education ($8.8 billion in fiscalyear 1978-79). But when viewed as a propor-tion of a State and local education budget, theFederal investment seems less significant.Federal funds have accounted for between 6and 9 percent of State and local educationbudgets. Monetarily, then, this influence is rel-atively small.

Concerns by local and State officials overregulations designed to enforce provisions ofthe act have been extensive and numerous.Many of the regulations resulted from theoriginal complexity of ESEA and from theneed to target funds to discreet groups withspecial needs. Concerns and fears relating toFederal control over State and local educationprograms have not been realized. This has re-sulted from a combination of factors: the smallinvestment in each program per communityor per State by the Federal Government; staff-ing constraints at the Federal level, making“control” or extensive influence difficult; pro-visions written into the act prohibiting suchauthority; and, finally, State pressures againstincreased Federal influence.16

“M. Timpane (cd.), The Federal Interest in Financing School-ing (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1974).

TheAs ESEA moved into the

With the passage of education legislation inthe 1960’s and 1970’s, the role of the FederalGovernment in education is, generally speak-ing,

●

●

●

●

●

.fivefold:

—

Promotion of equal opportunity as exem-plified by ESEA, the Education Amend-ments of 1972, by grants and legislationfor the handicapped, by desegregation ef-forts and bilingual decisions, and byothers.Innovation and stimulation of educationreform through research grants, teachertraining, vocational education, readingimprovement programs, and others.Provision of grants in support of educa-tional research–the results of which couldhave broad applications in the Nation’sschools.Promotion of educational preparation foremployment, which can be traced to theSmith-Hughes Act of 1917. “The school’spotential contribution to economic pro-ductivity was thus the first, and for a longtime, the only expressed national interestin education. ’ ’17

Provision of limited funding targetingspecific needs areas such as planninggrants for management purposes on theState level, equalization reforms for Statefinance mechanisms, instructional equip-ment, and others.

“Ibid.

Courts and Educationimplementation and political issues and which the legislative

phase, the educational debate moved into thejudicial arena. The courts have addressed nu-merous education-related issues ranging fromquestions of student and teacher behavior tothose of access to educational resources. Theseissues, traditionally addressed on the Stateand local level and more recently by Congress,have now become the work of the courts.

The schools have been caught up in thecomplex multiracial and ethnic societal prob-lems of our times which involve great moral

and ‘executive branches of the governmentseem unwilling or unable to resolve. Althoughlawyers and law courts in general possess nospecial expertise in educational matters, theyhave nonetheless been called upon to lend ahelping hand with these school problems,which are fundamentally a function of socialchange taking place in society over the pasttwenty years or more. 18

— —- ------“J. Hogan, “Law, Society and the Schools, ” in Uses of the

%cio)ogy of Education, C. W. Gordon (cd.) (The 73rd Yearbookof Education, Part 111) (Chicago: National Society for the Studyof Education, 1974), p. 411.


The involvement of the courts in educationalissues can, from a historical perspective, bedivided into three phases. Prior to 1850, educa-tional issues were considered by the judiciaryas State and local matters with no court role.Between 1850 and 1950, the court maintainedthis stance. When many parents brought casesbefore the courts, the courts usually foundthat the 10th amendment declared educationto be a State and local responsibility. The thirdstage, from 1950 to present, can be character-ized as one of active judicial involvement ineducational issues, particularly by the SupremeCourt. During this period the courts were in-volved in all aspects of education, includingadministration, program development, andorganization.

Desegregation. –Court involvement in edu-cational matters began in 1954 with the land-mark Brown v. the Topeka Board of Educa-tion decision. In the Brown case, the courtsdeclared that schools that were deliberatelysegregating children on the basis of race wereinherently unequal and thus were creating asituation that was unacceptable. “Separatebut equal” was found to constitute a violationof the 14th amendment. This decision not onlypaved the way for desegregating schools in theSouth; it also opened up many other legalissues that are still being contested today.Nevertheless, the Brown decision did not trulybecome effective until the passage of the CivilRights Act of 1964. Since the Brown case,courts have addressed such questions as thoserelating to church and state relations in theschools, to free speech, to the financing of edu-cation, to curriculum, and to student andteacher rights. Most of these cases focused onthe first and 14th amendments. In general, thecourts held that State and local governmentsshould retain their authority over most educa-tional matters.

Religion in the Schools.—In one major areaof court involvement, church and state rela-tions, the first and the 10th amendments havebeen used to balance competing constitutionalquestions. The courts have drawn a very fineline in their decisions regarding religious is-sues in education, and no clear pattern has

emerged. The courts have ruled, for example,that there can be no direct aid to parochialschools, yet the States may lend textbooks tothese institutions. In addition, parents can bereimbursed for transportation costs to paro-chial schools. With regard to principles of freespeech, State laws requiring prayers in publicschools and those preventing the teaching ofthe Darwinian theory of evolution in publicschools have been found to be unconstitu-tional. Similarly, the courts have ruled that en-forced pledging of allegiance or saluting theflag is in violation of the first amendment. Ingeneral, questions or issues that impose spe-cific standards of conduct on students andteachers have been found to be unconstitu-tional. 19

Parental Right to Educate.–Another areaof limited court involvement has been thequestion of parental right to educate childrenin the home. Since questions arise from Stateto State as to the legality of home instruction,most parents do not openly acknowledge re-moving their children from the public schoolsystem for fear of reprisal from State agenciesand ensuing court actions. It is estimated thatthere are 1 million parents engaging in homeinstruction. Thirty-two States now have legalprovisions for home instruction, but again,these vary from State to State.

State and Local Funding Mechanisms.–Nearly one-third of all State and local expendi-tures are education related. With increasingpressures from the courts, from parents, frominterest groups, and from the Federal Govern-ment to provide educational services, local dis-tricts are reexamining the means by whichtheir programs are funded. School finance re-form comes at a time of declining enrollmentin many parts of the country and in a climateof reduced funding both on the State level (tax-payer revolts) and nationally, with budget re-ductions and challenges to the traditionalmeans of funding-property taxes. A brief his-torical examination of funding mechanisms ismerited because funding reforms will affectthe ability of State and local districts to in-

*eIbid.


troduce information technologies into theirschools.

The educational structure in most North-eastern States largely followed that of Massa-chusetts, in which towns were divided into dis-tricts that retained responsibility over educa-tional matters including school finance-apractice that continued through the 18th cen-tury. In the early part of that century, North-ern States began to exercise minimal controlover inspection, curriculum, and similar insti-tutional concerns. Increasing State involve-ment gave rise to the growth of State boardsof education and, by the 19th century, theState exercised a good deal of control overeducational matters through these boards.Throughout this time of expanded State juris-diction, financial control remained a localresponsibility.

The South, unlike the North, generally reliedheavily on the States for both administrativetasks and financial support. This practice be-came widespread in the post-Civil War period,at which time a system of State financing oflocal districts was firmly established.

In the 20th century with the rise of indus-trialization and increased urbanization, local-ities turned more and more to the States forfinancial relief from the growing educationalburden. It became evident at this time, as inmany of the cases before the courts today, thatthere were wide discrepancies among districtson the amount of funds expended per child andper school. Some States did increase the fund-ing allocations, though the impact was mini-mal and inequities remained.

By the 1960’s, spending on elementary andsecondary education was increasing at an an-nual rate of 10 percent, with enrollments grow-ing by about 30 percent. In the 1970’s withthe rapid decline in enrollments, court chal-lenges to the finance systems, and pressuresfrom taxpayers, made school finance reformbecome a topic of debate in most State legisla-tures. Every State established commissionsto examine the financing systems, and 18passed legislation to remedy recognized in-equities. Thus, the early 1970’s was a period

of heightened activity within the State legisla-tures concerning school finance reform. Thelatter part of the decade was a time of courtinterpretations of State laws as well as a timeof interpreting new legislative actions.20

More recently, cases before the courts havefocused on financing mechanisms employed byState and local governments for school dis-tricts. A series of cases have challenged themeans by which local communities financeeducational services, specifically propertytaxes. In 1971, the California Supreme Courtstruck down the State’s system of financingeducation in the Serrano decision. The courtfound that the California system, because itdiscrimin ated against those living in property-poor districts, violated the equal protectionclause of both the U.S. and California constitu-tions. In the Rodriguez v. San Antonio Inde-pendent School District, the U.S. SupremeCourt rejected claims similar to those in theSerrano decision. In this instance, the courtdeclared that, although there was inequity inthe financing system in this Texas district,there was “the absence of any evidence thatthe financing system discriminates againstany definable category of poor people or thatit results in the absolute deprivation of educa-tion—the disadvantaged class is not suscepti-ble of identification in traditional terms.’’”

Although the Rodriguez decision found thatTexas’ financing system was not unconstitu-tional, numerous cases before State courts con-tinue to challenge State financing systems. Inearly 1981, 31 cases relating to Serrano issueswere before the courts. The latest challenge,in New York State, found that that State’sfinancing system was, “constitutionally defi-cient” in that it discriminated against childrenliving in poor districts. Reliance on propertytaxes to raise educational revenues has leadto wide disparities in New York State. In thedecision it was noted that, although educationis not a Federal constitutional right, nor “sucha fundamental State constitutional right as to

‘OW. N. Grubb and S. Michelson, States and Schools (Lexing-ton, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1974).

~lD. L. K@ md M. G. Yudoff, Educational Poh”cy and theLaw(Berkeley, Calif.: McCurhan Publishing Corp., 1974), p. 587.


invoke special constitutional protection, it isan interest of great State importance. ” There-

Federal Role

Federal support of museums is very recentand began with the creation of the NationalEndowments for the Arts and for the Human-ities in 1965. The first program grants tomuseums were initiated in 1971 by the Na-tional Endowment for the Arts. The endow-ments provide grants for projects or specificendeavors. These funds may not be used foroperational purposes to support general pro-grams.

Federal support for the general operation ofmuseums became available with the establish-ment of the Institute for Museum Services(IMS) in 1977. IMS,ment of Health and

Libraries beganamounts of Federal

now within the Depart-Human Services, is de-

fore, the equal protection requirement of theState constitution was invoked.

in Museumssigned to provide funds for rent, heat, lights,and the like to museums. This institute hasno funding support in the current fiscal year.Another avenue for support of museum pro-grams, again in a limited fashion, is throughthe National Science Foundation, which allo-cates funds to science museums, though theeducational division funding has been cur-tailed.

One of the most crucial forms of Federal sup-port, albeit indirect, is through gifts or dona-tions to museums by individuals or corpora-tions. Tax deductions, made possible throughlegislation, provide important incentives fordonors.

Federal Role in Librariesto receive significantaid only in the 1960’s,

“

when the Federal Government undertook amajor effort to provide services and opportu-nities to the disadvantaged members of soci-ety. The major pieces of legislation that pro-vide for assistance to libraries include the fol-lowing.”

● The Library Services and Construction Act(LSCA) of 1964. Replacing the Library Serv-ices Act, this legislation provided a majorimpetus to the use of and interest in librar-ies. Continually reauthorized since then, ithas served as one of the major channelsthrough which the Federal Government hasprovided assistance to libraries.

● The Elementary and Secondary EducationAct of 1965. Title II of this act authorized$100 million to be spent by States for school

2ZV. H. Matthews, h“braries for Today and Tomorrow (Gar-den City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976.)

●

●

library resources. As a result, libraries wereestablished in the elementary schools inmany hundreds of cities and rural areas.The Higher Education Act of 1965. Title Iof this act specified that 22 percent of thefunds provided be allocated for public com-munity colleges and technical institutes.Title II provided Federal assistance to col-lege libraries. It authorized funds not onlyfor the purchase of books, periodicals, andother library materials, but also for librarytraining programs and for R&D for newways to program, process, store, and dis-tribute information.The Federal Government has also providedcontinued support to the Nation’ s-researchlibraries-the Library of Congress, the Na-tional Library of Medicine, and the NationalLibrary of Agriculture.

The momentum that developed in the 1960’sin support of libraries began to wane in the1970’s. The Nixon administration eliminated

Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education . 161

from its budget appropriations for all non-Fed-eral libraries. The Carter budget for 1980 alsoreduced library funding. It called for a $388million reduction in Federal aid to schools andlibraries; it eliminated funds for college libraryresources, training, and demonstrations; andit significantly cut back funds for library serv-ices, interlibrary cooperation, and library ma-terials. Similarly, the Reagan administration’sproposals for libraries also call for greatlyreduced funding. Funding, for example, underESEA has been incorporated into block grants

under the Education Consolidation and Im-provement Program.

Notwithstanding these significant reduc-tions in the subsidies for libraries, the FederalGovernment continues to provide substantialsupport, most of it channeled through Stateagencies. In fiscal year 1982, for example, totalFederal appropriations for library services un-der LSCA was $71,520,000, total appropria-tions for libraries and instructional and totalFederal appropriations under title II of theHigher Education Act were $8,568,000.

Effect of Federal TelecommunicationRegulation and Legislation on Education

Regulations, statutes, and ordinances at allthree governmental levels have shaped thegrowth and structure of the telecommunica-tion industry and have significantly affectedthe use of telecommunication technology byeducators. A number of regulations have at-tempted to foster the application of com-munication services to education directly (e.g.,Federal Communication Commission (FCC)rules governing instructional fixed televisionsystems).

However, while the focus and legislative in-tent of some regulations have been on the pro-vision of educational services, others have fo-cused exclusively on telecommunication per se,disregarding their potential effects on educa-tion. These latter regulations, although nec-essary to effect the provision of telecom-munication services, have inadvertently af-fected the use of modern telecommunicationtechnology for educational purposes by forc-ing educators to compete for its use withwealthier and more politically powerful in-terests. This situation has had a detrimentaleffect on education by preventing and in-hibiting educators from realizing the benefitsof this technology. It has become increasing-ly apparent that telecommunication regulatorsmust recognize the impacts of their decisionson education and must begin to take into ac-count the interests and needs of education in

formulating national telecommunicationpolicy.

Governmental Control ofTelecommunication

Telecommunication is regulated at all threegovernmental levels. On the local level, pro-gramming options are weighed and decisions aremade. For example, Instructional TelevisionFixed Service (ITFS) licenses are, by their verynature, confined to local delivery of informa-tion. Once FCC has granted an ITFS applica-tion, the local operator/licensee controls itsprograming input and the extent of its output.States have the authority to regulate cablefranchising by local municipalities and to setup rate structures for the public utilities. Mostof the regulation of telecommunication, how-ever, takes place at the Federal level, and itis this level which is of primary interest here.

Governmental Controlof Education

Education is largely controlled at the localand State levels. At the local level, it is car-ried out primarily by local school boards; whileaccreditation and licensure functions are per-formed at the State level. The State’s ex-clusive power over education derives from the


Reserved Powers Clause of the 10th amend-ment.23 Thus, Federal laws relating to educa-tion usually include a reference to the primacyof the States.24 For example, the GeneralEducation Provisions Act states that: “Noprovision of any applicable program shall beconstrued to authorize any department, agen-cy, officer or employee of the United Statesto exercise any direction, supervision, or con-trol over the curriculum, program of instruc-tion, administration, or personnel of any edu-cational institution . . . "25

The traditional role of the States in controll-ing education may, where telecommunicationtechnology is concerned, run into direct con-flict with Federal laws and Federal policy.Specifically, State educational policies con-cerning telecommunication may conflict withthe interstate commerce powers of the FederalGovernment, the express provisions of theCommunications Act, and the general princi-ples of the first amendment.26 For example, thepower of the States to control education isoften exercised through the process of licen-sure of educational institutions and services.However, licensure requirements vary wide-ly from State to State. Thus, an institutionthat seeks to offer programs, such as tele-courses, on a regional or national basis mustdeal with several different licensure statutes.The question then arises as to whether theState receiving the service has jurisdiction toimpose its licensure requirements on the of-fering institution, especially where the institu-tion has no other contacts within the State.

The more fundamental issue, however, iswhether these State licensure requirementsoperate to circumscribe various available serv-ices and thus impose an undue burden on in-

‘gThe powers not delegated to the United States nor prohib-ited by the Constitution to the States, are reserved to the Statesrespectively, to the People.

*’M. B. Goldstein, “State Licensure of Instructional Telecom-munications: An Overview of a Constitutional Problem, ” Tek+scan 1(3):3, January/February 1982.

“General Education Provision Ac& sec. 432, 20 U.S.C. sec.1232a).

“M. B. Goldstein, A Survey of Key Policy Issues AffwtingHigher Education and the Adult Learner, discussion draft prepared for The Ace Commission on Higher Education and theAdult Learner, October 1981, p. 39.

terstate commerce, in violation of the Com-merce Clause of the constitution.27 28 In otherwords, can the several States constitutional-ly control the delivery of multi-State educa-tional services flowing into their borders or aresuch services covered under this clause sub-ject to Federal control? The issue has not yetbeen resolved, but it is clear that in the nearfuture it will demand greater attention and willrequire resolution by the courts.29 In the mean-time, State licensing authorities are free toadopt discriminatory and protectionist regula-tions that have a potential chilling or in-hibitory effect on the provision and deliveryof educational programs and services.

The Federal CommunicationCommission and EducationalTelecommunication Services

Various Federal rules and regulations gov-erning telecommunication also affect educa-tional programs and services. Under the 1934Communications Act, FCC has jurisdiction toallocate the broadcast spectrum among com-munications services. In the past, the commis-sion has made several policy decisions direct-ly intended to promote educational access tothe broadcast spectrum. The clearest examplewas the commission’s reservation of 242 chan-nels in the very high frequency (VHF) andultrahigh frequency (UHF) bands for educa-tional use. In 1938, 1945, and 1952, respectively, the commission announced that severalradio and television channels were being re-served for the use of nonprofit educational

“The Commerce Clause gives Congress the power to regulateinterstate commerce. U.S. Constitution, art. I, sec. 8, clause 3.

‘EM. B. Goldstein, “Federal Policy Issues Affecting Instruc-tional Television at the Postsecondary Level,” Adult L.arningand PUM-C Broadcasting, report of a project conducted by theAmerican Association of Community and Junior Colleges withsupport from the Fund for the Improvement of PostsecondaryEducation (FIPSE), 1980, p. 45.-s argument was recently raised in an action by Nova Uni-

versity, to prevent the State of North Carolina from regulatingthe offering of education services in that State when the degreeconferred was authorized by the school’s domicile State, Florida.WhiIe the case was ultimately decided on narrow statutorygrounds, the issue of State v. Federal powers was strongly enun-ciated in the arguments put forth by both sides. Nova IJniver-sity v. University of IVorth Carolina No. 110A81, N. C,, Mar.3, 1982.


organizations advancing an educational pur-pose. These decisions presaged the beginningof educational or instructional television anddirectly provided for community educationalprograming.

The commission’s original intent in settingaside these channels was to promote noncom-mercial educational broadcasting. FCC tooka broad view of such broadcasting, and no pro-gramming requirements were assigned to its in-structional and cultural components. It hasbeen claimed that the failure to define the termeducational broadcasting more narrowly had,in fact, the effect of diminishing the amountof instructional programing, which resulted ina public broadcasting system that serves awider audience.30 In the absence of a narrow-ly drafted set of regulations governing educa-tional broadcasting, market forces took overand influenced decisions on programing con-tent by licensees and broadcasters. The pro-graming on the channels originally reservedfor educational broadcasting became pre-dominantly cultural in content.

Instructional TelevisionFixed Services

The regulation of ITFS is a further illustra-tion of the effect of regulation on the educa-tional use of telecommunication. ITFS is apoint-to-point communication system that cantransmit up to four channels of programingat one time to predetermined reception pointslocated from 5 to 20 miles away. Therefore, itis a method of transmitting television signalsdirectly to the classroom.

ITFS was established in 1963 when FCCopened 31 channels in the 2500-to 2690-MHzfrequency range for this private distributionsystem. It was intended to satisfy the need fora more economical and efficient means of dis-tributing high quality learning materials tothe classroom. In the 1970’s, FCC issued rulesand regulations that provided for the licens-ing of 28 of the 31 available channels to educa-tional institutions. The remaining three chan-

30S. A. Shorenstein, “Pulling the Plug on Instructional TV, ”Change, vol. 10, November 1978, p. 37.

nels were to be assigned to municipal or Stategovernments for operation of a similar service,Operational Fixed Service (OFS).31

Soon after ITFS was established, FCC re-ceived many construction permit requests forthe use of its assigned channels. However, thecost of the components necessary to operatean ITFS system, (transmitters, receivers,studio equipment, down converters, etc.), pre-vented most educational institutions from uti-lizing this technology. ITFS was thus installedand used predominantly by larger universitiescapable of affording it.32 Once installed, thesystem was economical to operate. Currently,ITFS is being used to provide a variety of ed-ucational services, including adult and profes-sional continuing education courses. Some uni-versities, such as the University of SouthernCalifornia, use an ITFS system to transmitgraduate engineering courses to nearby busi-nesses and firms with staff engineers. Thefuture of this system and its use as an educa-tional tool is uncertain.

In 1980, FCC began proceedings to reallo-cate the 31 channels in the 2500-to 2690-MHzfrequency range, the assumption being thateducators were not taking full advantage ofthe channels allocated to ITFS.33 Faced withan increasing demand and a growing numberof applicants for Multipoint Distribution Serv-ices (MDS) and Private Operational Fixed Mi-crowave Services (POFMS), FCC proposed toredistribute these channels by allocating 10each to MDS and POFMS, leaving ITFS withthe remaining 11.34 As satellite distribution ofprograming made MDS more profitable andas the market demand for MDS grew and de-veloped, FCC proposed to offer MDS opera-tors use of part of the spectrum allocated toITFS. Similarly, as business and industryfound new uses for POFMS, demand for fre-

gloFs i9 finction~ly equiv~ent to ITFS. It is a short-rangeprivate distribution service intended for governmental as op-posed to instructional use.

3zAs of Jm. 1, 1981, there were 180 ITFS hCenSE@S in the

United States, Television l%ctbook stations volume, 1981-82ed. No. 50.

“General docket Nos. 80-112; 80-113; 80-116.34MDS is a common carrier service, delivering pay-m pro-

@aming from a central transmitter to several lirwof-sight recep-tion points.


quencies to operate this service has grown.Thus, FCC proposed to reduce the number ofITFS channels to make room for MDS andPOFMS systems.

Here again, FCC had created by direct reg-ulation a system primarily for offering educa-tional programing. Yet, because of high in-stallation costs, along with budget cuts, ITFShas not been used by most educational institu-tions. Although FCC has not yet acted on thisproposal, clearly a reduction in ITFS channelswill have an effect on cities like New York andLos Angeles where ITFS is widely used. Whileit is possible that such large metropolitanareas, which have as many as 25 operationalITFS systems, may have to curtail their useand reduce the number of educational servicesoffered, it is more likely that FCC will “grand-father” (allow them to continue under the newsystem) active channels as long as the presentlicensees retain their control. Only assignedbut inactive ITFS channels would be reas-signed for commercial spectrum use. A furtherconsequence of the proposed cutback in ITFSchannels is that it may affect the recent PublicBroadcasting Service (PBS) application forITFS facilities.

The Public BroadcastingService

PBS and its member public television sta-tions have applied for ITFS channels to setup the National Narrowcast Service to extendtheir distribution of instructional, educational,and cultural programing to meet specialized,educational needs. The system is designed toreach those who live where educational pro-graming is not readily available and to createa local means for expanding the educationalservices offered by PBS stations. If FCC de-cides to reallocate the ITFS frequencies, thisproposed service will be in jeopardy. With few-er ITFS channels available, PBS will have tocompete for channels with other educationalusers. While the FCC proposal will, if adopted,increase the number of channels available forcommercial MDS and POFMS systems, it w-illalso limit the availability of educational serv-ices to the community through ITFS systems.

In effect, another educational resource wouldbe reduced and replaced by services unlikelyto be available for educational programing.

Low-Power Television andDirect Broadcast Satellites

While low-power television (LPTV) and di-rect broadcast satellite (DBS) systems maybecome available for distributing educationalprograming, they are not equivalent substi-tutes for ITFS. LPTV applications will begranted on the basis of an available broadcastspectrum, and educational institutions wish-ing to apply for such frequencies will have tocompete with other users for a frequency al-location. In other words, allocation by FCCwill occur entirely apart from the needs of theeducational community. In addition, althoughDBS service has the potential to reach nation-wide audiences, it is unclear whether DBS ap-plicants will, in fact, transmit educational pro-gramming to the public or whether educationalinstitutions will be able to afford satellite time.The answer to these uncertainties will beknown in time if rules and regulations areadopted to govern both LPTV and DBS sys-tems. Given the present emphasis on dereg-ulation, it is unclear whether LPTV and DBSwill be regulated to provide educationalservices.

Cable Television

Another area where telecommunication reg-ulation has affected education is illustrated bycable television requirements. FCC rules orig-inally required that all cable systems servingmore than 3,500 households provide oppor-tunities for “educational access with no costfor use of the system.’’” At present, only a fewuniversities (e.g., Purdue and Oregon StateUniversity) use this resource. Furthermore,specialized, educational programing general-ly comprises a very small part of cablecasters’offerings. The regulation of telecommunicationvia cable is in transition.

s5The~ r~uirement9 have been overturned by the court% *Midwest Video Corp. v. FCC 571 F. 2d 1025, 41 R.R. 2d 659(8th Cir. 1978) (Midwest Video II), cert. granted, 47 U. S.L.W.3187 (No. 77-1575). However they would be reinstated to someextent by the passage of S. 2172.


Telecommunication Legislationand Educational Services

The Senate Commerce Committee has re-cently introduced a bill to move primaryjurisdiction over cable regulation from thecities and States to FCC.36 The bill also re-quires that cable systems with more than 20channels dedicate 10 percent of such channelsfor use by public, educational, and governmen-tal programers and 10 percent to leased chan-nel programers, all on a first-come, first-served, nondiscriminatory basis.37 This billrepresents one of many congressional effortsto revise telecommunication regulations andset national telecommunication policy. Al-though this legislation explicitly provides foreducational programing, other bills, such asthose dealing with revision of the 1934 Com-munications Act, often do not address educa-tional interests. Such congressional con-sideration is necessary to ensure the low-costavailability of telecommunication services toeducators in both the public and privatesector. 38

As with FCC regulation, telecommunicationlegislation may have both a direct and indirecteffect on the means by which educational serv-ices are provided and on the ability of edu-cators to utilize telecommunication for dissem-inating educational materials. Legislation canaffect the cost of interconnections, the meansof delivering services, and the nature of educa-tional programing.

Congress has directly influenced the man-ner and scope by which educational servicesare provided both in approving appropriationsfor the Corporation for Public Broadcasting(CPB) and by enacting legislation like thePublic Telecommunications Financing Act.39

Congress has also proposed legislation which,——

3“’Where Things Stand, ” Broadcasting, Apr. 5, 1982, p. 26.‘“U.S. Congress, Senate, A Bill To Amend the Communica-

tions Act of 1934, S. 2172, 97th Cong., 2d sess., 1982.38A, B. Shostak, “The Coming Systems Break: Technology

and Schools of the Future, ” f%” Delta Kappan, vol. 62, January1981, p. 359.

3’U. S. Congress, Public Telecommunications Financing Act,Public Telecommunications Financing Act, Public Law 95-567,95th Cong., Nov. 2, 1978.

although dealing with telecommunication,could indirectly set a precedent regarding theprovision of educational services. For exam-ple, a bill introduced by the House Subcom-mittee on Telecommunications, Consumer Pro-tection, and Finance, which revises and up-dates title II of the 1934 Communications Actgoverning the provision of telephone and tele-communication services, may have importantimplications in the educational arena.40 Accessprovisions under the proposed legislation mayaffect the costs of interconnections for homecomputers. This, in turn, could affect the de-mand for such terminals. Similarly, issues ofmaintenance, ownership, and technical gradesof lines and wiring may affect the quality ofdata communication and ultimately the supplyof information for educational purposes. Theseissues need to be considered by legislators intheir efforts both to rewrite the 1934 Com-munications Act and to set national telecom-munication policy.

As the foregoing discussion has shown, tele-communication regulation often indirectlydiscriminates against educational services byoverlooking the stake educators and institu-tions have in telecommunication resources. Anissue entirely separate from that of telecom-munication legislation and its effect on educa-tion, however, is the issue of Federal regula-tion of education and its effect on the use oftelecommunication. Although warrantingmore consideration, it can only be dealt withbriefly here.

The clearest example of how educational reg-ulations can have a chilling affect on the edu-cational use of telecommunication is a Vet-erans Administration rule restricting and pro-hibiting reimbursement and educational bene-fits to veterans for curricula that use coursestaught via television and radio. While the ra-tionale behind this regulation may have beento prevent veterans from claiming credit forsham courses, it clearly discriminates againsttechnology-based delivery systems and hencecan be deemed overbroad. Less restrictive al-

‘“U.S. Congress, House, A Bill To Amend the Communica-tions Act of 1934 to Re\’ise Pro\’ isions of the Act Relating toTelecommunications, H.R. 5158, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981.


ternatives must be found to meet the Veterans nication policy, the interests of educators mustAdministration’s proper concern without com- be weighed and considered in drafting Federalpromising and discriminating against telecom- regulations.munication technology .41 As with telecommu-

4’Goldstein, op. cit., 1980, p. 42.

The Protection of Information Software:An Overview

In recent years, the software industry hasbeen plagued by an everincreasing incidenceof piracy .42 43 As software costs have risen, in-formal duplication of programs has increasedand has held down revenues for software pub-lishers.44 Similarly, piracy via illegal duplica-tion and distribution has diminished incen-tives for software producers to further devel-opment of novel and innovative software pack-ages, particularly for educational use. Al-though technological solutions are being de-vised to prevent piracy, various legal methodsfor protecting computer software from illicitmisappropriation are the focus here.

Given the fact that for the present, at least,piracy does and will occur, the question to beresolved is how to protect the software pro-ducer or proprietor from infringement of hiscreative property rights. Such protection isnecessary to ensure that adequate incentivesexist for development of innovative software,to protect the considerable investments in itsdevelopment, and to preserve legal means forpublic access to creative works.

There are five currently legal methods thatcan be used to protect computer software:trade secret protection, trademarks, patents,the doctrine of unfair competition, and copy-

4~he term software is meant to include any programs anddata bases designed to be used on computers, video disks, cable,etc.

4SD. U. Gagliardi, “Software: What Is It, ” APLA QuarterlyJournal 8(3), 1980, p. 239.

44When programs are copied without permission, publishersdo not receive royalties for their use and their profits are therebyreduced. See “Trends in Personal Computer Software Publish-ing,” A Research Memorandum, LINK, NRM, vol. 2, No. 10,August 1981.

rights.45 None of these, however, provides awell-defined, reliable form of protection fornovel developments in software.46 The lawregarding software protection in each case ishazy and complicated and still in the earlystages of development. Thus, it may be nec-essary to use several methods simultaneous-ly, with or without technological protection,to achieve maximum legal protection for cer-tain software. While copyrights and tradesecrets are the most widely used and ad-vocated forms of protection, each of the fivemethods can afford some degree of securityagainst unauthorized reproduction of costlyand innovative software.

Types of Software

All computer software has three basic com-ponents. These are the supporting documen-tation, including manuals and flow charts; thealgorithm or process, i.e., the underlying ideasor information implemented in the software;and the program or data base itself.

The program itself is embodied either inhuman readable form, such as listings, or incomputer readable form, such as magnetictapes, disks, or paper punch cards. Thesedistinctions are important, because the utili-ty of the various methods of legal protectionmay differ depending on the type of software

“It should be noted that there is a diversity of views as towhat forms of legal protection are currently available and whatforms should be available in the future for software products.Not all legal scholars agree that the five methods surveyed hereare available or should be used for protection.

“H. Levine and A. E, Hall, “Computer Software Protectionand Licensing, ” a paper presented at the Second Annual TalmisConference, Chicago, Feb. 28, 1982.


component and the formal representation in-volved in a particular case.

In addition to the three software com-ponents, computer programs can be brokendown into three formats or formal represen-tations: the source code, the linkable formats,and the object code.

The source code, or “the code at its source, ”is a computer program written in a high-level(computer) language. This representation isthe easiest to read and comprehend and henceto pirate, modify, and expand. The linkable for-mat results from the processing of the sourcecode by the computer’s compiler or programconverter. At such a level, it is more difficultto reconstruct and, hence, to appropriate. Theobject code results from loading the linkableformat into the computer in a form that it canexecute. In this format, the program’s under-lying concepts are the most difficult to assim-ilate, comprehend, and appropriate.

Legal Protection for Software

Trade Secret Protection

Trade secrets are defined as formulas, proc-esses, mechanisms, compounds, or compila-tions of data not patented but known only bycertain individuals using them in business toobtain a commercial advantage.47 The classicand most widely cited example of a tradesecret is the Coca-Cola formula, which isknown only to certain select Coca-Cola person-nel and has never been patented.48

For a trade secret to exist and be enforced,several requirements must be met. The firstis secrecy; a bona fide secret must exist andmust be contained within the business of a par-ticular enterprise. Thus, those who are privyto the secret must be under a duty not todisclose it. This situation is generally achievedby a confidential disclosure agreement or con-tract between the proprietor or software mar-keter and his employees, contractors, li-censees, or leasees. The contract may requirethose with access to the software to take ac-

“likstatxxnent of Torts, SS 757, Comment (b), 1939.48LINK, op. cit., p. 18.

tions to limit its proliferation. The second re-quirement for trade secrets to exist is nov-elty—i.e., where the subject matter is un-known to the general public and the trade.49

Beyond these two formal requirements fortrade secrecy, the courts have placed somereliance on economic criteria in determiningwhether a protectable trade secret exists. Theamount of money or labor expended in devel-oping information and the value of the infor-mation itself are factors which courts mightconsider in making this determination.

It is well established that computer pro-grams and certain program materials are pro-tectable as trade secrets through civil andcriminal enforcement actions. However, theboundaries of trade secret protection for soft-ware are unclear. Some courts have protectedalgorithms along with the computer programs,while others have declined to extend protec-tion to “general information.”50 The nature ofthe software, the circumstances of the taking,and the intent of the taker can each influencea court’s determination regarding trade secretprotection.

In deciding whether to utilize trade secretprotection for certain software, a proprietoror marketer considers the following draw-backs. First, trade secrecy can be easily lost.If a secret becomes widely disseminated, thesoftware protected may become part of thepublic domain and thus no longer eligible fortrade secret protection. Thus, trade secrecymay be difficult to maintain where public salesor large-scale marketing of software is con-templated. Trade secrets can also be lost bycarelessness, by intentional or negligentbreach of contract, or by discovery and dis-closure by competitors, e.g., reverse engineer-ing and subsequent disclosure. The courts aresplit as to whether trade secret protection is

49 Novelty for Puwoges of trade secret law k a relative con-

cept unlike novelty for purposes of patent protection. In thelatter case, novelty is absolute; D. Bender, “Trade Secret Soft-ware Protection, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. v, No. 1, 1977,p. 51. It should be noted that novelty is not required by allStates. See R. Milgrim, Trade Secrets, SS 2.03, 2.08(2), 1979.

‘“R. Smith and E. R. Yoches, “Legal Protection of SoftwareVia Trade Secrets, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. 8, No. 3,1980, p. 240-241.


lost where software is appropriated bymemory. The majority rule is that tradesecrecy does protect against appropriation bymemory .51 Similarly, there is some debateabout whether trade secrecy is lost where asoftware proprietor registers his software forcopyright protection. The issue here is whethersuch registration constitutes publication andhence destroys any legal claim under the tradesecret method of protection.52

In addition, trade secret protection, like thelaw of contracts and unlike copyrights orpatents, is controlled by State statute or com-mon law, as distinguished from Federal stat-utory law. Thus, protection for trade secretsdiffers from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Inorder to maximize his protection, a manufac-turer or licenser may wish to seek an addi-tional mode of protection, such as copyright,to ensure uniform legal treatment of his soft-ware. Trade secret protection alone, however,can provide a fairly reliable and economicmeans of shielding software innovation.

Trademark Protection

Trademarks generally include “any word,name, symbol, or device or any combinationthereof adopted and used by a manufactureror merchant to identify his goods and dis-tinguish them from those manufactured orsold by others. “53 While they are used exten-sively to protect product names, they havebeen used only in a relatively minor mannerto protect computer software. The reason forthis is that in the past computer software hashad a relatively short life, and thus there wasno basis on which to build a proper trademark.The current trend of “longer life” computerprograms may no longer sustain this reason-ing.54 In addition, trademarks do not directlyprotect the contents of the software fromunauthorized use, appropriation, or duplica-

5] Turner, The Law of Trade Secrets 169, 171, 1962.“In a recent case, the court held that this was a question of

fact and not a question of law. Barrington Associates, k. v.Real-7%ne Engineering Associates, Inc, 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D.Ill., 1981).

“The Lanhaxn Act of 1946, 15 U.S.C. SS 1127.‘W. G. White, “Trademark Protection of Computer Software,”

APLA Quarterly Journa~ vol. 8, No. 3, 1980, p. 281.

tion by another. However, trademarks canserve as a complement to other methods ofprotecting the concepts contained in computerprograms. Computer program trademarks canprotect important proprietary interests in soft-ware by preventing software competitors fromusing the same or similar marks on theirprograms.

The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office hasrecognized for some time that computer pro-grams are “goods” within the purview of theTrademark Statute.55 Thus, a trademark on anitem of software represents and is identifiedby the public with the goodwill and reputationof the business that produced it. If the manu-facturer’s reputation is good, consumers maytend to buy software based on the strengthof the mark, even though competing productsmay perform as well. Whether the strength ofmark will be the sole criteria used by con-sumers in selecting software, or whether thecapabilities of various programs will also betaken into account in making a selection, isan open question. In either case, though, con-sumers will probably place some reliance onthe source of quality control identified throughthe trademark.56 In this manner, trademarksprovide a relatively inexpensive and simplemeans to protect indirectly computer pro-grams.

Patent Protection

At present, there is much uncertainty aboutthe applicability of title 35 of the UnitedStates Code (patents) to computer software.The case law is inconsistent and confusing,and no clear-cut consensus has been reached.In addition, to the extent that some patentprotection for software is available, it wouldapply only to protect the programmable proc-ess embodied in computer programs.57 Thus,patent protection for software is often difficultto obtain except in conjunction with a patent-

“The Lanham ACL 15 U.S.C. SS 1051 et seq.~dwhit,e, op. cit., p. 280. In addition, although service marks

could also be included here, they are beyond the scope of thisbrief overview and hence excluded from the discussion of trademarks.

“Bender, op. cit., p. 67. See also Diamond v. Diehr and Dia-mond v. Bradley, footnote 15.

Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education w 169

able piece of computer hardware. Given the un-predictable nature of software patent law andthe relatively high cost of securing patent pro-tection, a software owner may therefore wishto seek other available methods of legal pro-tection for his works. Once clarified, though,patent protection for certain software mayprove to be superior to other legal methods.

There are several reasons why patent pro-tection may be preferable to other legalsafeguards of software innovation. One is thatpatent protection is very broad in scope. A pa-tent provides its owner with the exclusiveright to the inventive work for 17 years. Thus,he has the right to exclude others from mak-ing, using, or selling that work. Infringementoccurs when either the work is copied or it hasbeen independently developed. Another reasonis that patents protect the underlying ideasor concepts of a computer program, not merelythe expression of a program, as copyrights do.Thus, while an adaption of a program for usein a different computer may not be a copyrightviolation, it could be found to be a patentinfringement.

The issues concerning the patentability ofsoftware are twofold. The first problem iswhether software is statutory or within thecategories of innovations and discoverieswhich may be patentable. The law is that aninvention is patentable if it consists of ‘‘anynew and useful process, machine, manufac-ture, or composition of matter, or any new anduseful improvement thereof. "58 Abstract ideas,laws of nature, and physical phenomena areexcluded from patent protection.59 The ques-tion is, do computer programs fall under anyof the categories of patentable inventions? Theanswer is that they may, if patentable, fall intothe categories of processes, machines, or man-ufactures.

Several recent cases have overturned thecourts’ previous reluctance to hold softwarepatentable. 60 Thus, the court has held that a

5’35 U.s.c. Ss 101.“Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 209 U. S.P.Q. 1, 7 (1981).‘“Earlier landmark cases include: Gottschalk v. Benson, 409

U.S. 63, 175 U. S.P.Q. 673 (1972); Dam v. Johnston, 425 U.S.219, 189 U. S.P.Q. 257 (1976); Parker v. Flook+ 437 U.S. 584,

statutory claim does not become nonstatutorysimply because it uses a mathematical for-mula, computer program, or digital compu-ter.” Currently, the law seems to be thatalgorithms or methods of calculation in theabstract, like the laws of nature, are notstatutory subject matter. However, claimsreciting algorithms or formulas, or presumablycomputer programs that implement or applythose formulas in a structure or process (e.g.,transforming an article from one state or thingto another), are statutory within the meaningof the patent law.62

If certain software is found to be statutorythen it must also meet four conditions to befound patentable: novelty, utility, nonob-viousness, and adequacy of disclosure.63

Numerous programs should meet these re-quirements. However, many others may im-plement an obvious process in an obvious wayand are valuable solely because of the manhours saved to achieve the result.” Theywould, thus, be ineligible for patent protection.The problem then lies in the definition of “ob-piousness. ” So far, there is no clear consensusabout the appropriate standard or test to beapplied to determine if a claim meets the non-obviousness condition. Judicial or legislativeclarification is necessary before the patent-ability of certain software can be determinedwith any degree of certainty.

It should be noted that the patentability ofcomputer programs may also depend on thesubjective application of Patent Office guide-lines by patent examiners, and ultimately onthe manner in which patent applications aredrafted. Future clarification of the boundariesof software and computer program protection,however, awaits the outcome of further litiga-tion.

198 U. S.P.Q. 193 (1978). TWO recent decisions indicating thatpatent protection may be available for computer software are:Diamond v, Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 209 U. S.P,Q. 1 (1981); and Dia-mond v. Bradley, 450 U.S. 381, 209 U. S.P.Q. 97 (1981).

“Diamond v. Diehr, op. cit.oZLevine ad Hall, Op. Cit., p. 19.6335 U.s.c. 101, 102, 103, 112 (1979).“Bender, op. cit., p. 67-68.


Protection Under the Law ofUnfair Competition

Original software (both source and objectcode), computer programs, and data basesmay be protected by the law of unfair competi-tion. Evolving from the landmark case of In-ternational News Service (INS) v. AssociatedPress,65 the law protects the originator againstmisappropriation by competitors of his workproduct and his investment capital risks. Therationale for the doctrine lies in the equitycourt philosophy of preventing and mitigat-ing unjust enrichment. Until recently, how-ever, the courts tended to limit the applicationof the unfair competition doctrine to the factsin the INS case. In one recent case, the courtsstated that a valid, unfair competition claimhad been advanced where, for commercial ad-vantage, a competitor had misappropriatedthe benefits and property rights of and had ex-ploited his business values.66 Similarly, wherereproductions of original recordings werepirated and marketed under a different label,another court upheld the plaintiff unfair com-petition claim.67

While the doctrine has had an underlying ef-fect in cases dealing with unauthorized ap-propriation of data bases, today it is becom-ing grounds for equitable relief on its ownmerits. Therefore, it may be possible to bringa valid cause of action based on the commonlaw right against unfair competition where acompetitor copies and sells another’s softwarefor profit. This method of software protectionmay be of benefit to proprietors who seek toprotect both source and object codes. The lawof unfair competition would most likely makeno distinction between the two for purposesof protection. However, it should be borne inmind that unfair competition is a common lawdoctrine and thus may vary from State toState.

ebl~~matjona] NeWS service V. Associated Press, 248 U.S.215, 39 S. Ct. 68 (1918).

‘Data Cash System.sj Inc v. JS&A Group, Inc, 480 F. Suppl.1063 (N.D. Ill., 1979), aff’d on other grounds, 628 F. 2d 1038(7th Cir. 1980).

137A&M &ords, Inc., et aL v. M. M. C. Distributing &rp.,et aL, 197 U. S.P.Q. 598 (Sixth Cir., CA) (1978).

Copyright Protection

By far, the fastest growing legal mechanismof software protection is the copyright law. Itis now well settled that copyright law isavailable as a method for protecting softwareand computer programs. The question to beresolved, however, is the scope of the protec-tion to be accorded computer programs by thisbody of law.

The Copyright Act of 1976 protects originalworks of authorship fixed in any tangiblemedium of expression from which they can beperceived, reproduced, or otherwise com-municated, either directly or with the aid ofa machine or device.68 Computer programs anddata bases, to the extent that they incorporateauthorship in the expression of original ideasas opposed to the ideas themselves, fall withinthe category of “literary works, ” and thuswithin the subject matter of copyright.69 Theactual processes or methods embodied in acomputer program, however, are not withinthe scope of the copyright law.70

In 1980, the Computer Software CopyrightAct was passed by Congress.71 Incorporatingthe recommendations of the national Commis-sion on New Technological Uses of Copy-righted Works, the act revised section 117 ofthe 1976 Copyright Act dealing with rights inconjunction with computers and informationsystems. 72 The new section 117 dispelled alldoubts concerning the copyrightability of com-puter programs and made it clear that thereproduction or adaption of computer pro-grams would constitute acts of infringement.The act also created an important exemptionfor the input or reproduction of computer pro-grams from copies which are sold.

The courts have not reached agreement onthe limits of computer software copyright pro-tection. For example, there is still much debate

“17 U.S.C. SS 102(a).q 7 U.S. C. SS 101(a). U.S. House of Representatives Report

94-1476, 94th Cong., 2d sess., p. 54.7017 U.S.C. SS 102(b).“Ckmputer Software Copyright Act of 1980, Dec. 12, 1980,

Public Law 96-517, sec. 10.‘zFinal R&port of the National timmission on New Techno

logical Uses of Copyrighted Works, July 31, 1978.


as to whether object codes can be protectedby copyright law. In order to be accorded theprotection of the copyright laws, a computerprogram must be “an original work of author-ship. ’73 Clearly, if a programer is the“originator” of a source code, than he qualifiesas an “author” within the meaning of thecopyright law. However, the case law is stilldeveloping on whether this source codeauthorship is preserved in the object code.Since the object code can be viewed as beingphysically produced by a machine, the ques-tion arises as to whether the object code is anexpression of authorship or merely a utili-tarian work outside the scope of copyright pro-tection. Only original expressions of author-ship, ‘‘writings, are protected by copyrightlaw. There is little doubt that source codes arewritings within the purview of the copyrightstatute, but the status of object codes is notso clear.74 75

Other issues associated with the copyright-ability of computer software are preemptionof trade secret protection and the meaning of“substantial similarity, ” (necessary forcopyright infringement) in the computer con-text.76 In addition, problems with computersoftware copyright protection arise becausethe act of copying is incidental to use of a com-puter program. In other words, computer in-put (i.e., of a program) constitutes the mak-ing of a copy and is thus a potential infringe-ment of copyright. The 1980 amendment tosection 117 of the Copyright Act remedied thisproblem by providing that it was not an in-fringement for an owner of a copy of a com-puter program “to make or authorize the mak-ing of another copy or adaption of that com-

TS17 u.s. c. ss 102(a).“For illustration of this conflict see: Data Cash systems, kc.

v. JS&A Group Inc., et al, 480 F. Suppl. 1063 (N.D. Ill. 1979),aff’d on other grounds, 628 F. 2d 1038 (7th Cir. 1980); TandyCorp. v. Persona/Microcomputers, k,, 524 F. Suppl. 171 (N.D.CA 1981). And more generally, Gokktein v. California 412 U.S.546 (1973).

‘SD. T. Brooks and M. S. Keplinger, Cbmputer Programs andData Bases: Perfmting, Protecting and Licensing ProprietaryRights After the 1980 Copyright Amendments, Law & Busi-ness, Inc., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers (1981).

‘Thus, would translation of a program from Fortran to Basicbean infringement? Or, how much retrieval of a work from thecomputer is necessary to constitute substantial similarity?

puter program, ” provided that the copy oradaption “is created as an essential step in theutilization of the computer program in con-junction with a machine.”77 It is important tonote, however, that this exemption only ap-plies to copies of computer programs that aresold. Thus, if a copyright owner chooses tomake the program available only by lease orby license arrangement, copying is permittedonly under the terms and conditions specifiedby the copyright owner. Otherwise, computerinput can constitute infringement.

Another troublesome area concerns thecopyrightability of video software. Copyrightprotects only the expression of original worksof authorship, not the ideas, methodology, orprocesses embodied in the software or adoptedby the programer. Thus, copyright law pro-tects the audiovisual aspects of video softwareas a display, but does not protect the underly-ing “idea” itself. Protecting the expression ofa game program may necessarily also protectthe system or process embodied in the gameprogram or video display, a result violating theprinciples of the copyright law.78 Thus, man-ufacturers of video games may protect thevisual display of their software by registeringa videotape of their screens with the CopyrightOffice. While registration is not a condition ofcopyright protection, it is a formality relatedto the ability to sue for infringement. Manu-facturers of videogames, however, cannotpreempt others from manufacturing and dis-tributing games utilizing the same inherentideas (e.g., mazes and dot gobblers) regardlessof how inextricably linked they are to the pro-gram’s original expression. In those caseswhere an injunction has been sought againstdistribution of allegedly similar games, it isnot clear whether the courts relied on the doc-trine of unfair competition or on copyright lawin granting the requested relief. Although thecourts apparently applied copyright law inthese cases, they may have been influenced byunfair competition principles.79

7’17 U.s.c. Ss 117(1).“Matthew Bender, Nimmer on Copyrights, sec. 2.18(J) and

8.08 (1980).‘Wee Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman, 213 U. S.P.Q. 75

(E.D. N. Y., 1981), aff’d — F. 2d. — (2d Cir., filed 1/20/82).


The most that can be said with certainty isthat some aspects of computer software canbe legally protected via copyright. Programstangibly fixed in books, catalogs, and instruc-tion manuals are subject matter of copyright.Programs fixed on cards or magnetic disksthat can be perceived directly or otherwisecommunicated, e.g., by means of a computerprint-out or terminal, are protectable under thecopyright law.80 Other software, including ob-ject codes, may or may not be within the pur-view of the copyright law. Future develop-ments both in Congress and in the courts willhopefully resolve the issues relating to thisbody of law.

Another issue relating to audiovisual soft-ware is that of copyright and home recording.The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Cir-cuit held in Universal City Studios v. SonyCorp. (the Betamax case) that home videotaperecording of over-the-air copyrighted televisionprograms violates the Federal copyright law.81

While the Court’s decision will be reviewed bythe U.S. Supreme Court next term, the NinthCircuit Court ruled that home video taping forprivate, noncommercial use was not a “fairuse” under the 1976 Copyright Act.82 Further-more, the court held that manufacturers, re-tailers, distributors and advertising agents forvideo cassette recorders could be held “con-tributorily liable” for this infringement.

While the decision has raised considerabledebate concerning the rights of program pro-ducers to control the use of their productionsand the rights of consumers to utilize newhome electronics, it may also have an impacton the educational community. Thus, the ed-ucational community, and more specificallyAction for Children’s Television (ACT), has re-quested congressional legislation designed topermit home recording of television programsfor education use. They argue that home tap-ing would permit children to watch educa-

‘ONicholas Prasinos, “Legal Protection of Software Via Copy-right, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. 8, No. 3, 1980, p. 257.

“Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 659 F. 2d 963 (9thCir. 1981). The Supreme Court has recently granted certiorarito review the decision of the Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit.

‘zFair use is codified in 17 U.S.C. SS 107.

tional programs broadcast while they are inschool.

Although a legislative solution to the Beta-max debate is being sought by many in-terested parties, educational groups are con-cerned both that the type of programing soft-ware currently being broadcast and the costof video cassette recorders may change (withor without royalty assessments) as a result ofthe present controversy .83 Thus, one majorconcern is that schools that now buy videocassette recorders and use videotaped pro-grams in the classroom may no longer be ableto afford them. Also, education groups spec-ulate that advertisers may support fewer over-the-air educational programs as a result ofadvertisement deletion by video cassetterecorder owners. Although these problems re-main to be resolved by the legislature and thecourts, it is clear that producers of educationalprogram software will be affected by the pres-ent taping/copyright controversy. As withcomputer software, the law of copyright inrelation to audiovisual software is uncertainand still developing. 84 However, as demon-strated by the Betamax case, copyright is aviable and reliable means of protecting bothcomputer and audiovisual software.

Legal Protection: Issues andEducational Options

It is clear that all five legal mechanisms forsafeguarding software offer some degree ofprotection against misappropriation andpiracy. Each method of software protectionhas different remedies for discouraging piracy——

s91n fact, there me sever~ pending pieces of legislation de~-ing with this issue: H.R. 4808 (10/21/81). These bills would ex-empt private home recording of TV programs from copyrightlaws, but would not preclude later legislation to establish aroyalty fee assessed against recorders.

840n Oct. 14, 1981, Rep. Robert Kastenmeier (D-Wis.), Chairof the House Judiciary Committee on Courts, Civil Liberties,and the Administration of Justice, inserted guidelines for off-air taping of copyrighted works for educational use in the Con-gressional Record. These guidelines were the result of a nego-tiated agreement between education groups, the broadcast in-dustry, copyright owners, and industry guilds and unions. Theguidelines allow fair classroom use of videotaped TV programswithin specific time limits without infringing the rights of copy-right owners.


and punishing infringement. For example, in-junctive relief is available with all five legalmethods. However, destruction of infringingcopies and continuing royalties are availableonly for copyright infringement. Similarly,treble, punitive, and statutory damages areavailable only for copyright, patent, and trade-mark infringement. In addition, even wheremonetary and injunctive relief is available, thetype of infringement (e.g., copyright, tradesecret), may influence the way a court appliesthese remedies.

Each method of software protection also hasits advantages and disadvantages and its legaluncertainties. Many of the still unresolvedlegal issues stem from the fact that the pri-mary intent of intellectual property law pro-tection of software is to reward and encouragesoftware creation and innovation, not primari-ly to punish copyists.” Yet, as software in-novation becomes more costly and piracy morerampant, software manufacturers seek solu-tions to legal problems and achievement ofboth purposes of copyright, patent, tradesecret, trademark, and unfair competition law.It is hoped that in the next decade, the courtsand Congress will provide software manufac-turers with reliable methods of protectingtheir valuable investments in software. Al-though test cases are themselves costly andtime-consuming, the benefits to be reaped byan entire industry may outweigh the economicburdens.

Clearly, the outcome of many of these issueswill affect the educational community’s abili-

‘5R. A. Stern, ‘(What Should Be Done About Software Pro-tection?” European Intellectual Property Review, vol. 3, No.12, 1981, p. 341.

ty to utilize and purchase new electronic hard-ware. Educators need to know their legalrights and obligations, and manufacturerswant to ensure effective protection for theirsoftware. Thus, it is necessary to answer sev-eral

●

●

●

questions such as: -

How should software be protected whilerecognizing the competing interests ofgroups who use software or benefit fromits use?How can piracy and the various types ofmisappropriation of software be betterdealt With?*’How can the incentives be increased forsoftware innovation, especially educa-tional software, when protection entailscostly judicial remedies?

While it may take some time before intellec-tual property law protection of software isclarified, education groups have been involvedin the process. They have proposed that new,uniform legislation dealing only with softwarebe enacted. Alternatively, they have proposedthat legislation exempting the educationalcommunity from liability for use of copy-righted materials be adopted. They have con-sidered bringing test cases into the courtsagainst pirates of educational software on oneor several of the grounds of protection outlinedherein. While it is clear that the economic andsocial stakes are high, these efforts by theeducational community are aimed at clarify-ing the software protection laws for the benefitof all software publishers and users.

“Ibid, p. 340,


Appendix

“ Title I: “To provide financial assistance . . . to “local educational agencies serving areas withconcentrations of children from low-income fam-ilies to expand to improve their educational pro-grams (to meet) the special educational needsof educationally deprived children” (Public Law89-10, title I). ●

● Title II: Provision of grants to public and pri-vate schools for school library resources, text- ●

books, and instructional materials, based on to-tal school enrollments. Those materials used inthe public schools required prior approval. Alsothose States, with laws prohibiting involvement “with parochial schools, required the ESEA pro-grams to be administered by the Commissionerof Education.

Title III: Provision of grants by the Office ofEducation with concurrence by the State Edu-cational Agencies for projects to encourage edu-cational innovation. Such projects included spe-cial education centers, instructional equipment,guidance counseling, and similar services.Title IV: Provision of grants to conduct educa-tional research.TitleV: Provision of grants to State agenciesto strengthen planning, administration, and dis-semination of statewide educational data at theState agency level.Title VI: Placed a restrictive clause on Federalinvolvement in State and local education pro-grams, specifically over curriculum, personnel,instructional materials, and administration.

Chapter 10

Implications for Policy

The new information technologies offer a promising mechanism for responding to the many challenges facingAmerican education. How they will be applied will be determined, in part, by governmental policies

Chapter 10

Implications for Policy

Whether or not the new information technol-ogies fulfill their educational potential will de-pend, in part, on the kinds of actions that theFederal Government takes to assure thatthese technologies are used effectively and aremade accessible to all. OTA has identified sev-eral areas where it may be appropriate for theFederal Government to play an active rolein its development. Anticipating structuralchanges in the economy and the growing needfor a highly literate and technically trainedwork force, Congress might wish to encouragethe greater use of educational technologies formanpower training and retraining. Recogniz-ing the educational benefits that can be de-rived from the use of information technologies,Congress might take steps to assure that thepublic has equitable access to them. Aware ofthe powerful nature of the technology, Con-gress might take some actions to encouragetheir effective development and use.

Directly or indirectly, Federal policy to en-courage the use of educational technologywould influence a number of stakeholders,among them:

c institutions that provide education andtraining,

s clients for educational services,c producers of hardware and providers of

information services,

Arguments forArguments in favor of adopting a policy in

support of educational technology are basedon the premise that the changes in Americansociety are creating new requirements for edu-cation and training. They are based, in particu-lar, on the view that computer-based automa-tion in the manufacturing and service sectorswill require workers who have new skills andwho can be continually retrained as changesoccur and new technologies are adopted. To

● producers of curriculum, and● employers.

Legislation could be addressed specificallyat any of these groups-direct funding forschools to purchase technology, support forstudents taking technology-based education,tax writeoffs or subsidies for donations oftechnology and services, support for the devel-opment of curricula, or incentives for employ-ers to provide job training.

In turn, all of these groups, and their poten-tial use of technology, will be influenced by theshape of education policy. Decisions made byCongress will determine the roles various insti-tutions will play in the education system ofthe future. They will determine which optionsfor education and training are available to citi-zens, as well as which citizens will have accessto them. The information industry may alsobe affected. Policy will influence industry deci-sions about what technology and services todevelop and market to schools. It will affectwhether curriculum producers will develophigh-quality, technology-based material. Final-ly, policy may influence the nature and levelof skills that employees bring to their jobs andthe choices employers will make about in-house training and retraining.

Federal Action

be retrainable, the entering work force mustfirst be educated to a high level of basic andtechnological literacy. There will also be a highand growing demand for scientific and techni-cal experts.

It appears that the educational system asit is currently structured and operating willbe unable to fill these needs. Many publicschools face problems such as decreasing tax-

177


payer support and a decline in the quality ofentrants into the teaching profession. Whilenew commercial educational institutions mayemerge to provide necessary educational serv-ices, their existence may present a seriouschallenge to nonprofit and publicly fundedschools. In making decisions about education-al technologies, Congress may want to takeinto account how their application and wide-spread use may affect the roles of present edu-cational institutions.

Information technology could be a majortool for responding to these challenges. Itcould enhance the productivity of existing in-stitutions and serve as the incentive for thegrowth of new educational and training serv-ices and of new institutions to provide them.If these technologies fulfill their educationalpotential, the Nation as a whole would benefitfrom the widespread adoption of educationaltechnology by both schools and other educa-tion providers. The Federal Government mightdecide to take an active part in the adoptionof these technologies in order to assure theirequitable distribution, to overcome barriers totheir use, and to support the national dissemi-nation of information.

OTA found that, while many schools areadopting the use of desktop computers, thereis concern among educators that many schoolsmay be left behind. For a variety of reasons—lack of funds, lack of information, unmoti-vated faculty, or parents-these schools maynot elect to use the technology. Such a choicecould consign their students to poor employ-

ment opportunities and could lead to greaterdisillusionment with, and thus loss of supportfor, the public schools. Most importantly, itcould result in substantial inequities in theway that educational services are distributed.

Some experts think that the development ofgood, innovative curriculum materials may betoo expensive for the currently limited andfragmented market to bear. Not enough schoolsuse computers, video disks, and other technol-ogy to provide a large enough sales base.Under these circumstances curriculum produc-ers will be either inhibited altogether from pro-ducing material, or they will concentrate onthose few applications-such as professionalretraining-that have a high income potentialat the expense of more basic education. Fur-thermore, significant developmental work re-mains to be done before the technology canreach its full potential. The Federal Govern-ment might provide the high-risk, critical-mass funding needed at this time to stimulatethe development of a technology-based cur-riculum market.

Finally, mechanisms for combining andsharing experience gained from the existingactivities are needed. Some experts havepointed out a need for one or more nationalclearinghouses to review and evaluate educa-tional software, as well as for research centerswhere new techniques and materials can be de-veloped. Again, Federal leadership is a meansfor creating or aiding the development of suchnationwide activities.

Arguments Against Federal ActionSome experts have also raised a number of Federalism has been a major element of edu-

concerns about Federal involvement in stimu- cational policy debates for many years. If thelating the educational use of the technology. Federal Government were to undertake actionBasically they argue that the private sector to encourage the development or use of educa-can and will respond to the needs for improved tional technology, it is likely that concerns willeducation, and that education policy is the be expressed about undue Federal interfer-proper domain of local and State governments ences in choices considered to be most appro-alone. priately made at the local level to suit local

.—

needs. These concerns would be particularlystrong if Government funds were used to de-velop curricula.

Any new program initiatives will be careful-ly scrutinized for their budgetary impacts. Al-though few policy options appear to be extra-ordinarily expensive when compared to othereducation and research and developmentbudgets, the Federal education budget isshrinking rapidly. Any increase of funding fortechnology, no matter how modest, will appearto be at the expense of other educational priori-ties that are already being tightly pressed.

Another important concern is that a Federaleducation policy that focuses on technologymight create the impression that technologyis a panacea. Such an impression could divertattention as well as funds from other signifi-

Ch. 10—Implications for Policy ● 179

cant problems that may not be solvable by thetechnology. It could also create overexpecta-tion followed by unwarranted disillusionmentabout the potential contributions technologycould make to education.

Finally, some concern has been expressedabout the potential long-term effect on learn-ing that may be caused by an extensive useof technology for education. Society would beaugmenting or even replacing an old and well-known process—the classroom and teacher—by new technology-based methods. Some peo-ple anticipate a number of possible side effectsthat might have significant negative conse-quences for students. These effects might in-clude shortened attention span, loss of effec-tive learning, or decreased opportunities forsocial interaction.

Congressional OptionsOTA found that a broad range of Federal

policy options relating to educational technol-ogy have been suggested. They range in scopefrom policies that call for no Federal action tothose that call for a marshaling of Federalresources. All of these policies would, however,be inextricably linked to the broader educationpolicy, which has recently been the focus ofsignificant restructuring. Since OTA has notattempted to perform an overall assessmentof Federal education policy, only a broad over-view of the structure of some of the more feasi-ble options available has been taken.

Option 1: Subsidize Hardware

Legislation has already been introduced tohelp schools obtain information technology.For example, H.R. 5573 is intended to increasethe amount of tax deduction allowed to manu-facturers for donations of computer hardware.Such a policy would likely increase the numberof donations of technology to schools, al-though the quantity would depend on thegrowth of the market. Firms with a large back-log of purchase orders might be less inclined

to see an advantage in donations, even if ac-companied by tax writeoffs. On the otherhand, incentives such as advertising, long-term market development, or a sense of publicresponsibility might encourage contributions.

On the negative side, some have suggestedthat schools might be the recipients of obsoles-cent machines as manufacturers clear out theirinventories prior to the introduction of thenext generation of systems. Moreover, schoolsmight tend to accept inappropriate hardwarethat is free rather than purchase equipmentthat best fits their needs.

One congressional option would be to in-crease direct funding to the schools to allowthem to purchase hardware. Such a policywould have the advantage of allowing the in-stitutions to select the equipment they prefer.The OTA case studies indicated that many ofthe most successful schools that now employcomputers used Federal funds as seed moneyfor their programs. Desktop computers can beused to teach introductory computer program-ing and computer literacy without extensive


software. Such a course characterized the ini-tial use of computers in many of the schoolsthat OTA examined. In addition, a substan-tial increase in the base of hardware availablein educational institutions would provide amore attractive market for curriculum pro-ducers. It could both encourage the develop-ment of material and decrease the price of soft-ware since development costs would be writ-ten off over a larger sales base.

Option 2: Subsidize Software

Many producers of educational curricula areinterested in the growing market for technol-ogy-based materials, but they are uncertainabout entry. In the early, formative stage ofthe market development, expensive develop-ment projects are risky, at best. In addition,much still needs to be learned about the besteducational use of the new media. These prob-lems have served to slow the pace of develop-ment.

In response to these problems, some havesuggested that the Federal Government pro-vide assistance with developmental costs ofsome major curriculum packages. Either di-rect funding, full or partial, could be providedto the producers, or educational institutionscould be given funds for the purchase of educa-tional software.

Direct support of the producers would allowthe Federal Government to set priorities intwo ways. Curriculum packages could be de-signed around those subjects for which a clearnational need exists-e. g., mathematics andscience, foreign language, or adult literacy.And research and development concerns couldbe taken into account when setting prioritiesfor projects to be funded. Support could begiven to those that showed the most promiseof advancing the state of the art in the usesof education technology. Opponents of suchan approach suggest that priorities for thesetwo concerns are best set at the local level andin the marketplace.

An alternative method of support that takesthese objections into account would be to pro-

vide educational institutions funds to pur-chase educational software. Such a policywould increase the size and likelihood of apotential market for software and encourageproducers to compete for a share of that mar-ket. Priorities for subject matter would thenbe set in the market by the users and produc-ers, and competition would result in increasedquality and decreased costs. Opponents arguethat many potential educational users are notyet sophisticated enough to exercise their bestjudgment. Their naivete, coupled with the ex-penditure of Federal rather than local funds,could encourage wasteful expenditures on well-marketed but educationally unsound curricu-lum packages.

Option 3: Assume aLeadership Role

The lack of information by the potentialusers of educational technology is the basis forsuggestions that the Federal Government playa leadership role, particularly with respect tothe elementary and secondary schools. Fewteachers or school administrators are trainedin the instructional use of computers or otherelectronic media. Unsound decisions in imple-menting technology and selecting curriculumpackages could be extremely costly to schools.Money would be wasted, and potential bene-fits could be lost. Furthermore, exaggeratedexpectations or a bad initial experience withtechnology resulting from a poor implementa-tion strategy could lead to disillusionmentwith educational technology and to significantdelays in its appropriate implementation.

At the same time, OTA case studies suggestthat, at least in a number of schools, there isa great deal of interest and motivation by fac-ulty and administrators, students and parents,and local industries to promote the use of com-puter technology. This motivation, if properlyinformed and guided, could be an importantdriving force for the implementation of educa-tional technology.

The Federal support might take the form offunding for teacher training, either inservice

Ch. 10—Implications for Policy . 181

or preservice in the teacher colleges, for dem-onstration and development centers, or forinformation clearinghouses. Such activitiesmight be undertaken directly by the Govern-ment, or through the encouragement of a vari-ety of institutional partnerships involving edu-cation, industry, and nonprofit foundations in-terested in education. S. 2738, for example,would provide tax credits to firms that hirepublic school math and science teachers dur-ing the summer.

OTA has found general agreement thatthere is a significant lack, particularly in thearea of precollege science and mathematics, ofqualified teachers. The concern has been ex-pressed both about the numbers of teachersbeing trained and their quality. The FederalGovernment has funded teacher training pro-grams in the past, particularly in areas wherethere was a vital national need. For example,inservice programs in science and mathemat-ics education were funded by the National Sci-ence Foundation.

A major problem noted by some experts andadministrators in the area of computer train-ing is the natural competition of the privatesector for people with abilities in this area. Oneeffect of the growth of the knowledge industryhas been to increase the earning power of indi-viduals with expertise in science, mathemat-ics, and engineering disciplines. This trend isparticularly apparent in the computer-relatedfields.

This problem creates a need for more teachereducation. However, it also suggests that,while salaries remain significantly lower ineducation than in other sectors, teachers whoreceive such training would need to take thispossibility into account, through mechanismssuch as:

making commitments to the teaching pro-fession part of the selection criteria,making contractual agreements withteachers attending the programs thatthey will return to teaching,making agreements with local industrynot to lure teachers newly trained in com-puter technology,

setting up cooperative programs with lo-cal industry to provide summer jobs toteachers that have been trained in com-puting, andusing differentials to encourage teacherswith more marketable skills to-stay in theeducation profession.

The clearinghouse and demonstration centersuggestions respond to the other major non-monetary barrier: lack of information andguidance on how to institute and use educa-tional technology. For many years, sugges-tions for various forms of such centers havebeen put forth. They could perform a wide va-riety of functions, including the following:

●

●

●

●

●

evaluate educational software and dis-seminate their findings. The extreme caseof this review process would be for thecenter to certify software as educationallyvalid;provide a location and experienced stafffor teachers and administrator trainingprograms;provide expert consulting and guidance,since salaries at such a center might bemore competitive;serve as an instructional test bed for bothnew technology and new teaching tech-niques that integrate instruction andtechnology; andidentify and examine in detail those insti-tutions that have already successfullyadopted technology in order to share theirexperiences more broadly.

Option 4: IncorporateTechnology Initiatives inGeneral Education Policy

Congress makes policy that broadly ad-dresses the general problems and needs of edu-cation. This broad legislation could be tailoredwhere appropriate, either to encourage techno-logical use or to remove unintended barriersto such usage.

To the extent that education legislation iscreated based on a view of the educational sys-tem—needs, providers, and mechanisms--pol-


icy should also take into account the possibil-ity of change from the information revolution.For example:

●

●

●

Vocational education must take into ac-count the problems of experienced work-ers displaced by automation and the newskill requirements of high-technology in-dustry.Veteran’s education must consider wheth-er continuing adult education will shiftfocus from schools to industry or even tothe home.Special education will need to consider theenormous potential of information tech-nology to improve the access of handi-capped to the information stream of U.S.society and, hence, to educational servicesspecifically tailored to their needs.

I m p a c t s

Any policy relating to educational technol-ogy will need to be evaluated, not only for itsdirect effect, but also for the potential it holdsfor longer term impacts. OTA has identifiedthree general areas of potential impact thatseem particularly significant for Federal pol-icy.

Implicit Choices

Congress could influence the long-term de-velopment of the educational system throughpolicies that deliberately or unintentionallyfavored particular institutions, clients, or tech-nological mechanisms. As a result, there couldbe significant long-term effects on who is edu-cated in our society, for what purpose, whoprovides it, and what mechanisms are used toprovide it.

OTA found that a variety of new providersof education and educational material are ap-pearing and that the roles of traditional insti-tutions are shifting. It is possible that infor-mation technology will be a powerful tool fordecreasing costs of instruction or for increas-ing the quality, distribution, or variety of edu-cational offerings. If so, those institutions thatare able to adapt to its use most quickly willhave a significant competitive advantage over

those that cannot. By focusing on the needsof one or more of these institutions—e.g., thepublic schools, libraries, or industrial trainingfacilities-at the exclusion of others, Congresscould influence that competitive balance.

Certain objectives may overtly dictate suchpolicies. For example, if it were determinedthat public school’s lack of access to edu-cational technology put their students in aseverely disadvantaged position, Congresscould, for public policy reasons, focus policyon public schools in order to strengthen theminstitutionally. If it were determined that theproper Federal interest was to see that infor-mation literacy increased among the popula-tion in more general terms, policy might ad-dress the needs of libraries or museums. Policythat addresses the need for job training mightconcentrate on industrial education.

Certain clients for educational services mayalso be favored over others. To the extent thatdifferent institutions serve different sets ofneeds, the policy impacts on institutional rolesdiscussed above will also affect the clients. Inaddition, a number of Federal education poli-cies—those concerned with special education,foreign language instruction, etc.—are specif-ically tailored to the needs of particularlearners.

Finally, policy may be directed at specifictechnologies. OTA found that a wide varietyof computer, telecommunication, and videotechnologies have potential educational appli-cation. Furthermore, they can be combined innew and unexpected ways to form instructionsystems. Policies narrowly focused on onetechnology-microcomputers, two-way cable,etc.—could inhibit the full exploration of thepotential of the much wider collection of infor-mation technologies.

Potential Equity Impacts

OTA found concern among some expertsthat the widespread implementation of educa-tional technology could create issues of equi-ty. Information technology could acceleratethe existing trend of educational services mov-ing into the private marketplace. To the ex-

Ch. 10—Implications for Policy ● 183

tent that such a trend affects both the cost andaccessibility of instruction, it may have a dif-ferential impact on the ability of groups withinthe society to become educated. The cost ofeducation may increase beyond the economicmeans of some. Providers may not have an in-centive to meet certain needs if they see lesspotential for profit in them. Regions may begeographically isolated, without access to vitaltelecommunication technologies that couldprovide needed educational services.

On the other hand, information technologycould also substantially improve access tohigh-quality educational services. Communica-tion services such as direct broadcast satellitecan bring instruction to remote areas. In-homeinformation technology such as two-way cableand personal computers can improve thehomebound’ access to education. Technologycould provide effective education in areas suchas bilingual education, supplementary tutor-ing for children with learning disabilities, orassistance in classroom communication for thephysically handicapped.

To the extent that Federal policy influencesthe impact of educational technology on accessto education, it will also likely influence boththe access of affected groups to jobs and theirability to participate in an increasingly com-plex society.

Long-Term Educational Impacts

Finally, over the long term, a major societaldependence on information technology couldhave significant educational and psychologicaleffects on the U.S. population. We have littleinformation about what those effects mightbe. While the educational effectiveness of in-formation technology seems generally to be ac-cepted, not much has been learned about themore subtle effects on learning or the possi-ble impacts of more extensive, longer term use.Most likely, some skills will be enhanced byuse of technology while others may be lost orlessened.

To the extent that changes do occur, theremay be concomitant changes in the skills de-

manded by society. For example, some expertsargue that simple arithmetic skills may be lessimportant in a world of pocket calculators andautomated cash registers, and that spellingmay be less important in light of modern wordprocessing systems that correct errors. Evenmore importantly, if more and more jobs mayrequire the use of computers and automateddata bases to solve problems, then the skillsthat are particularly enhanced through inter-action with a computer-based education sys-tem may be very important in the future.

The analysis of potential policies and theirimpacts suggest that, while any particular ac-tion will affect the future use and developmentof educational technologies, none of them can,by themselves, meet the total challenge facingAmerican education today. As this OTA re-port demonstrates, to meet the educationalneeds of an information society will involve allindividuals, groups, and institutions. It willrequire the use of a full range of educationalapproaches and technologies. It will, more-over, entail overcoming a wide variety of com-plex institutional and social barriers. And itwill necessitate a thorough understanding andthe continued monitoring of these rapidly un-folding technologies.

The information age is having a profoundeffect on American education, increasing theneed and the demand for a broad variety ofeducational services. The Nation’s educationalneeds are not now being met, creating a situa-tion that could impede the Nation’s economicgrowth, undermine its international competi-tive position, and increase and exacerbate thesocioeconomic divisions within society. Thenew information technologies offer a promis-ing mechanism, and in some cases the onlymechanism, for responding to these educa-tional needs. Their widescale application willsignificantly affect how and to whom educa-tional services are provided. Such changes willpresent both challenges to and opportunitiesfor American education. Congress could takea number of specific actions to affect the devel-opment, educational application, and distribu-tion of information technologies. But such an

184 . Informational Technology and Ifs Impact on American Education

approach would address only a single aspect account the changing needs for education andof the problem and may generate undesirable training, considerations of equity, and chang-and unexpected side effects. If this is to be ing institutional roles, will be required.avoided, a broad approach, which takes into

Appendix

Appendix A

Case Studies: Applicationsof Information Technologies

This appendix presents a series of case studiesexploring the applications and uses of technologiesin a variety of institutional settings. All were cho-sen to depict current, state-of-the-art uses withininstitutions where application has been successful.

The seven studies describing information tech-nology in the public schools were selected to in-clude examples from the Northeast, Midwest,South, West, and Far West regions of the UnitedStates—and to include rural, suburban, and urbanschool settings. In choosing sites to visit, themajor criterion was that activities involving tech-nology were already under way and well-estab-lished. These cases were also selected to cover avariety of instructional uses of computers; com-puter literacy, computers as instructional deliverysystems (CAI-CMI), and computers as tools forproblem-solving.

Three case studies of applications of informationtechnologies in corporate instructional programsare presented to illustrate computer-assisted in-struction, computer-managed instruction, comput-er-based simulation, video disk, and teleconferenc-ing. The studies have been drawn from the airline,high-technology, and tobacco products industries.

Use of information and communication technol-ogies has affected all aspects of library services.With a broad overview of different applicationswithin different types of libraries, there are exam-ples of new and innovative programs that are local,county, statewide, and national in scope.

As in libraries, information technology haschanged the nature of educational services pro-vided by many museums. Recently, more and moremuseums have been incorporating informationtechnology, particularly computers, into both theirexhibits and their educational programs. A surveyof the uses of the technology in museums and acase study on a new childrens’ museum in Wash-ington, D. C., are included to demonstrate currentprograms.

All branches of the military have made substan-tial investments in research and development(R&D) on applications of information technologyto education as well as investments in ongoing pro-grams utilizing these technologies. Descriptions ofsome of the military’s educational programs areincluded to illustrate the types of programs

funded, the range of educational needs found in themilitary, the uses of information technology to ad-dress these needs, and the extent to which theseprograms may be applicable to the civilian educa-tional sector.

Two other sections–information technology andspecial education, and information technology inthe home—are also included in this appendix. Sincespecial education is a field, not an institution, OTAdid not fully explore the uses, impacts, and effectsof these technologies in this area. However, be-cause the technologies will considerably affect theschools in general, OTA examined the possible ap-plication of these technologies for teaching thegifted and the handicapped. In a similar vein, OTAtook a broad overview of educational services thatare now available to be delivered directly to andin the home.

Computers in Education:Lexington Public Schools

Lexington, Mass .

The Computers in Education program of theLexington, Mass., public schools was selected forstudy because the district is considered to be aleader in the application of computer technology,with experience and expertise that spans over 15years. Located next to Route 128, the home of athousand high-technology companies, the districttypifies a community where parents’ technical ex-pertise, leadership, and support have had a signifi-cant impact. The Lexington experience illustratesa variety of computing applications, developed byindividual teachers with leadership from the dis-trict’s long-range planner and computer specialist.The program also demonstrates a major planningeffort involving teachers, administrators, and par-ents. This 2-year effort has resulted in a com-prehensive blueprint for computers in educationthat depends on the district’s continued ability tohandle financial constraints (Proposition 2½)through frugal budgeting, redistributing availablefunds, and forming new partnerships with thecommunity (town government) and the private sec-tor.

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Fifth grade students (at left) at Fiske School, Lexington, Mass., gather about their homeroom’s computer console,linked to the Lexington School System’s mainframe Digital Equipment Corp. computer, housed at the Lexington HighSchool. The computer is made available to all of the students in the class, much as are books, activity files, maps,records, and educational materials of all nature. Their homeroom teacher assigns students to the keyboard on a rotating

basis, giving them assignments which enhance their computer literacy

The Sett ing

Lexington, one of the suburban towns that sur-rounds Boston, is located in the heart of theState’s booming high-technology area. Many ofthe Lexington parents and community membersare employed by the nearby technology industriesin white-collar technical and managerial positions.There has been continual and strong communityinvolvement and support for the schools, with atradition of community participation in town gov-ernance and decisionmaking.

Contrary to trends in other districts, 90 percentof Lexington parents send their school-aged chil-dren to the public schools. Assistant Superintend-ent Geoff Pierson observes that the flight to pri-vate schools has not occurred because “there isconsensus about what the schools are doing andparents feel that the schools represent their chil-dren’s interests. ”

Lexington is also a relatively homogeneous, af-fluent, middle-class community. The school-agedpopulation is 95-percent white, 3-percent black,and 2-percent Oriental. Seventy percent of highschool graduates go on to a 4-year college. Lex-ington boasts of having the largest number ofmerit scholars in the area, in part because thereare many “smart kids” in the system, but alsobecause “our program is rigorous and interesting. ”

A total of 5,625 students are enrolled in gradesK-12 in seven elementary, two junior high, and onehigh school. Five years ago, the district, accuratelyprojecting serious enrollment declines, plannedand prepared for significantly fewer students.Over that period five schools were closed and 150teaching positions were abolished, while teacher/student ratios were held constant and the numberof instructional programs was increased. Accord-ing to Superintendent John Lawson, declining en-rollments, continuing inflation, and the passage of

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 189

Proposition 2½, resulted in the allocation of fewerresources to the public sector.

However, Lawson states that the school admin-istration and the school committee have avoidedserious problems by planning carefully and spend-ing frugally, “In an era of limited resources wehave had to develop better priorities, monitor oursuccesses, and determine where we want to gonext. ” Not all parents and staff have been happywith the budget decisions and allocation of re-sources, but they agree that Lexington has faredbetter than other districts in the State. There isconsensus that the over $17 million 1981-82 budg-et, with a $3,024 per pupil expenditure, supportsa comprehensive, high-quality educational pro-gram.

Computer Applications inthe District

The district’s first computer, a Digital Equip-ment Corp. PDP-8 with 14 terminals, was pur-chased with Federal funds by the mathematics de-partment in 1965. Math-related computer courseswere first offered to high school students, and ayear later to junior high school students. As teach-ers and students became involved, interested par-ents worked with them to develop software, to ex-pand programing skills, and to train others.

Spearheading all of the computer activities,Walter Koetke, computer coordinator (no longerwith the district), encouraged parents and teachersand, according to many, demystified computers.He taught his colleagues BASIC, designed soft-ware for the system, and set the foundation forLexington’s computer applications. A math spe-cialist trained by Koetke worked with an advancedgroup of primary students, transporting theseyoungsters to a nearby junior high so that theycould have once-a-week computer experiences. Oneof the youngest, a first grader in the group, laterbecame one of the Lexington high school program-ing stars. By the late 1960’s, Lexington led in ef-forts to bring computer-related experiences togroups of fifth and sixth graders who were trans-ported to junior high schools by their schools’math specialist and by parent volunteers.

In 1975, with leadership from Frank DiGiam-marino (director of computer services), Koetke,and others, the district obtained funding from theMassachusetts State Department under title VI,part B to develop a computerized system to dealwith the real problems of data management in alocal school district. Project LEADS developedsoftware for a wide range of management func-

tions—e.g., budgeting, accounting, scheduling, at-tendance, and student and personnel data. Projectfunds also supported the purchase of a DEC PDP11/40 and peripheral hardware. Shortly, thissystem was also used to support instructional ac-tivities at the secondary schools—primarily inmath and science, but also in other areas.

Parents soon began to push for computer use inthe elementary schools, locating unused terminalsat work, donating personally owned equipment,and helping the schools get the hardware installed.In addition, parents and math specialists trainedteachers, Because teacher acceptance and use ofcomputers was minimal, parents took over opera-tion of the terminals and trained additional parentvolunteers to enable pupils at all elementaryschools to participate, These computer activitiescontinue to build general computer awareness andcomfort and to engage students in problem-solvingactivities, drills, and games. When microcomput-ers came on the market, the Lexington computeractivitists were ready to move.

The first four Commodore PET microcomputerswere purchased with discretionary funds in 1978,and a half-time position for a computer specialistwas created. A year later, an additional 35 PET’swere purchased with Federal Title IVB funds andPTA gifts. At the beginning of the 1978 schoolyear, workshops were offered to reach all teachersto integrate them into instruction. The plan wasto diffuse computers among the schools. With atotal budget of only $800, a computer specialist(Beth Lewd) was hired to work with each school;community volunteers were enlisted to write soft-ware for the PETs or adapt software from the PDP11; and a catalog and materials library was as-sembled.

In June 1980, it was clear that short-term, un-planned use wasn’t working. Rotation of the equip-ment was modified to concentrate resources in therooms of interested teachers, and a “models” ap-proach evolved. The wide diffusion of computerswas seen to depend on successes in individualclassrooms first. Another lesson learned was thatthe microcomputers had to be available for morethan a few weeks (e.g., one semester or all year)to ensure maximum payoff in each classroom.

By 1980, more than 20 models were imple-mented with a focus on computer literacy and ap-plications in math, spelling, social studies, science,and language arts at all grade levels. In each case,models were developed by individual teachers, ateam of teachers, or the entire school staff. Inmany instances, school principals provided staffsupport, while central office staff wrote grant pro-


posals to the school board to get additional fundsfor microcomputers, software, teacher planningtime, etc.

To build awareness of computer potential andto obtain support for the ongoing activities, a 2-day leadership conference was held in October1980. More than 90 district educators attended.Experts from Massachusetts Institute of Technol-ogy (MIT), area colleges, regional cooperatives,local school districts, and the private sector madepresentations. Teachers from the Lexington dis-trict demonstrated hardware and software andstructured hands-on experiences. The conferencewas followed by the formation of computer plan-ning committees.

Workshops and training sessions followed thatwere intended to provide most of the staff sometraining, at least at the awareness level. Teacherparticipation has so far been voluntary. All of thedistrict’s library media specialists have had exten-sive training and, as a result, have initiated severalprojects: a computerized annotated listing of16mm films; a materials data base for all nonprintmaterials in the district; and a computer center/library media pilot. The media specialist’s role hasexpanded in Lexington; in recent budget planningsessions library positions were held constant, part-ly because of the school committee’s commitmentto computer activities and because of the plan tofocus computer centers around the media center.

Currently, the district’s 60 microcomputers, 2minicomputers, and 33 terminals support the fol-lowing uses:

Kindergarten - Grade 3● Reinforcement of number and letter skills● Computer awareness and independence● Phonics instruction● LOGO modelss BASIC for primary gradesGrades 4-6● Word processing for editingc BASIC for problem solving● Using terminals in the classroomc LOGO● Skills reinforcementGrades 7-9c BASIC and computer literacy● Word processing for writing● Simulations in science● Skills reinforcementGrades 10-12c Six math electives ranging from computer

awareness to computer science and assemblylanguage programing

● Business applications● Science applicationsLibraryQ Materials data bases Computer center/library media center pilotManagement and Systemwide AdministrativeServices● Program budgeting● Program accounting● Fiscal reporting● Scheduling● Grade reports. Student and personnel data

Parent Involvement andCommunity Support

Parents have participated in the computer activ-ities and served as a resource by:

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providing technical advice and assistance.Parents serve on advisory and hardware pur-chasing committees, help install equipment,troubleshoot problems, and support computerplans in school board deliberations;writing educational software for the time-share system and the PET microcomputersand by inputing data in the materials database;helping train students, teachers, and otherparents on the terminals. Parents help in indi-vidual classrooms using microcomputers, andparticipate in district-level workshops;assisting with computer clubs before and afterschool;supervising the use of the time-share termi-nals in the elementary schools; andpurchasing and donating equipment. PTAsraised funds to purchase additional microcom-puters. Other parents donated personallyowned computers and terminals or found ex-cess equipment that was no longer being usedby companies.

Gloria Bloom–a parent volunteer, MIT gradu-ate, and former computer programer--estimatesthat parents currently spend approximately 70hours a week operating the time-share terminalsin the elementary schools. Parents also come toschool committee meetings and meet with thesuperintendent and school principals to help ad-vance the program. Some observers of the Lexing-ton program suspect that parents have led the edu-cators by pressuring and demanding computerprograms for their children. Parents point out,however, that educators must play the key role if


computer technology is to become integrated intothe educational process.

Although the major industries are literally nextdoor to Lexington, corporate-level involvementwith the school system is not direct. Rather, col-laboration is primarily through the parents of thepupils or through interested individuals in thecommunity who are also connected to the privatesector. Through these individuals, hardware is do-nated, software is developed, company tours areconducted, and information on careers is dissemi-nated.

I m p a c t sIronically, increasing success has created prob-

lems. DiGiammarino describes the issues in termsof ‘the ecstasy and agony of computers. ” As edu-cators’ experience broadens and expertise devel-ops, the potential uses for computers is recognized—the ecstasy. “This, however, is tempered by therealization that all the conditions necessary toreach the ecstasy do not currently exist—theagony. ” For example, more and more teachers aremoving ahead with classroom applications, enroll-ing in workshops and degree programs at nearbyuniversities, and, at the same time, requestingmore equipment, software, and in-service training.The present time-share hardware systems areaging fast; the microcomputers break down andare difficult to maintain the demand is greaterthan the supply; and funds for teacher in-service,professional development, and sabbaticals are lim-ited.

Impacts on Students. Students are motivatedand interested in computers, and there is evidenceof improved student performance through skillsreinforcement drills. But the existing software forthe minicomputers and microcomputers, obtainedthrough commercial sources and parent, teacher,and student development, is limited in scope.Although high-quality software is becoming avail-able, it is very expensive. The LEADS system hasboth management and instructional applications,but its users are primarily central office staff andspecial education staff. Its potential for diagnosisand tutoring applications and materials retrieval,however, is high. According to school officials,what is needed to make LEADS fully operationalis an upgraded minicomputer, a unified distribu-tive network, and training for both administratorsand teachers—to be implemented during the sec-ond year of the long-range plan.

Finally, there is the issue of program diversity.As programs evolve, different approaches are de-

veloped by individual teachers. Each elementaryand secondary school uses terminals and micro-computers, but the applications and the penetra-tion into all classrooms varies. Some teachers havegreater interest and expertise, hence their stu-dents have different experiences. Parents in someschools have become more involved, have accessto resources, and are willing to push harder thanothers. Principals juggle with conflicting needsand set different priorities. The issue of equity inaccess and quality has concerned SuperintendentLawson and his administrative staff. More thanany other factor, it has led to increased leadershipresponsibility for DiGiammarino, an expansion ofLewd’s activities, and the creation of planningcommittees.

For members of the district computer curricu-lum committee, as well as for others heavily in-volved with computers, the benefits to teachers,their students, and the program outweigh theproblems or frustrations. Teachers point to theirnew computer expertise. Many have written theirown programs, and others have helped design andimplement computer models and curriculum mate-rials. Mainly by trial and error, teachers have madethe computer work, and they feel good about whatthey and their students have learned together.There is a pervasive enthusiasm.

Dave Olney, high school physics teacher, imple-ments one of the district computer models forusing the Apple computer in physics. He spendshours writing programs and expanding his ownknowledge and previous experience with the DECsystem. He is excited about using the microcom-puter to speed up and improve Laboratory activi-ties by having students punch-in data, calculateresults, and get immediate feedback. He sees awhole range of applications including the feasibil-ity of modeling problem-solving processes in phys-ics. His enthusiasm results from the intellectualstimulation he derives from the logic processesthat he uses as he programs these activities.

For other teachers, satisfaction comes from ob-serving the progress of their students in writing,in math and reading, or in simply feeling com-fortable with computers in a variety of settings.There is no question that students are enthusiasticusers. A group of third and fourth graders work-ing with LOGO and problem-solving strategies, in-terviewed by their teacher, Florence Bailey, re-ported that learning is fun, that mistakes can behandled, that solutions can be derived through ex-perience, and that mastering programing skills ischallenging:


Eric: It’s fun, but it’s actually school work. It’sbetter than recess! Brad and I make a goodteam. He knows things I don’t know, and Iknow what he doesn’t.

Tim: If you’re bored, you just work on the com-puter, and you’re not bored anymore.

Tanya: I can make my own designs and pictures.You’re learning while you’re having fun.

Chrissy: The big one upstairs is already programed.This one you can learn to program with yourown things.

Shannon: You can learn by yourself. . . if you makemistakes. You can fix a circle that’s too big.

Increasing numbers of Lexington students, par-ticularly by the time they reach high school, haveexpertise in programing that is impressive. EdGood, director of the high school computer mathcenter, points proudly to students who have writ-ten software for the districts’ data managementsystem, for elementary classroom instructional ac-tivities, and for small businesses in the area. Hecites the high school sophomore who designed theinterface to transfer (download) programs on thePDP 11/40 to the PET’s, thereby saving the dis-trict thousands of dollars.

From the models and from other uses, it appearsthat computers are, and will continue to be power-ful tools for both teachers and learners. This no-tion explains, in part, why an increasing numberof staff members are using computers or are inter-ested in having computers in their classroom. JodyJosiassen, a fourth grade teacher, describes his2-year involvement: “In my teacher training pro-gram there was nothing in my education thatspoke to this-the hardware-the software. It’s abrand new field. I get excited about it from a teach-er’s point of view because I think it can do thingsin the classroom for me that I’ve struggled within the past. ”

Finally, in further justifying the comprehensiveplans for future computer applications, Lexingtonadministrators and teachers point to their high-technology community and to the increasinglytechnology-related world. Two-thirds of JodyJosiassen’s students have their own home comput-ers. He views this phenomenon as the “iceberg outthere and I’m at the very tip. ” He also sees thatthe schools need to be part of the momentum, “tocatch it, structure it and use it . . . and help mystudents develop their goals to use it. ”

The Future

Implementing the Long-Range Plan for Com-puters in Education. With district implementationof the long-range plan, the following examples will

become not only possible, but commonplace. Theplanning document projections include:

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A third grade student at a computer stationready to LOAD, RUN, and LIST a programfrom tape or disk.A teacher at a computer terminal obtaininga list of all nonbook resources owned by theLexington School System related to a specificsubject heading for students at the seventhgrade instructional reading level.Elementary school students work at comput-er stations in the learning center or on teach-er prescribed learning activities which havebeen integrated into the curriculum.The coordinator of language arts updating thelanguage arts curriculum data base from staffevaluative information.A junior high school student electing to takea followup computer course as a result of pos-itive experiences in the required computer lit-eracy program.A student at the senior high school level de-signing his/her own data base management in-formation system.Teachers or students using computer termi-nals to address computerized information sys-tems anywhere in the Nation.A teacher queries a terminal to determine ex-actly what are the educational plan objectivesof two students in the class and what is theirprogress to date.A program director querying a terminal to de-termine the exact cost to date of his programand precisely what portion of that cost hasbeen used for special needs programs.A counselor using the computer to assistscheduling a new student.An elementary principal, concerned about thevalidity of the academic level recommendedfor his students moving to junior high, usinga terminal to examine how previous studentshave achieved in seventh grade relative to thelevel recommended by his school.The data-processing center adding to the database the information from the annual batteryof basic skills tests given to one-quarter of theschool population. Also, printing report cardsand searching for those students whose aca-demic achievement is declining.

Acquisition and Placement of Hardware. Keyimplementation strategies include the acquisitionof equipment over a 5-year period, with a mix ofmicrocomputers, terminals, and replacement of thesystem’s PDP 11/40 and 8. Each school will have


a cluster of inexpensive portable microcomputersand terminals that tie into the central system. Theupgraded central minicomputer system will signif-icantly expand capacity to handle a curriculummaterials data base, software collections, and stu-dent information and management functions.Each elementary school will have a computerlearning center supervised by the library mediaspecialist. A center or cluster will be equipped witht h e

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following:11 small microcomputers (several available forloan to individual classrooms),three CRT terminals hooked to the centralminicomputer,one printer directly tied to the central mini-computer, andone printer for the microcomputers network-ing and electronic mail equipment.

Similar centers will be established at the juniorhigh school, with one center servicing the needsof the computer literacy curriculum as well as theacademic areas outside of math and science. Thesecond center will support math and science appli-cations. Similar configurations are planned for thehigh school, as well as an upgraded computer cen-ter with a replacement of the PDP 11/40 and aphase-out of the PDP 8.

Funding. Recommended equipment will prob-ably cost almost a half-million dollars. Up untilnow, computers and terminals were acquired with-out expenditure of local funds (see previous sec-tions of this report). With reductions in Federaland State funds, the district is searching for otheralternatives, such as corporate contributions fromthe computer hardware manufacturers, to defraypart of the equipment costs. The school commit-tee is also being asked to allocate funds from theoperating budget to support the computer pro-gram. For 1982 to 1983, the plan is to budget$74,566 from local revenues, to use all of the Fed-eral title IVB grants ($16,000) and reimburse-ments to the district for student teaching fromBoston University ($10,000), and to attempt to ob-tain a 50 percent discount from DEC for the newminicomputer as a corporate contribution.

Although implementation of the plan is basedon funding sources such as Federal block grantsand other special area funds, the availability ofthese resources is not guaranteed under presentcircumstances. Furthermore, funding projectionsdeal solely with hardware acquisition. Costs forsoftware, continued training, and maintenance willhave to be absorbed by operating budgets.

A Separate Department for Information Sci-ence. The planning committee has recommendedthe establishment of an information science de-partment to lead program activities–handlingstaffing, budgeting, maintaining, and evaluatingthe K-12 computer literacy program. The de-partment would also assume responsibility for therevision, updating, and teaching of higher levelcourses on programing, systems design, and com-puter applications. Inservice training and otherleadership and professional development activitieswould be handled as well. Computer literacy andcomputer science courses would be taken out ofthe math department, and the scope of the pro-gram would be broadened to include all curriculumareas. No new staff positions are contemplated;staff members who have already played leadingroles will be reassigned to the new department.

Training and Curriculum Development: Com-puter Literacy. These efforts will continue withsummer workshops and inservice training activ-ities scheduled on release days at the beginningof the school term and periodically during the year.During the summer, teachers from the computerliteracy committees will work with Lewd to as-semble and prepare materials for elementary andjunior high school components. These teachers willbe responsible for teaching the course at the juniorand senior high schools in the fall. Resources (stafftime, equipment, and software purchase and de-velopment) will be concentrated over the shortterm in grades 5, 8, and 10. Remaining portionsof the new curriculum will be piloted at other gradelevels.

Computers in Education. It is planned to extendthe use of computers as tools for instruction. Thematerials data base will be operational. Becauseof upgraded central computing facilities, teachersand administrators are expected to increase theiruse of computerized data. Also expected to in-crease are the communication and sharing of infor-mation and software via electronic mail among allschools, as well as the number of accessing infor-mation centers and networks within the commu-nity, State, and region.

Parents and the Technology Community. Coop-erative efforts with local district cooperatives anduser groups, with parents, and with the high-tech-nology industries is essential to Lexington’sfuture. How else, argue the educators, can the dis-trict keep abreast of technological advances, en-courage or demand useful and appropriate soft-ware, make the best use of available resources to


advance the long-range plan, and maximize the po-tential benefits of technology for education?

As a result of district membership in EDCO, alocal education collaboration, Lexington teacherswill derive benefits from the computer resourceand demonstration center that is being estab-lished. They will also benefit from the knowledgethat they are not alone, that other districts arecopying with computer applications, too. The reg-ular exchange of information with such districtsis welcomed by the staff. Finally, the technologycommunity and the parents offer valuable re-sources. Lewis Clapp, president of a local softwaredevelopment company and also a parent, main-tains “a school system that does not take advan-tage of the intellectual power of its parents andcommunity is doing a disservice to its students—particularly in an era of 2½’s and Reaganomics.”

The parents of Lexington recognize progress,but they expect more. For example, Clapp believesit is essential that all teachers be computer-liter-ate; that public and higher education efforts becoordinated; that computing and computer sciencecurricula be fully developed to reflect the currentstate of the art; that computer tools be used tosupport the entire curriculum, not just math orscience; and that every student has adequate ex-posure to computers— “knowing what computersare all about and able to run programs-maybeeven able to write their own by the time they reachhigh school. ” Clapp argues that the educationalcommunity and the public schools have a criticalrole to play in meeting these goals, but raises seri-ous issues to be faced now and in the future:

The tragedy is that national support for this isnonexistent-at the time we need it the most. Thelocal district can’t do it. Lexington-even Lexing-ton–might not be able to (accomplish these goals)with a budget limited to a 2½ percent increase eachyear. . . It is a disaster for this nation. If we failto invest in education nationally, we impact on ourfuture and our ability to be productive . . . (andmaintain) the edge we have in computers, in soft-ware, and in information retrieval.

Resources

Case study interviews:John Lawson, SuperintendentGeoff Pierson, Assistant Superintendent*F r a n k DiGiammarino, Administrative Assistant* for

Planning and Research and Director, ComputerServices

Beth Lewd, Computers-in-Education Specialist*Bob Tucker, Teacher, Estabrook Elementary School*

Martha Angevine, Coordinator, Instructional MaterialServices, Curriculum Resource Center*

Luree Jaquith, Media Specialist Bowman ElementarySchool*

Beverly Smith, Teacher, Bowman Elementary School*Jill O’Reilly, Math Teacher, Clark Junior High SchoolBruce Storm, Teacher, Clark Junior High SchoolJody Josiassen, Teacher, Barrington School**Dave Olney, Science Teacher, Lexington High SchoolEd Good, Math Teacher, Computer Center, Lexington

High SchoolLouis Clapp, ParentGloria Bloom, Parent

● Member, Computer Planning Curriculum Committee** Member, Elementary Curriculum COIIIDU “tt.ee

BibliographyDiGiammarino, F. P., Computers in Public Education,

The Second Time Around, preliminary draft, fall 1981.DiGiammarino, F., Koetke, W., Guldager, L., and Clif-

ford, L., Local Education Agency Data System: Proj-ect LEADS, Lexington Public Schools, September1976.

DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., “A Position Pa-per—Expanding the Use of Computers in the Lex-ington Schools” (revised), June 23, 1980.

DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., Computers in Educa-tion: A Long Range Plan, Lexington Public Schools,fall 1981.

Lexington Public Schools, 1981-82 Budget Summary,March 1981.

Lexington Public Schools, Computers in Education,1980-81 report.

Lexington Public Schools, “Computers in Education1979-1980 Program Plan. ”

Computer-Using Educatorsand Computer Literacy

Programs In Novato andCupertino

Introduction

The Silicon Valley and nearby communities wereselected for study because the area provides a richsource and critical mass of educators, schools,students, parents and community members, andbusiness representatives directly involved withtechnology. The area is the center of the Nation’ssemiconductor industry. It is also the home of agrowing number of educational experts and lead-ers in computing. There are many examples oflocally developed projects sprouted by individualteachers or administrators or parents, which havedeveloped into major programs affecting an entire


districts’ students and staff. These activities in-volving computers in classrooms also demonstratehow resources–local, State, and Federal funding,as well as parent and local experts and the privatesector—are critical to implementation.

COMPUTER-USING EDUCATORS

Computer-Using Educators (CUE) is a supportgroup organized by and for K-12 teachers, teachertrainers, and others interested in the use of com-puters in education. Started by 12 teachers in thespring of 1978, the organization has mushroomedto a membership of 3,500, primarily in Californiabut also in 48 States and 13 foreign countries. Itsgrowth reflects the phenomenal growth of edu-cational computer applications and mirrors thegrassroots development of programs in schools upand down the San Francisco Bay Area. Groupsmodeled after CUE have also been formedthroughout the country.

Through conferences, newsletters, and meetings,CUE is a source of information and a vehicle forsharing experiences with computers, and their usein education. In addition, CUE members origi-nated and now support the Microcomputer Centerand SOFTSWAP Library of public-domain micro-computer software housed in the San Mateo Coun-ty Office of Education. To quote one member:

Learning is a never-ending process. Formal edu-cation is a small portion of this ongoing process.The role of educators is to aid the learning proc-esses. The philosophy of CUE should be to showeducators-mostly by example-the role computerscan play in the learning process, Computers can beused in many ways to do many functions. The uses,functions, methods, and materials will change andevolve. CUE can help discover and show the way.Microcomputer Center and SOFTSWAP. The

stimulus for the software exchange came from aSan Jose State University professor, Vince Con-treras, a CUE member. He organized the exchangeof public domain and individually contributed soft-ware that was deposited in the San Mateo Educa-tion Resource Center (SMERC) Library in thespring of 1980. By the time school was out, CUEmembers had talked several of their microcomput-er industry contacts into placing microcomputersin the SMERC Library on long-term loan. Tandy(Radio Shack) and Commodore (PET) provided thefirst systems. Ann Lathrop, coordinator of theMicrocomputer Center reports that the center nowhas 14 microcomputers and manufacturers helpmaintain equipment and provide new models asthey have become available.

The center has a steady stream of users. The SanMateo County Office of Education provides space,maintenance, and support through Ann Lathrop,library coordinator, and LeRoy Finkel, the coun-ty’s instructional computing coordinator. Superin-tendent William Jennings cites the center’s bene-fits to the county’s 24 school districts. Teachersand administrators try out equipment and soft-ware; both Lathrop and Finkel are nearby to pro-vide help and expertise. CUE members and theirdistrict teachers and administrators take advan-tage of the center for meetings, training sessions,demonstrations, and evaluation of hardware andsoftware. The center is visited by representativesfrom hardware companies and software houses,educators and government officials from all overthe State and even educators from other Statesand foreign countries.

Ann Lathrop conceived SOFTSWAP, the soft-ware dissemination and evaluation project, andgarnered the support of colleagues to field-test,evaluate, debug, and clean up the programs in thesystem. Through SOFTSWAP, teachers can pur-chase software or swap their original program forthat of someone else. Most of the 300+ softwareprograms are short, stand-alone instructionalunits; many are drill and practice exercises for theelementary school level or for remedial work at thesecondary level. All were evaluated by educatorsand edited for factual and spelling errors, inaccu-rate or incomplete instructions, programing errors,etc.

When visitors come to the center, they can copydissemination disks without charge. Single mailorder disks are $10 apiece, or free if a disk withat least one original program is contributed. Eachdisk contains 12 to 30 programs. Since the majorthrust of SOFTSWAP is sharing with the widestpossible distribution, programs may be freely du-plicated, but not sold.

CUE Conferences

CUE’s first conference, remembers William(Sandy) Wagner, founder and first president ofCUE, evolved from CUE’s early meetings. “We’dintroduce ourselves, share ideas on curriculum, onsoftware . . . and see more new faces each time. BySeptember 1978 the small group had grown to 50and it was agreed that “we can’t go on meetinglike this” . . . a conference would facilitate sharingand in-depth discussions. CUE’s first weekendconference in January 1979 attracted 65 edu-


cators. A few informal sessions expanded to multi-ple presentations, wide-ranging exhibits, andhands-on workshops in the fall 1980 conference with500 in attendance. By fall 1981, conference attend-ance reached 1,400—with some districts sendingall their teachers to view 45 commercial exhibitsand 60 different speakers. CUE’s officers and ex-ecutive board members play critical roles in plan-ning, organizing, and running the CUE confer-ences. They work evenings and weekends—all onvolunteered time. The conference coordinatorshandle some tasks with their own personal com-puters, as well.

I m p a c t s

The expansion of CUE membership and activi-ties demonstrates not only the growing interestand use of technology in schools, but also the factthat teachers need help. They are coming for morethan help, some argue-they’re looking for leader-ship. These computer-using educators “are carry-ing the message that the time to move is now, ”notes Arthur Luehrmann, former director of theLawrence Hall of Science Computer Project. “Theleaders are here in these counties who are respond-ing to the signals coming from society, from theemployers, and the parents. ”

When asked why CUE and the grassroots phe-nomenon developed where it did, many point to the“critical mass” of people that emerged—individu-als developing separate programs and expertise,but living close enough to meet. Finkel points tothe special and unique aspects of CUE. “CUEmembers are teachers first. We share, we don’thave district or school boundaries. We’re a net-work of people . . . and it’s a stupendous eventeach time we meet. ” Furthermore, there was aneed for support, training, information, and leader-ship that neither the State education agency, theinstitutions of higher education, nor the high-tech-nology industries were providing.

F u t u r e

There are indications that the latter situationmay be changing, albeit slowly. The Fremont andLos Gates High School districts plan to open ajoint Silicon Valley High School with support fromthe Industry Education Council. Equipment andtraining for teachers are being solicited from high-tech industries. The high school will offer entry-level vocational training and courses for the col-lege-bound information sciences major who wantsa head start, and for other college-bound students

who want to learn how to use the computer andrelated tools in their studies and future work.Governor Brown of California, in his addressbefore the State Legislature in January 1982,called for new priorities and action:

Our schools must augment the three R’s with thethree C’s—computing, calculating, and communi-cating through technology. We will do so or suc-ceeding generations will inherit a society stagnatingin the aftershocks of massive foreign imports andobsolete industry.In addition to the first priority of an increased

commitment to mathematics, science, and comput-er instruction in California K-12 schools, the StateEducation Agency is beginning to address technol-ogy issues. One issue that concerns many of thelocal educators is how to meet these commitments,given the growing disparity between districts thathave programs, trained teachers, and communityresources to draw on and those districts that donot. Furthermore, not every district or county inthe State has a major industry to draw on. Evenin the Silicon Valley much of the private sector ismade up of small, short-term, entrepreneurial busi-nesses that don’t have extensive resources.

In reflecting on the grassroots development andthe enthusiasm of CUE, Joyce Hakansson, former-ly at the Lawrence Hall of Science and now a soft-ware designer and developer, cautions: “We needto understand the place of technology and give ita proper role. Don’t assign all of our ills totechnology . . . recognize that technology is justanother tool. ” Hakansson notes the new statusand positive feelings of self-worth resulting frominteraction with microcomputers, but also ob-serves that, “software, the essence and heart ofthe computer, is less than it could be” and that“what youngsters are doing on computers may notbe worth the time or money. ” The future applica-tions ought to capture the inherent interest andmotivating aspects of the technology and matchit with children’s learning needs--to integrate com-puters into the teaching and learning environment.

From the Silicon Valley and surrounding SanFrancisco Bay Area communities, two school dis-tricts were studied. These districts’ educationalcomputing programs were locally developed andtypify the area’s grassroots activities. Key person-nel from these districts are heavily involved inCUE: Bobby Godson, from Cupertino, is CUE’sPresident and Helen Joseph, from Novato, is amember of CUE’S executive board. In-depth dis-cussions of school district approaches to imple-menting computers in classrooms follow: TheNovato Unified District, a rural K-12 system at


the northern tip of Marin County, and the Cuper-tino Union K-8 district in Santa Clara in the centerof Silicon Valley.

Novato Unified SchoolDistrict, Novato, Calif .

The Sett ing

Located at the upper tip of Marin County ap-proximately 30 miles north of San Francisco,Novato Unified School District (NUSD) is one oftwo districts in the county combining elementaryand secondary schools. It is the largest of thedistricts in Marin County. It is also more rural andless affluent than other areas in the county. Agri-culture predominates; the major local industry isinsurance-the Fireman’s Fund. Incorporated in1961, Novato’s community is diverse: blue collarworkers, many San Francisco commuters, a grow-ing number of retirees, and personnel and familieson the military base. The student body composi-tion is 90-percent white, 5-percent Asian (and in-creasing), 3-percent Hispanic, and 2-percent black.Three-fifths of Novato graduates goon to college.

In recent years, student enrollments have de-clined and several schools have been closed. Thepresent enrollment of 8,642 is expected to decreasefurther and level off to 7,500 by 1985. Presently,there are eight elementary schools, grades K-6;three junior highs, grades 7-9; two high schools,grades 10-12; and one continuation, grades 9-12.One junior high school is targeted for closing atthe end of this year. If Novato can find buyers forthe surplus school properties it owns outright(three sites are currently for sale), the interest fromthese revenues can be used for equipment and cap-ital improvements.

Local educators point out that while MarinCounty boasts the highest per capita income in theBay Area, Novato is the “poorest part. ” The1981-82 NUSD annual budget is $23,645,286. One-fifth of the budget is federally funded. School fi-nances are and will continue to be a growing areafor concern. Superintendent Ronald Franklin ex-plains the district’s bind:

Parents expect that educational programs willreflect excellence . . . the toughest thing we have todeal with in being able to handle our commitment(to the district’s computer and other programs) isthe uncertainty of the financial posture of both Fed-eral and State governments.

Novato’s board and administration are concernedbecause they see cuts coming on all sides. The dis-trict’s Federal impact aid has declined from a high

of $938,714 in 1977-78 to $602,324 in 1981-82. In1982-83, impact aid is uncertain. State funds,which provide 70 percent of the district revenue,have been cut, including categorical aid for specialeducation and gifted and talented programs. Ed-ucators note that the impact of Proposition 13passed 4 years ago, is now being felt, since theState’s surplus has been depleted.


Computer education in the district began 8 yearsago, when a Novato junior high school acquireda teletype machine and shared with DominicanCollege the lease of a telephone line hookup withthe time-sharing computer at the Lawrence Hallof Science in Berkeley. Novato was one of severalschool districts linked to the Hall’s Computer Edu-cation Project (funded by the National ScienceFoundation). The Hall staff, Lee Berman andJoyce Hakansson, were invaluable resources ascomputer activities evolved, relates Helen Joseph,computer resource teacher and coordinator. Evenafter the timesharing project ended, she continuedto turn to them for advice and support.

The district’s first microcomputers were ac-quired in 1977, when the time-sharing costs wereescalating. Richard Melendy, former math andscience coordinator, now school principal, andJoseph met with the district director of instruc-tion and examined how the district might best usethe MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds which hadsupported the time-sharing project. The subse-quent decision to purchase Commodore PETs wasbased on cost and reliability.

Over the next 3 years the computer programgrew rapidly, expanding to the two senior highs,an additional junior high, and an elementaryschool. In this small district, officials made an ear-ly decision to standardize hardware because ofteacher training, software acquisition, and main-tenance requirements. By 1980, there were 28 mi-crocomputers purchased with MGM State funds,magazine sales money, and district minigrants.

The development of the program by Joseph andMelendy had strong support from the district ad-ministration. There was consensus that before thedistrict went further, an external assessment andevaluation was needed. Arthur Luehrmann, formerdirector of the Computer Education Project at theLawrence Hall of Science, spent 3 days in Novatoin March 1980, meeting with more than 50 people—students, teachers, parents, principals, districtadministrators, and school board members. In ad-


dition to identifying current needs and recom-mending future directions, the strategy was to in-volve and educate all those concerned with com-puter education in the district. Luehrmann’s re-port stated:

The present state of computer education inNovato is better than the average situation one seesin Bay Area districts today. One finds a solid baseof computer equipment, several experienced andcreative teachers, a larger number of interestedteachers, student demand for increased access tocomputer classes, strong administrative support atmost of the schools, and outstanding work at thedistrict office in planning and managing the devel-opment of computer education programs in the dis-trict during the past several years. The parents andschool board members with whom I spoke were alsosupportive of the aims and accomplishments of theprograms thus far.

Specific findings indicated that primary uses werein the secondary schools, where computer pro-gramming courses and that computer literacy activ-ities closely identified with mathematics predomi-nated. Demand for classes exceeded supply, andteachers wanted more inservice training.

Luehrmann recommended a cluster arrangementfor each of the five secondary schools, involvingapproximately 15 computers connected to a cen-tral disk unit and printer. Further, he recom-mended that the two high schools acquire com-puters that would facilitate instruction in a secondprograming language. In the elementary schools,uses were to continue to be limited to gifted pro-grams in view of the district’s current prioritiesand available resources. Luehrmann encouragedthe development of a de facto computer educationdepartment, composed of the teachers of com-puting to develop curricula, course content, se-quencing, and evaluation. He suggested that thedistrict also look at administrative computer uses,drill and practice, and other CAI applications.Finally, he recommended a gradual expansion ofthe program over a 3-year period, with a projectedcost estimate of $110,700 for equipment.

The administration and school board approvedthe recommendations. In fiscal year 1980-81,$30,000 from local funds and IVB Federal moneyswere used to equip the junior highs. A request forfunding the second and third phase of the programwas submitted to the Buck Foundation, but wasturned down. In fiscal year 1981-82, the secondphase was funded, again from the operatingbudget, and one high school is to be equipped withan Apple lab.

Current Programs

Novato’s computer education activities focuseson how to use the computer and include program-ing, problem solving, logical thinking, and debug-ging (tracking down errors). All seventh gradershave a minimum of 3 weeks of a computer literacyunit that includes an overview, a historical per-spective, basic terminology, impacts on society,and career awareness. This unit is followed by 2weeks of hands-on experiences running programs( m o d e l i n g programming activities, games, applica-tions) and writing programs. Students can alsot a k e e l e c t i v e programming and math enrichmentcourses. One high school offers courses in BASICand one offers courses in BASIC and Pascal. Thefew computers in four elementary schools are usedfor computer awareness activities in upper gradesand for enrichment in the gifted and talented pro-grams. A total of 77 computers are used through-out the district.

Staff Training Programsand Workshops

All administrators attended districtwide work-shops because the Superintendent felt, “There wasa need for every manager to know why we weresupporting this program. ” The district also sup-ported numerous teacher workshops run by HelenJoseph and encouraged staff to attend area work-shops, conferences, and meetings. With the train-ing activities of the Marin County Teachers Learn-ing Cooperative, a 3-year federally funded teachercenter, CUE conferences and workshops, and theincreasing number of courses taught at nearby col-leges, there have been many opportunities for pro-fessional development. In the spring of 1982Joseph offered a course for teachers throughSonoma State College. The district paid Joseph’ssalary and provided the computer lab facility,while the university provided credit. What was ex-citing was that this course introduced program-ing without a mathematics orientation. Thus, itsapplications will be interdisciplinary and, it ishoped, lead to computer applications in a widevariety of content areas.

I m p a c t s

In establishing the priorities for the computereducation activities, the educators and communitymembers in the district have had to ask: how im-

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App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 199

portant is computer education? As Luehrmann inhis report to the district explained:

There can be no simple answer to this question.Most people in the world have gotten along finewithout knowing what a computer was, and todaymost educated people have never used a computer.But it was also true in Gutenberg’s day (and forfour centuries thereafter!) that the majority of peo-ple could not read or write. Yet by the end of thelast century universal literacy had become an ac-cepted goal of public education, and illiterates wereat a distinct vocational and social disadvantage.Luehrmann argues that those who have comput-

er skills already enjoy several benefits: 1) vocation-al and professional advancement; 2) intellectualpayoffs—new ways to represent or express ideas;3) facilitation of problem solving, particularly inmathematics; and 4) a desirable skill or proficien-cy valued by colleges, These arguments reflect theunderlying rationale for Novato’s programs.

Students in the district are highly motivated inthe courses and computer units. Even when visi-tors come into their classrooms, students ignorethem, fully involved with the computer. “We can’tkeep the kids off the machines, ” stated one teach-er. Novato also boasts of its computer whiz kids—students now in high schools and in their first yearof college who have incredible programing skills.Some students sell programs on the side and findcomputer-related work in the summer. One stu-dent, Casey Kosak, has received national recogni-tion and has been featured in an article in Data-mation.

Problems remain, however. Keeping up with theadvances in technology is one major concern.There is already a need to upgrade several of thePETs that were purchased several years ago. Of-ficials know that new hardware may make theircurrent inventory obsolete in a few years, but theyhave no easy choices, especially when funds arelimited. Another area of concern is the impact thatcomputer electives will have on other areas of thecurriculum. Computer courses fill up immediatelywhile industrial arts courses are underenrolled.Moreover, teachers cannot easily be transferredfrom one course area to another. To complicatematters, the options to take electives may be re-duced as the school day is shortened to save mon-ey for the district. The high schools have alreadyreduced schedules from a full 6-period day to 5%.

There is still the problem of reaching all of thestudent population, particularly in the high schoolclasses. Courses are still tied to the math depart-ment, but Joseph hopes this will soon change. Fi-

nally the relationships among programs and thecompetition for resources causes concern. So far,“we’ve been able to maintain a delicate balance, ”says Joseph. But she worries what will happenwhen more schools are closed and staff positionsreduced. There is also some concernmentation of phase 3 (a second Appledelayed, as well.

that imple-lab) maybe

The Future

Integration of computers into the curriculum isa major objective for the future. There is alreadysome interest among secondary teachers in Eng-lish, social studies, business, foreign languages,and science. If the computer labs or clusters areused every period for computer literacy and pro-graming courses, this may not be feasible.

There is also an interest in exploring administra-tive uses of microcomputers in individual schools,particularly to retrieve and handle information.Melendy expressed his concern about the dispro-portionate amount of time spent in looking up rec-ords, in gathering data for reports, and in otherclerical tasks: “We’re still working at the quilllevel, when we have the technology to do other-wise. ”

Contact and interaction with the State Depart-ment of Education and other districts in the coun-ty are increasing. The county teachers’ center hasbecome an important broker. When the State Com-missioner came to Marin County in spring 1982to focus on computers in education, he met withlocal district leaders and others at the center andnearby universities.

Novato elementary schools may participate ina LOGO project currently being developed by theMarin Community College, the Marin ComputerCenter, and the Teacher Learning Cooperativeunder a grant from the Buck Foundation. TheBuck Foundation (administered by the San Fran-cisco Foundation), funds are restricted to use onlyin Marin County. Currently several proposals forsupport of computing in county schools—includinga mobile computer education van and a series ofworkshops for teachers are being examined.Joseph would like to see a Marin County sym-posium of national experts and local educators tomeasure the impact of programs. She feels it istime to reflect, to examine current programs ob-jectively, and to identify limitations and un-answered questions. According to Joseph, “Thisis needed not just here, but all across the Nation. ”


Cupertino Union SchoolDistrict, Cupertino, Calif.

The Sett ing

Situated in California’s “Silicon Valley, ” whereapricot groves turn into computer factories over-night, the Cupertino Union School District (K-8)serves a population of 50,000. School populationis 86-percent white, 8-percent Asian, 4-percentHispanic, and 2-percent black. Although the pop-ulation growth rate is one of the highest in theUnited States, an acute housing shortage and in-flated costs have resulted in a decade of decliningenrollment. Fifteen schools have been closed. The12,150 students, half of peak enrollments in 1969,attend 4 junior high and 20 elementary schools.District boundaries cut across six municipal juris-dictions. Parents support the schools, but officialspoint out that only 25 percent of the area’s subur-ban population have children in public schools.

Major industries in the area are aerospace- andcomputer-related. Many of the companies aresmall and relatively young. This is a high-tech,middle socioeconomic community with high educa-tional expectations. There is interest from the In-dustry/Education Council and the Chambers ofCommerce and service clubs as the schools re-spond to computer-related, entry-level job needs.

Cupertino has a mature, experienced teachingstaff whose average age is 47. Ninety-two percentof the teachers are in the top range of the salaryscale. Declining enrollments and reduced staffpositions make it difficult to maintain high morale,however. Officials note that the district’s staff de-velopment and incentive programs and its com-puter project are “our most powerful weapon” inmaintaining enthusiasm and quality education.

With an annual budget of $30 million, 70 per-cent of funding now comes from the State, revers-ing almost exactly the ratio that existed before thepassage of Proposition 13. Educators feel localcontrol of education has eroded. The one benefitof declining enrollments has been the sale of ex-cess property. Because of high land values, thesesales have resulted in significant capital reserveswhich can be used for equipment and capital im-provements only.

District Programs

Cupertino is the home of the Apple ComputerCo.: “the boys that designed the Apple grew uphere, ” relate Cupertino educators, “ . . . and whenthey had put together their first Apple II proto-

type, they showed it to us. ” Associate Super-intendent William Zachmeier and computer spe-cialist/teacher Bobby Goodson remember the dayclearly. They were amazed and excited with whatthey saw.

Several months later, when the district’s IVCproposal for a math program to the State wasturned down, Zachmeier urged Goodson to tryagain, but this time to try something with com-puters. With active support from the administra-tion, another proposal was written. Funded byESEA title IVC for 2 years, the junior high schoolproject provided for a full-time director, but noequipment. In addition, IVB money was allocatedto purchase three 16K Apples; old black-and-whiteTV monitors were located. Goodson learned bytalking to people; attending meetings, and workedwith students and small groups of teachers—aschool at a time.

For the 2 years of the projects, says Goodson,“we felt our way around and ‘nickeled and dimed’our way. ” Approximately three dozen computerswere purchased with IVB funds, MGM Statefunds, and parent donations. After IVC fundingended, Goodson’s position was supported by thelocal district. The approach was “to learn by try-ing out various approaches so that when we wentto the board for their support of a total districtprogram, we knew what we wanted. ”

In spring of 1981, the superintendent made thedistrict proposal to place computer labs in eachjunior high school, and labs or clusters in half ofthe elementary schools, at a total expenditure of$299,337. On the night of the presentation, theboard room was packed with teachers, administra-tors, students, and parents. “One by one they gotup and told the board why they wanted comput-ers,” remembers Zachmeier. “And the board gaveus everything we asked for, ” says Goodson.

Computer Literacy Curriculum

The computer literacy program was developedby teachers using computers in their classrooms.The program focuses first on computer awareness,and then on computer use.

The goals is that by the end of grade 6, all Cuper-tino students be fully “aware” of computers. Bythe end of grade 8, all students should have hadthe opportunity to use the computer as a tool andto be introduced to the idea of programing.

Inservice Training and Staff Development. Thedistrict has a long tradition of inservice. Staff canearn credit toward salary increments, in exchangefor released time, for conference registration fees,


for instructional supplies, or for university coursework. Extensive computer inservice courses weredeveloped and taught at first by Goodson. In time,those she trained taught others; the cadre of re-source people continues to grow. The introductorycourse begins with three short modules of two2-hour sessions, each followed by optional strandsin programing (BASIC, PILOT, LOGO) and soft-ware evaluation and design. Courses for parentaides, secretaries, and others have also beendeveloped.

Approximately 80 percent of the teaching staffhave participated in at least one course. Moreover,all principals and administrative staff attended al-day workshop in the summer of 1981, led byRichard Pugh, JHS computer teacher; JudyChamberlain, teacher of the gifted and talented; andBobby Goodson.

Installation of the labs is to proceed in stagesto provide adequate time for schoolwide planningby each faculty and for support of the program bythe computer resource teacher. Three labs werecompleted by fall 1981. By 1982-83 all junior highswill have labs. Each computer lab will have a totalof 15 student stations and a teacher demonstra-tion station which includes a large screen TV anda printer. Two of the labs will be equipped withApples and two will be equipped with Ataris.

All but two elementary schools have at least onecomputer as well, and there are at least three dif-ferent systems in the schools. Diversity of hard-ware at the elementary school level, where comput-ers are used in a variety of ways in classrooms andin the media centers, presents no problems. In thelong run, district officials now think that this di-versity will be an advantage.

Sample Programs

The computer lab at Hyde Junior High Schoolis a large room that accommodates the studentmicrocomputer stations comfortably around threesides of its perimeter. Small round tables clusterin the middle, where students come for discussion,instruction, and collaborative work. But most ofthe time it is the computers that are busy. Whilethey input data and compose print statements, ar-ticles and pictures on the classroom walls remindthem of the history of computers and where andhow computers are used today. Students all seemto be working on their own assignment. While onestudent writes a program to calculate his grade-point average, another designs a simple game, andstill another runs a preset program. Meanwhile,students at Kennedy Junior High School generate

graphics on the computer, while elementary schoolstudents in the gifted and talented program at theWilson Exploration Center develop new thinkingskills using the computer, and then debug theiroriginal programs.

At Muir Elementary School, computers can bechecked out to parents and teachers; every week-end they are all checked out. Because the computerin the library is used nonstop, access for manystudents is a problem. At the parents’ insistence,two introductory workshops were offered to par-ents. The school plans to use parent volunteers toteach computer literacy curriculum activities dur-ing alternate library periods. In this school,parents will become a major force as volunteersin the program.

At the West Valley Elementary School one suchparent, Cheryl Turner, became a catalyst andprime mover in establishing the school’s computerliteracy program. The program began with enthu-siastic teacher and student response to Turner’sdemonstration of a computer she had made froma kit. With strong support from the principal,microcomputers were installed in the library mediacenter and Turner was hired as an aide to teachcomputer literacy. Funding for the microcom-puters came from the PTA, a grant from theINTEL Corp., and MGM funds. A parent, an Atariexecutive, arranged for a loan of an Atari to theschool. All but two teachers want their studentsto participate in the program. Turner, who has“had a fascination with computers for 20 years, ”enjoys being a role model for the students anddemonstrating, especially to the girls, “that it’sokay to enjoy electronics and run around with ascrewdriver in your purse. ”

I m p a c t s

The computer literacy program has energizedboth teachers and their students. Individual par-ents have been tremendously supportive, althoughby and large Cupertino does not benefit directlyfrom proximity to the corporate world and SiliconValley industries.

More than 65 percent of the district’s teachershave received literacy training. Goodson sees thebenefits especially for those in dead-end jobs. Neg-ative feelings have been turned around, and newlife has been put into the educational process.Many are convinced that it is the opportunity tobecome a learner and “be in control” that is theirresistable appeal of the program.

Many students “turned off” by school have alsobeen motivated by the program. Many are those


whose interest and aptitude could not have beenpredicted. The problem now is getting them to gohome from school.

The program has problems, but they do not ap-pear serious. There are teachers who want to beinvolved in computing but who receive little sup-port, or no access to the computers in theirbuildings. The inequity between some of the ele-mentary schools continues to grow. There is alsorecognition that the lab arrangements do not ac-commodate the needs of the science teacher whowants a computer in class, nor the librarian whowants one in the library, nor the principal whowants one in the office. Additional funds may beallocated or alternate arrangements developed toserve these various needs.

Finally, until recently, there has been no integra-tion of computing programs in the junior highschool with programs offered in the high school.Students are frustrated in cases where there areno courses or when courses are outdated andequipment is obsolete.

Implicat ions

The district goal is that all schools will have com-puter laboratories by 1984. Training opportunitieswill be expanded, and new uses for the computerin the classroom will be explored. Cupertino edu-cators hope that there will be articulation and coor-dination between the secondary school systems.

Beyond the new courses and expanded effortsat the secondary level, Associate SuperintendentZachmeier’s ultimate goal is to give every young-ster a computer some time in elementary schoolbecause:

There will be a need for new skills and new atti-tudes. It’s our job to prepare students for the kindof world that will become not the world that was.We will have kids who leave Cupertino . . . who willbe fully computer-literate, discriminating buyersand users. And rather than being prisoners of tech-nology, they will be masters of it.

*The9e fkst activitie9 provided access to students in theJunior High School GATE program and were supported byState MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds.

*A9 more eq~pment is pwcha~, the district ~ Shift h~d-ware to have uniform equipment in the junior high labs, whereprograming is taught.

Resources

Persons interviewed:Novato Unified School District, Novato, Calif.

Helen Joseph, Computer Resource Teacher and Co-ordinator

Ronald E. Franklin, SuperintendentRichard Melendy, PrincipalJack O. Rothe, Director of InstructionArthur Luehrmann Former Director, Computer Project,

Lawrence Hall of ScienceJoyce Hakansson, Former Education Program Co-

ordinator, Lawrence Hall of ScienceCupertino Union School District, Cupertino, Calif.

William Zachmeier, Associate SuperintendentJerry Prizant, Coordinator of Media ServicesBobby Goodson, Teacher, Hyde Junior High School,

Computer Literacy Lab and Coordinator, ComputerPrograms

Frank Clark, Principal, Kennedy Junior High SchoolRichard Pugh, Teacher, Computer Literacy LabRon LaMar, Principal, Hyde Junior High SchoolHarvey Barnett, Principal, West Valley Elementary

SchoolCheryl Turner, Aide, West Valley Elementary SchoolK. A. Fisk, Principal, Muir Elementary SchoolJudy Chamberlin, Teacher, Gifted and Talented Pro-

gram Wilson CenterComputer-Using Educators - CUE Monthly

Board Meeting, Palo Alto, Calif., Jan. 22, 1982.Bobby Goodson, President, CUE, and computer

resource specialist Cupertino Union School DistrictJose Gutierez, Vice President, CUE, and faculty

member, San Francisco State UniversityAnn Lathrop, library coordinator, San Mateo County

Board of EducationHelen Joseph resource teacher-math, science, and com-

puters, Novato Unified School DistrictWilliam Sandy Wagner, computer coordinator, Santa

Clara CountyGlenn Fisher, computer coordinator, Alameda CountyLe Roy Finkel, computer coordinator, San Mateo Office

of EducationKaren Kent, director, Teachers Learning Cooperative,

Marin County Office of EducationDon McKell, teacher, Independence High School, San

JoseBrian Sakai, computer teacher, San Carlos High SchoolRuss Bailey, computer district coordinator, San Mateo

City SchoolsBob Enenstein, teacher, Carlmont High School, BelmontSteve King, computer teacher, Crittendon Middle

School, Mountain View

Bibl iography

Lathrop, Ann, and Goodson, Bobby, “How to Start aSoftware Exchange,” Recreational Computing, issue53, October 1981.

Wagner, William J., “The Story of Computer-UsingEducators, ” Recreational Computing, issue 48.

Computer-Using Educators Newsletter, vol. 3, No. 6,May 15, 1981; vol. 4, No. 2,3, Oct. 23, 1981; vol. 4,No. 1, Aug. 15, 1981. The newsletter is published sixtimes a year and mailed to CUE members.

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of /formation Technologies . 203

San Mateo County Office of Education and Com-puter-Using Educators, Microcomputer CenterReports 1980-81.

Joseph, Helen, “Report to the Board of Trustees: Com-puter Education Project, ” October 1981, Novato Uni-fied School District.

Luehrmann, Arthur, Cpmputer Education in the NovatoUnified School District: A Needs Assessment, M a y1980.

Goodson, Bobby, “Computer Literacy in the ElementarySchool: A District-Wide Program, ” draft, January1982, Cupertino Union School District.

Computer Literacy Curriculum, Cupertino Union SchoolDistrict, 1981,

A Listing of District Computer Inservice Classes,1981-82, Cupertino Union School District.

Technology Education andTraining, Oxford PublicSchools, Oxford, Mass.

Introduction

The technology training and education pro-grams of the Oxford Public Schools were selectedfor study because they provide an example of howa small, rural school district with limited localfunding resources can offer up-to-date educationand training opportunities to its students andadults in the community through partnershipswith private industry and other rural school dis-tricts. This study also provides an example of theimpact of Federal and State grants on the imple-mentation of new programs. Although each grantwas relatively small, “to Oxford they looked likea Hope Diamond, ” according to the Superintend-ent.

The Sett ing

Originally a French Huguenot settlement, Ox-ford was founded more than 300 years ago in cen-tral Massachusetts, approximately 20 miles southof Worcester. Once the center of a thriving mill in-dustry, Oxford’s economic base seriously declinedas the mills closed. At present only one small milloperates; it employs five people. No new industrieshave been established. Oxford’s population of11,450 is primarily blue-collar. In 1980, Oxford’sannual per capita income was $6,582. Of the adultworking population living in Oxford and surround-ing similar communities, 60 percent are semiskilledor unskilled workers and 11 percent hold profes-sional or managerial positions.

A special program at the Oxford High School Districtintroduces students to the world of computer maintenanceand electronics fabrication. This student credits her gradua-tion from Oxford High School to the engaging qualities ofthe curriculum, which, she said, kept her in school after shehad become disenchanted with the regular academic program

The Oxford Public Schools serve 2,460 studentsin grades K-12 who attend three elementary, onemiddle, and one high school. Almost all studentsare white; fewer than 1 percent are black, and few-er than 1 percent Hispanic. Of the high schoolgraduates, 30 percent attend 4-year colleges, whileanother 30 percent go on to community college andvocational training institutes.

In this rural community, according to its super-intendent, there is strong support for educationwith local taxes, although Proposition 2½ now lim-its that revenue source. The 1981-82 budget of $4.2million results in an expenditure of $1,945 perpupil. Many of the teachers are from the local orneighboring areas, and there are common bondsbetween the educators and the school board. Evenwith declining resources, administrators andteachers feel that there is support from the board


and community and that their efforts in behalf ofthe students are appreciated.

Building New Partnerships toLink Education and TechnologyTraining

History. Francis Driscoll, superintendent of thissmall, rural school district with almost no local in-dustrial base, searched for ways to meet his stu-dents’ diverse needs. Although the district wassmall, it had students who could not function inregular classrooms because of emotional and learn-ing handicaps, whose abilities were seriously un-derchallenged, and whose interests weren’t beingmet. The solution he developed, late in the 1970’s,was to form a loose federation of similar districtsnear Oxford, to develop programs that they allneeded.

Driscoll reasoned that by regionalizing pro-grams and services through the federation andother similar cooperative efforts, he could createthe equivalent of a small-sized city and the criticalmass needed. By joining Oxford to Auburn, Lei-cester, Charlton, Dudley, Webster, and thenSouthbridge, the combined federation involved35,000 students, 1,200 teachers, and 62 membersof local boards of education.

The Oxford School Board and administrationagreed that they would serve as fiscal agents forany cooperative projects. Proposals were devel-oped and funded. One Project-COFFEE (Cooper-ative Federation for Educational Experiences)—provided occupational training and education forstudents with special needs, and was funded bythe Massachusetts State Department of Educa-tion in 1979. A second proposal for a regionalteacher training consortium, the French RiverTeacher Center, was funded by the U.S. Depart-ment of Education from 1978 to 1981. Both proj-ects are housed in Oxford, with COFFEE in a port-able building next to the high school. The teachercenter was built from surplus motel shells, movedto school land, and assembled and finished withprofessional contractors and students from thevocational training programs.

As district educators looked at the State’s bur-geoning high-technology industries and the grow-ing relationship between education and training,it was clear to them that high technology was notjust for elite students. Informal data gatheredfrom Worcester and Boston area industries re-vealed that entry-level high-tech jobs were under-filled and that 80 percent of those jobs did not re-quire college training. It was also clear that part-

nerships with private industry had to be devel-oped.

John Philippe, the program director of ProjectCOFFEE, and Rob Richardson, the director of theFrench River Teacher Center, became involvedwith the local industry councils and the State HighTechnology Commission. Serving on committeesand attending meetings, they made direct contactswith individuals from electronics and computer in-dustries located in the Worcester and Bostonareas.

Mike Odom, DEC Executive on loan to theHumphrey Occupational Center, notes that theOxford educators were unusual– “they sought ouradvice, and they listened. ” Similarly, the superin-tendent proposed to the school board that the dis-trict develop a working relationship between edu-cation and industry. The school board, remembersChairman Schur, said, “Go ahead, you have ourblessing.”

The district efforts focused on computer technol-ogy, an area that both the special needs trainingprogram and the teachers were interested in. Even-tually, several paths led to one of Massachusetts’largest computer corporations, Digital EquipmentCo. (DEC). Early contacts were with salesperson-nel and then, Mary Ann Burek of the CorporateContribution Division, who put the district intouch with Del Lippert, Corporate Manager ofEducational Services.

Current Programs

Project COFFEE. COFFEE is an alternative oc-cupational education program for the special-needs, disadvantaged, and handicapped studentsof a six-community cooperative school federation.The program includes life-coping skills education,as well as an occupational educational experiencein an adult-like work environment. The high-tech-nology training components provide the studentwith job entry skills, job placement skills, coopera-tive job experiences, shadowing experiences (jobobservation), and a related work study program.

In the electronic assembly component, studentsread and interpret schematic diagrams and me-chanical drawings and gain experiences in layout,manufacturing, and assembly of printed circuitsand electronic components. Students test and in-spect electronic components, circuits, and assem-blies. They are trained for entry-level employmentas: electromechanical assemblers, electronic main-tenance workers, drafting assistants (electronics),electronics utility workers, electronics inspectors,electronics mechanics, electronic testers, and elec-

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of information Technologies ● 205

tronics assemblers. Many of the assembly toolsand testing devices and most of the hardware,components, and circuitry used for hands-on in-struction was donated to the program as a resultof individual, personal contacts with electronicscompanies.

After a year of operation, the Project COFFEEdirector, John Phillipo, and Superintendent Dris-coll planned a new component that would involveuse of state-of-the-art computer hardware. Con-tacts with DEC were made, and the company con-tributed $22,800. In the data-processing compo-nent, started in September 1980, students usestate-of-the-art computer hardware and softwaretechniques in the computer center and an auto-mated office. The instructor assumes the role ofdata-processing manager, and students learn byhands-on experience in hardware operation andmaintenance, computer awareness, and use ofBASIC. They are trained for entry-level employ-ment as junior programers, console operators,computer service technicians, data typists, printeroperators, control clerks, and computer aides.

Project COFFEE was funded through a state-wide competitive grant process utilizing Federaloccupational education and special educationmoneys authorized under Public Laws 94-482 and94-142, a total of $557,402 for September 1, 1979,through June 30, 1982. In cost breakdowns by pro-gram areas, a total of $167,050 was expended forthe two technology components for more than 100students over the 3 years. The students in thesehigh-technology components use facilities in theOxford district, while students in the distributiveeducation component run and operate The GrandIllusion Printing Co. in Auburn, and students inthe buildings and grounds component work inWebster. The program is continuing tenuously onlocal support, but long-term commitments havenot yet been obtained.

Project KING-By Tech. In the fall of 1980, theGovernor of Massachusetts created the Bay StateSkills Commission to fund projects that would ad-dress the needs of the State’s computer industriesfor trained workers. Superintendent Driscollformed a planning group that involved local educa-tors and representatives from industry, colleges,the French River Teacher Center, the WorcesterChamber of Commerce’s Career Education Consor-tium, and the Central Region Private IndustryCouncil. The key to funding was the stipulationthat 50 percent of financial support come from pri-vate industry and that the other 50 percent beavailable from the Skills Commission.

Late in the fall, Driscoll initiated direct contactwith Del Lippert, Corporate Manager of Educa-tional Training and Services at DEC’s headquar-ters in Bedford. Recounts Lippert: “Driscoll hadan idea and the Governor had a half million in dis-cretionary funds. ” It was, according to many inOxford, “a meeting of kindred spirits-both wantto make things better for education. ”

Project KING-By Tech (Key Industrial NeedsGapped by Technology) was funded in January1981 to provide underemployed and unemployedadults training opportunities in word processing,office automation, electronic assembly, program-ing, and program application. A total of 110 stu-dents were served with $46,015 from the Bay StateSkill’s Commission, $43,015 from DEC, and $3,000from Quinsigamond Community College for in-structors. As a result, the district’s inventory ofcomputer center hardware was increased, twoteachers received training from DEC, and theworking relationship with DEC was well estab-lished. DEC’s Lippert explained that his companywas interested in working with schools “who wantto work with us, want to make something hap-pen. ” In the case of Oxford, there was a sense thatthe social and manpower views of the district tiedinto those of the company. Furthermore, Lippertfelt that Driscoll conveyed a commitment and en-thusiasm that was unique.

French River Teachers Center. Through theFrench River Teacher Center, 30 guidance counse-lors from Central Massachusetts high schools arelearning about high-technology career opportuni-ties (Project CHANCE). Sixteen sessions (begunin January 1982) included field trips to computercompanies and companies that use high-tech tools,as well as discussion forums with representativesfrom nearby industries. Audiovisual, self-instruc-tional materials on technology career donated byDEC will also be used. This project grew out ofactivities with the high-technology industry repre-sentatives from Unitrode in Lexington, PrimeComputer in Natick, and Micro Networks in Wor-cester.

The Teacher Center, federally funded throughSeptember 1981, has continued to operate with adirector arid a part-time secretary. Its continuedexistence depends on the director’s ability to brok-er new relationships, such as the counselor’s proj-ect and other activities with the district technol-ogy and training-related programs. For example,in February 1981, again through occupational edu-cation moneys, the Teacher Center provided train-ing for 30 surplus teachers and other unemployed


adults in computer programming (COBOL), wordprocessing, and electronic test technology andassembly. The $54,080 project received $39,742from the State, $8,640 from DEC, and $5,698 incontributions from the district. Several teacherstrained in the program were able to find new jobsin the industry.

A mobile computer bus with $100,000 worth ofequipment was loaned to the French River TeacherCenter for use by area teachers and students inthe spring of 1982. The bus was equipped with aPDP 11-34A computer and two video terminals,one magnetic tape card reader, two hard-copy ter-minals, and several self-paced instructional sta-tions. Owned by DEC, the bus had previously beenoperated by the Commonwealth Center in Cam-bridge.

The Teacher Center will share use of the buswith the Humphrey Occupational Resource Centerin Boston. Present plans are to find minimal fund-ing so that a technician can take the bus fromschool to school, giving youngsters the opportuni-ty to have hands-on experience. The loan of the buswas first discussed during a l-day teacher centerseminar on computer technology held December8, 1980, and attended by representatives of 11school districts, 3 colleges, and private industry.A loose “consortium of computer teachers” wasformed and has met several times.

The center has arranged for teacher workshopsand courses on computers and microcomputers,collaborating with the Commonwealth InserviceInstitute (funded by an IVC grant through theMassachusetts State Department of Education).Area teachers have learned BASIC programinglanguages, explored a variety of software applica-tions, and examined computer applications and im-pacts. The center also organized a technology con-ference with the New England Teachers’ CenterCluster, held this May in Worcester. Director RobRichardson’s contacts with DEC and other high-tech industries will enable him to schedule fieldtrips, speakers, and presentations.

ImpactsImpacts on the School System. As far as princi-

pal Roger Bacon is concerned, the benefits out-weigh the problems. The district has equipmentworth a half million dollars that could not havebeen obtained any other way (see table A-l). Fur-thermore this state-of-the-art hardware is sup-ported by DEC training and software. The two Ox-ford teachers trained at DEC have acquired the

most current information and skills, and they im-mediately draw on these skills in working withtheir students. The collaborative partnership withindustry goes far beyond the benefits receivedthus far. It is clear to Oxford’s superintendent andhis technology teachers that this working relation-ship is critical in enabling the district to keep upwith the rapid changes in high technology.

Furthermore, DEC’s expertise is recognized andrelied on as program additions or revisions are con-sidered. Other nearby companies directly con-cerned with the high-technology training pro-grams are also continually contacted and utilizedas resources. These close ties to industry, argueOxford educators, make their programs more ef-fective and unique.

Impacts on Teachers. Through the French RiverTeacher Center, Oxford teachers and those of thesurrounding districts have participated in work-shops, forums, courses, and visits to high-techcompanies. Although no formal assessment ofthese efforts has been made, teachers indicate thatthey are better informed, more comfortable withtechnology, and would like to have more oppor-tunities for training.

Impacts on Students. The Federal and Statefunded programs have reached numerous stu-dents. Project COFFEE students recognize thatthey now have skills, and they feel good aboutthemselves and their program:

. . . I’m an electronic assembler, I have a trade.

. . . I can build you a stereo; before, I only knew howto push the buttons. . . . There are regular kids(taking the electronics assembly course) . . . andthey need our help. They can’t do the things we can.. . . If the program wasn’t here, I’d be out of school

we have teachers who understand us.In assessments of student progress in entry-levelhigh-technology training skills, based on a seriesof competency tests developed by the project staffand 16 industry/business representatives, 82 per-cent passed electronic assembly and 77 percentpassed computer technology. The success of thesespecial students is related to many factors. Tech-nology skills, special counseling, and basic educa-tional programs have all played a part. For thehigh school principal, the important result is thatthese students are turned around: “When theseseniors graduate this spring and I get to shaketheir hands . . . I feel that this is what educationis all about. ”

In addition to the COFFEE students, other stu-dents from Oxford High School have also madesignificant gains in computer programing coursesand in independent study projects under the direc-


Table A-1 .–Sources of Funds for Computer Hardware and Software, 1980.81

Direct market Digital Equipment State/Federal Oxford SchoolDescription value Corp. grants Department Total1 PDP 11/34 central processing unit . . . . .1 16-line multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 LA 34 decwriters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 285 LPM printer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 VT 100 video terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 modem cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 200 CPM card reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Systems management training. . . . . . . . . .Data-processing renovation/installation . .3 W3 78 word-processing units . . . . . . . . .

Electronics assembly training . . . . . . . . . .1 TS-11 tape drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 VT-1OO video terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 LA 34 decwriters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 LA 34 decwriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 VT 100 video terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 RL02 disk drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 RL02 disk cartridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 self-paced audiovisual instructional

programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 hours, level I consultants . . . . . . . . . . .Instructional supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Software programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

$41,500.004,100.002,900.007,800.002,050.00

177.004,100.002,100.009,150.00

28,500.00

3,200.0015,400.006,150.005,100.001,700.008,200.005,911.00

975.00

15,320.005,160.00

14,130.00

81,000.00$264.623.00

$23,530.00

2,100.003,000.00

14,250.00

3,085.00

13,325.004,290.00

8,494.00

15,320.002,560.003,150.00

52,000.00$145,104.00

SOURCE” Oxford Publ!c Schools, Oxford, Mass

tion of the computer center director, Al Jones. “Inthis kind of an environment, you don’t have topush them, you just have to keep up with them . . .The interest, the turn-around, the growth, of theseyoungsters is incredible. ”

As in many other districts, these computer whizkids are at the center early in the morning and latein the evening until Jones locks the door. Severalstudents—presently three or four—will have theequivalent of 2 years of college-level computingwhen they graduate high school. Another 30 or 40will have 2 years of programing experience, notjust in BASIC, but also in Pascal and in WATBOL(the University of Waterloo, Canada, educationalversion of COBOL). Students learn to operate allphases of the system, and their understanding andexperiences are intentionally geared to the realworld.

Jones talks about one of his students, a junior,who has written a “wonderfully sophisticated pro-gram to chart and analyze students’ chronobiologi-cal rhythms. ” Jones says this program “is betterthan the $20,000 software package we bought forprincipals. ” Another student recently went to helpa nearby school district that was having major

$39,097.00

-o-6,150.001,250.00

13,000.00115.00

2,035.007,000.00

8,292.00-o-

-o-2,000.00

600.004,200.004,830.001,950.00

29,000.00$119,519.00

-o-

-o--o--o-

-o-

-o-

-o--o-

-o--o-

$62,627.00

2,100.009,150.00

28,500.00

3,200.00

26,650.00

16,786.00

15,320.005,160.00

14,130.00

81,000.00$264,623.00

problems with its DEC system. In 3 hours he hadsolved many of the problems.

Only a few problems remain. One is that, onoccasion, security of school records is a problembecause both instruction and management func-tions are together. Also, there is a growing demandfor courses and computer access, and demand mayoutpace resources. Finally, there are some whoquestion the district’s growing emphasis on tech-nology and programs for special students. Theyworry that other areas will be shortchanged.

Impacts on the Community. According to schoolboard members, parents and students say againand again, “What a difference the technology pro-grams have made. ” Parents describe changes intheir children and indicate that they are now inter-ested, know what they want to do with their lives,and have made complete turnarounds. What ap-pears to be most important to the community isthat these students have goals and some have em-ployable skills. High school principal, Bacon ex-plains: “They (parents and students) know thatcomputers are the ‘in’ thing in Massachusetts. ”

By extending the technology programs to under-employed and unemployed adults and surplus


teachers, the schools have made maximum use ofthe computer center and have provided benefitsto the community. The absence of continuingfinancial support, however, may limit thelong-term.

When the community parents, school boardmembers, teachers, and administrators are askedwhy it has been possible to bring technology train-ing and education to Oxford, they point to the fol-lowing:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

an aggressive, energetic superintendent will-ing to chart unknown waters and take risksin starting programs without the security oflong-term funding;a willingness by the school board and the ad-ministration to serve as the fiscal agents forthe projects: to write the proposals; to negoti-ate with State and Federal funding agencies;and to contact the private sector;the commitment and ability to work together—administration, professional staff, schoolboard, other districts, the private sector–to“get what we need for our students;”the availability of Federal and State funds,without which none of the programs couldhave been initiated;an ability to find resources when they aren’tthere: assembling a teacher center from sur-plus concrete motel shells transported to thesite; or scavenging cartons of printout paperused on only one side, which become perfect-ly appropriate for the student’s output; orscrounging obsolete electronic equipment,which became the instructional cadavers inthe assembly labs;the use of professionally supervised studentsto reduce building assembly and finishingcosts and, at the same time, meet the studentneed for on-the-job training; anda belief that “everything we do can lead tosomething else. ”

Finally, they single out the superintendent’s lead-ership and skill in unifying all of the participants,forging private sector partnerships on a personalone-to-one basis, convincing State officials fromvarious departments to fund programs jointly, andutilizing public schools and community college fa-cilities to expand technical educational opportu-nities.

Future

How will programs that have been developedcontinue to be supported? “Will the benefits and

the progress made . . . that we are so proudof . . . now be emasculated because of financial con-straints?” worries the school board chairman.With increasing costs, a reduced budget fromProposition 2%, and fewer Federal dollars for edu-cation, school officials and the community are con-cerned. There is some hope that the maintenancecosts for these programs will be lower than thestartup costs. Furthermore, it is hoped that theother districts will be able to find a way to pickup local costs.

Finally, Oxford has submitted Project COFFEEfor validation by the Joint Dissemination ReviewBoard of the U.S. Department of Education sothat the Project could be eligible for National Dif-fusion Network Funding. Superintendent Driscollhasn’t given upon the State Department of Edu-cation, either.

Then there is further collaboration with the pri-vate sector. Educators argue that turning outtrained, qualified people is the best selling pointthey have. The industry needs their graduates.When Project COFFEE students completed thewiring for the computer center, they proved theywere capable of technically demanding work, andthey saved the district $2,000.

Driscoll’s dream for his schools and for his com-munity goes even further. He wants to bring amajor high-technology company manufacturingplant to Oxford. He feels this would strengthenthe town’s economic base and provide the long-term support the educational system needs.Others in the community support this idea and arehopeful that the district’s technology training pro-grams will be a strong selling point.

Resources

Case study interviews:Francis G. Driscoll, SuperintendentRoger Bacon, Principal, Oxford High SchoolJohn Phillipo, Director, Project COFFEEAllen Jones, Director, Computer Center and TeacherRob Richardson, Director, French River Teacher CenterPat Ferreira, former teacher, Oxford High SchoolElaine Birchard, studentGary Bigelow, studentPaul Winiarski, studentKenny Gatze, studentWalter Schur, Chairman, School BoardPatricia Troy, School Board MemberDel Lippert, Corporate Manager, Educational Services,

Digital Equipment Co., Bedford, Mass.Michael Odom, Digital Equipment Co., Executive-on-

Loan, Humphrey Occupational Center, Boston


Bibl iography

Oxford Public Schools, Proposals to the Bay State SkillsCommission: Key Industrial Needs Gapped By Tech-nology, November 1980.

Oxford Public Schools, Proposal to the Division of Oc-cupational Education and the Division of SpecialEducation, Massachusetts Department of Education,Cooperative Federation for Educational Experience,July 1979 and April 1980.

Oxford Public Schools, A Report of French RiverTeacher Center Activities Related to High Tech-nology In Collaboration With Digital Equipment Cor-poration, February 1982.

C o m p u t e r L i t e r a c y P r o g r a m :L y o n s T o w n s h i p S e c o n d a r y

School Distr ict , LaGrange, I l l .

Lyons Township’s computer program was se-lected for study because it exemplifies a system-wide application of computing that involves andaffects the district entire student population andmore than 90 percent of the district professionalstaff in all curricular areas. This site provides anexample of how a major infusion of computer hard-ware facilitates its widespread use and within aschool system access, Local funds support the pur-chase of hardware, training of teachers, and devel-opment of software. Furthermore, it shows thecritical role played by the local superintendent inconceptualizing the program, initiating action, andsupporting ongoing activities.

The Sett ing

Located in the southwest suburbs of Chicago,the two campuses of the Lyons Township HighSchool’s (LTHS)–in LaGrange and WesternSprings–enroll a total of 4,000 students. Theschool population is drawn from six suburbanareas that are primarily middle-class, bedroomcommunities of Chicago. Approximately 90 per-cent of the students are white; 3 to 4 percent areblack; 3 to 4 percent are Asian; and 4 percent areHispanic. The majority, 75 to 80 percent, of LTHSgraduates go on to college.

The school district’s financial base is stable. Lo-cal property tax revenues (which include a strongindustrial base) account for 85 percent of thebudget; the remaining funds come from the State.The current budget is $19 million; per pupilexpenditure is $2,300. School buildings are well-maintained-offices, hallways, and classrooms arepleasant and clean. Facilities appear to be morethan adequate. (The boardroom looked more like

that of a major corporation than of a schooldistrict.)

There is general consensus among the education-al and lay communities that the district has beenwell, but conservatively, managed to support astrong, traditional curriculum. Through prudentmanagement over the past dozen or so years, sub-stantial sums have been placed in reserves—aunique situation, considering the strained eco-nomic condition of most of the Nation’s schools.

Declining enrollments, the major area of concernfor the district, may eventually have a negativeaffect on the number of facilities used (one or twocampuses), the variety of programs offered, andthe size of the professional staff. However, thesuperintendent argues that these problems can beresolved, in part, by the district’s effective use oftechnology,

On the whole, the district’s problems appear mi-nor in comparison with other districts’ financialwoes, population shifts, student unrest, and staffreductions. Administrative and teaching staff andboard members acknowledge how fortunate thedistrict is. For example, teachers’ salaries are atthe top of national pay scales, and a new 3-yearcontract is in place. The major focus of thestudents and faculty is education, where learningis viewed as a serious endeavor.


The district’s use of computers goes back to thelate 1960’s, when its first mainframe computer waspurchased for the district management and busi-ness operations. As in other districts, instructionalopportunities for students were limited to a fewhighly specialized courses in the business andmath departments. Approximately 2 years ago, itbecame apparent that the district computer wasoutdated and would need to be replaced. In addi-tion, there was a growing interest in expanding in-structional computing activities and a general feel-ing that computer Literacy was important. The ini-tial approach, according to a member of the schoolboard, was to expand the large computer systemto accommodate both needs.

At the same time, the board was interviewingprospective candidates for superintendent. JohnBristol was the board’s choice, in part because healready had experience with computers and in-structional applications and had started one of theearliest computer literacy programs in Minnesota.Bristol convinced the board that student uses ofcomputers ought to be considered separately, and


that microcomputers provided a viable option toa mainframe computer with terminals. Withstrong support from the board, Bristol came toLaGrange ready to revise and expand the district’scomputer programs.

Planning

The superintendent’s first objective was to de-velop a plan. From the outset, all the curriculumareas were involved. Decisionmaking was not lim-ited to computer experts; building principals,department chairmen, and interested teacherswere involved. A basic assumption of the plan wasto provide computer experiences for all students:“the use of the computer should not be reservedfor the gifted and/or mathematically oriented stu-dent. The computer needs to and can be utilizedby students of all ability levels, including thosewith limited learning capabilities. ” Three majorapplications were designated:InstructionLiteracyCompetencySpecialityInstructional supportTutorial workDrill and practiceProblem solvingSimulationInstructional gamesInstructional managementSuccess predictionMonitoring student progressVocational guidanceCollege information

Hardware Selection

Another component of the planning activitieswas the selection of hardware. Not surprisingly,the most important criterion was “to obtain themaximum number of microcomputers for the dol-lars available. ” Local maintenance and repaircapability of the hardware vendor was also impor-tant. The planners agreed that highly sophis-ticated microcomputers with sound and colorcapabilities were not needed for this initial phase(computer literacy). However, networking capa-bility was considered highly desirable and, net-working in the laboratory setting is envisioned.

Hardware for the laboratories use a networkedRadio Shack TRS-80, Model III Configuration:one 48K, twin-disk microcomputer, 26 16K, tapemicrocomputers, two networks, and one printer.

Eight laboratories—four in each campus of thehigh school–are installed, with a total of 208terminals for student use. The cost breakdownover a 5-year period is shown in table A-2. Thesuperintendent maintains that these costs arereasonable.

In an interview with the Chicago Tribune,1

Superintendent Bristol justified the district’s largepurchase:

Some schools are reluctant to buy (microcomput-ers). They say that tomorrow there will be a fasteror cheaper model. But how many tomorrows do youwait for? What is the value to get our students tohave computer literacy now?

Computer Literacy forAl l Students

With the installation of over 200 microcomput-ers in eight laboratory settings, students at LyonsTownship High School interact with technologyfirst-hand. During the school day, the laboratoriesare busy with students and their teachers in a vari-ety of subject areas. English students are refin-ing their understanding of paragraphing with atutorial program; consumer education studentsdevelop budgets using the number-handling capa-bilities of the computer; juniors in social studiesmaster the facts required by the statewide consti-tution test in a series of drill and practice exercises;biology students solve problems using the com-puter as a powerful tool for analysis; and specialeducation students expand their world history vo-cabulary in a series of drills, with opportunity forextended practice with an infinitely patientteacher.

IChicago Zlibune, Sunday, June 7, 1981.

Table A-2.--Five-Year Breakdown ofComputer Hardware Costs

Each Total

Hardware (Networked Radio-Shack TRS-80, Model Ill)

1 48K, twin disk ... ... ... ... ... . $1,946.10 $1,946.1026 16K, tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779.22 20,259.722 networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389.22 778.441 printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.80 904.80

Total per classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . $23,689.06Total for 8 classrooms . . . . . . . . . . x 8 = $191,112.48Cost extension

5-year life400 students per year

Cost per student for literacy per year(Total cost ÷ 5 years ÷ (4,000 students + 4,000)$191,112.48 ÷ 5 ÷ 8,000 = $4.78/student/year

SOURCE: Lyons Township Secondary School District,


These computer-related activities are part of theprogram aimed at schoolwide computer literacy.In increasing numbers, students use the terminalsbefore and after school. According to Bristol:

My computers are used all the time. It’s the best-used activity I have. To think that we were nowherelast spring and (look at) where we are today, I wouldhave to say we’ve made a significant step forward.A further step was taken in the spring of 1982,

when all students completed a 5-hour “literacypackage” that included lectures, films, group dis-cussions, and hands-on activities. The package:1) provided information about how computerswork; 2) promoted keyboard familiarity; 3) pro-moted knowledge of BASIC language compo-nents; 4) facilitated programing activities; and5) focused on future technology developments andtheir impacts on society. Current plans are to im-plement this package during second-period classes–1 day a week for 5 weeks, on a staggered sched-ule—thereby reaching all students with minimaldisruption of ongoing classes.

The subject area applications and the special5-hour computer literacy package were based oncurriculum objectives originally developed by theMinnesota Educational Computing Consortiumand adapted by the Lyons Township teachers tofit local needs.

Other Computer Applications

Six different computer specialty courses are nowoffered through business education and math-ematics. These courses include data processing,programing languages (BASIC, COBOL, RPG),and systems analysis. Approximately 10 studentscomplete the entire range of courses. However,within the last year, an extra section of the intro-ductory BASIC course was added to the northcampus schedule, and two additional sections wereadded to the south campus schedule. Accordingto one of the computer course teachers in businesseducation, there is a “growing interest from onesemester to the next . . . that is a result of theliteracy program. ”

Teacher Training andStaf f Development

The goal of computer literacy for all studentsand the objective of providing hands-on experiencewith computers in all subject areas made system-wide teacher training not only desirable but abso-lutely essential. Since the district could not counton hiring new staff, particularly as enrollmentscontinued to decline, the superintendent’s strategy

was to reach out to all faculty members to buildtheir awareness of the potential for computers ineducation, to cultivate their support for the pro-gram by involving them in the planning of work-shops and computer software curricula, and to de-velop their computer literacy through trainingworkshops and other staff development activities.

Costs for most inservice training activities (e.g.,substitutes, consultants, payment for additionalworking hours) were absorbed by the district op-erating budget. A separate allocation for the sum-mer software development activities was approvedby the school board. By relying primarily on localdistrict resources and scheduling activities duringschool hours, the district reduced training costs.At the same time, this approach widened the baseof support and ensured districtwide commitmentto implementation of the computer applications.

According to Esther Gahala, director of curricu-lum, there appeared to be a strong sense of learn-ing by doing; the staff response was largely posi-tive. Participation in the 8-hour fall workshops wasvoluntary, although some staff felt pressure fromthe administration. Gahala felt: “the value of these(staff development activities) was in finding outwhat not to do with teachers and students as wellas what to do. Each experience refined our judg-ment and helped us in planning the next phase.Even more important to Gahala--who points outthat she was unprepared to and, at first, totallyoverwhelmed by the thought of implementingcomputers in education—was the emergence of acadre of 45 to 50 teachers who could advise, evalu-ate, and be a strong support system for the restof the faculty.

Software Development

It is not clear whether software developmentwas part of the superintendent’s original plan.However, once the curriculum committee and ad-visory groups examined available software, therewas a growing consensus that the district wouldneed to develop its own. Proposals for computerapplications were solicited and 47 proposals from16 departments were accepted. Among the propos-als were:

●

●

●

Reinforce the spelling of words English teach-ers believe all students should know.Test the effects of alcohol on parts of thebody, using statistical information, for ahealth course unit on alcohol abuse.Determine the gross national product of acountry after being given certain characteris-tics.


● Drill basic chord fingering for learning how toplay the guitar.

● Recognize grammatical errors in sentences foran English course.

● Determine appropriate calorie intake based onindividual physical characteristics, physicalactivity, and weight goals for a unit on nutri-tion in a home economics course.

The superintendent wanted to involve teachersin the ongoing development process and, at thesame time, use computer programers to write thesoftware. To bridge the gap between the teacher-authors and the programers, the superintendentselected teacher-consultants from the staff whohad both curriculum and programing expertise tofunction as supervisors. These supervisors playeda pivotal role in software development by helpingteachers understand how their teaching ideascould be translated into interactive computer for-mats and by helping programers design routinesthat were educationally sound.

Over the summer three software developmentteams (fig. A-1) produced more than 108 differentprogram packets at a cost of $87,000. Originally,Bristol projected that 60 packages would be com-pleted at a maximum total cost of $90,000. By hir-ing three local college student computer sciencemajors as programers, the district used local re-sources and paid them at a rate of $10 per hour.However, without the expertise of the three teach-er-supervisors (one of the three was described asa computer genius, able to solve problems andmake the programs run for even the most noviceuser), the efficiency of the programers might havebeen reduced.

I m p a c t s

It may be too early to assess the impact of therecent computer-related activities in the Lyons

Township Secondary School District. However,there is evidence to suggest that both studentsand teachers have benefited.

Access to Computers

Students in this district do have opportunitiesto use computers during their regularly scheduledclass time and before and after school. Some stu-dents interviewed carry their own floppy diskswith their books from class to class. Some of thedisks contain games; others hold student pro-grams and ongoing projects. The district does notyet have data on the number of computer-relatedactivities completed by students. However, it canbe reasonably assumed that these students are in-teracting with the technology far more than stu-dents in other high schools where the number ofterminals is far less.

Teachers in the district also appear to have sig-nificantly more access to computers. Severalteachers indicated that they regularly work withthe computers on their own time. Some even takemicrocomputers home over the weekend.

Interest and Motivation

There is ample evidence to conclude that teach-ers and students alike have been stimulated by theprograms. A student reflected: “I was here thissummer . . . and teachers were asking—are thecomputers here today? Each day (the teachers)were learning new things. It really got me gearedup—excited about the computer course this fall. ”An unanticipated benefit has been the opportuni-ty for both students and their teachers to sharelearning experiences.

Teachers comment repeatedly about the intrin-sic motivation of the computer. Some applicationsare more interesting and effective than others. The

Figure

Teacher planners

A-1.—Software Development Model

Teacher Teacher-consultant consultant

SOURCE Lyons Township Secondary School Dlstnct, La Grange, Ill

..——


degree of meaningful interaction is a key factor,according to Julie McGee, an English teacher. Tomaintain student interest, programs must be clev-erly and creatively designed, “we can’t just putour lecture notes on the computer. ” All indicationssuggest that interest and enthusiasm will contin-ue. However, cautions a student, not all studentsreact the same way: “too much review and testing,large amounts of text (sic too much writing, notenough graphics), mandatory classes may turn thekids off. ” For the teachers, “time, money, experi-ence, vision” and a willingness on the part of theadministration to revise plans to fit needs will becritical.

Curriculum and Instruction. So far, impacts onthe curriculum have been limited to computer lit-eracy activities. The strategy of building applica-tions into existing courses appears to be working.One problem, however, is the uneven developmentof software. Some subjects have many applica-tions (English, home economics) while others haveonly a few. Drill and practice formats predominate.Only a few simulations and tutorials exist,

Instructional effectiveness of the computerpackages and related activities has not been for-mally assessed. As students and their teachers usethe materials, they indicate that most are work-ing. According to the director of curriculum, “wehave the overwhelming feeling that what we aredoing is worthwhile. ” However, there is a need toanalyze the appropriateness and effectiveness ofthe materials, not only to improve them, but alsoto move ahead.

Some questions remain: Are the students learn-ing skills and content more effectively? Will allsecond-period teachers adequately cover the com-puter literacy activities? Do the activities resultin student comfort and skill with computers? Isthe computer’s potential being realized? How welldo computer programing courses mesh with post-secondary academic programs and vocationaltraining? There is some frustration over not beingable to tackle all of these questions at once.

Professional Growth andD e v e l o p m e n t

Estimates vary on the extent to which LyonsTownship High School teachers have becomecomputer-literate. For many, the workshops in-troduced a welcomed new skill. For others, thegroups were too large, the keyboard and com-puters were too alien, and the fear of failure wasa barrier. Continued meetings and support ac-

tivities have gotten and kept many teachers in-volved, but a few holdouts remain,

On the whole there is ample evidence to suggestthat the majority of the high school faculty hasstrongly supported the program. Direct involve-ment of teachers in planning, training, and soft-ware development resulted in strong feelings ofpride and ownership. The district strong supportof professional development appears to be payingoff: 108 software packages are in use; new ideasare continually being developed; and many teach-ers are expanding computer knowledge and exper-tise on their own time—taking courses, learningfrom more knowledgeable colleagues, and teachingthemselves. Opportunities for new role as teacher-programers are invigorating and rejuvenating thismature, highly experienced faculty.

The Future

In the immediate future, the superintendent andhis staff expect to implement the computerliteracy program fully. At summer’s end, allstudents will have taken the 5-hour course, and theremaining software packages will have been com-pleted.

The next steps will focus on developing a com-prehensive plan for computer competency and spe-cialization. Full integration of the computer forcomputer-assisted and computer-managed instruc-tion is expected within the next 5 years. The lat-ter will depend on continued local software devel-opment and the availability of commercial course-ware, In addition, with the major infusion of hard-ware, a corps of teacher experts, and an on-goingprogram, the superintendent believes the districtis ready for research and development. The oppor-tunities for working collaboratively with hardwarevendors, software publishers, university research-ers, and other districts are beginning to be ex-plored. There are tentative plans to hold a softwaredevelopment conference involving educators anddevelopers statewide, perhaps nationwide. Plansalready exist to field test new hardware com-ponents for the Radio Shack computers.

At the heart of future plans are the teachers andstaff in the district. Bristol is convinced that thefull potential for retraining, for new roles, and forcontinued purposeful activity has barely beentapped. It is likely that funds for continued staffdevelopment and for computer activities will beavailable as long as the school board, community,and educators support the various computer acti-vities.


Resources

Case study interviews:John Bristol, SuperintendentEsther Gahala, Director of Curriculum and InstructionJulie McGee, English TeacherJohn Gentry, Business Education TeacherBill Mchalski, studentJanet Kaski, studentMark Nelly, studentKim Firestone, studentTric Coates, studentDoug Hammer, studentJean Donnelly, President of the School Board

Bibl iography“Computer Literacy–A Comprehensive Program at

Lyons Township High School” Lyons Township Sec-ondary School District, LaGrange, Ill.

“LT Reports: Computer Literacy” Lyons Township Sec-ondary School District, LaGrange, Ill.

Chicago Tribune, June 7, 1981, “School Puts Learningon Line”

Omaha World Herald, June 30, 1981, “School is PuttingComputer Up Front”

Boston Sunday Globe, July 5, 1981, “Bye-bye Black-board”

Chicago Tribune, Oct. 11, 1981, “Computers for Kids”More Than Math–Computers Meet Curriculum, ” 80

Microcomputing, September 1981.

Minnesota Schools and theMinnesota EducationalComputing Consortium

The decision to visit selected Minnesota schoolsand focus on the activities and impact of theMinnesota Educational Computing Consortium(MECC) was based on evidence that Minnesotaleads the Nation in computing activities in itseducational system. This case study deals with aState education agency that provides a centralizedsystem for computing and support services. Witha computer inventory of approximately $44 mil-lion’ and estimates that 1 to 1½ percent of annualschool budgets will be used for hardware pur-chases, Minnesota classrooms are expected tohave 10,000 instructional computing stations by1984.

‘Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium,January/February 1981.

The Sett ing

Minnesota is the “Land of 10,000 lakes, ” andalmost as many computers. Most of the State isrural. Fifty percent of the its population of3,804,971 is concentrated in the Twin Cities ofMinneapolis and St. Paul. There are 437 schooldistricts and a median district size of 722 students.Major industries are agriculture, mining, andcomputer-related technologies.

Minnesota has provided strong support for pub-lic elementary, secondary, vocational, and highereducation. Its education budget has one of thehighest per capita education expenditures in theMidwest. This support has been matched with acommitment to innovation and educational im-provement. Over the last decade, the State hasprovided funding through the Council on QualityEducation (CQE) and title IVC Federal moneys forresearch and development of instructional com-puting applications. Projects have focused on in-struction in all subjects, as well as piloted newways to deliver instruction. Projects such as theHopkins computer-assisted management system,the computer learning center in Littlefork, and theRobbinsdale computer software development, pro-vided working models of technology applicationsand a foundation for statewide activity.

Many Minnesota school districts are sought outfor their computer expertise. The plans of the Min-neapolis public schools demonstrate the extent ofthis expertise. Within the last year, the State’sfinancial picture has changed, significantly. Instruggling with an $850 million deficit, thelegislature has begun cutting the $2 billion (2-year)education budget. The cuts, an estimated $l20 mil-lion, are expected to take effect in 1982-83. Ed-ucators across the State are concerned that thesereductions will affect teaching positions andprograms.

M E C C : A S t a t eC o m p u t i n g A g e n c y

Presently in its ninth year of operation, MECCoperates the world’s largest general-purpose, ed-ucational, time-sharing system. An estimated 96percent of Minnesota’s students have access tothis time-share system, which is available to itsusers from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. daily. While time-sharing access has remained fairly constant, witha slight increase in off-hour use, the acquisition ofmicrocomputers in the State has accelerated,resulting in a significant increase in computing ac-tivities available to students.


H i s t o r y

In 1972, concern about computing and educationled to discussions among the Governor, the chan-cellor of the community college system, the Statecommissioner of education, key State legislators,and private citizens. As a result, remembers JohnHaugo, former executive director of MECC, a taskforce was established by then Governor WendellAnderson. Haugo was hired to head the planningeffort, which resulted in a report that was essen-tially the plan for MECC. In retrospect, severalfactors were critical in initiating a major statewideeducational computing effort that involved ele-mentary, secondary, and higher public education.

First, the computer industries based in Min-nesota (3M, Univac, Honeywell, and Control DataCorp.), created interest in, and awareness of, com-puting. These corporations also provided manycomputer resource personnel. Second, instruc-tional computing was beginning to catch on, andeducators were concerned that if they failed totake an active role, it would develop without theirinput and direction; there was concern that non-educational agencies would take charge. Third,there were examples of successful, cooperative, in-structional computing ventures principally amongthe Suburban Minneapolis schools, the Total In-structional Education Service (TIES) consortium,and evidence that technology could deliver instruc-tional services. With this was also a growing in-terest in cooperation and sharing of resources.Fourth, there was concern about the increased de-mand for computing services and the proliferationof hardware systems in various educational in-stitutions. Fifth, there was recognition that educa-tional funding constraints would limit operations,while a consortium would not be so limited. How-ever, the most important factor, as far as thelegislators were concerned, was equality of educa-tional opportunity. The legislature was sold on thenotion that computing opportunities ought to beavailable in all parts of the State.

The plan, therefore, was to provide access to thecentral computer through a telecommunicationsnetwork. The State would subsidize the telecom-munications cost to provide equal opportunity toall systems, even those most distant from the cen-tral system. Funding for the system and specificservices to users would be contracted annually.Each school district or agency determined whatthey needed. The budget requests were developedand sent to the legislature.

Getting the time-share system to work was noeasy task. In fact, there were many problems with

hardware, telecommunications lines, and softwaresystems. It took at least a year before the systemwas operating.

MECC Organizat ion andFunctions

MECC was established in July 1973 to providecomputer services to students, teachers, andeducational administrators. Organized under theMinnesota Joint Powers Law, its member systemsinclude:

● State Department of Education (433 schooldistricts);

● Minnesota State University System (7 cam-puses);

● University of Minnesota (5 campuses);● Minnesota Community College System (18

campuses); and● State Department of Administration (statu-

tory authority for State University and Com-munity College Systems).

MECC is responsible for coordination and plan-ning—maintaining a long-range master plan foreducational computing and developing biennialplans, providing technical reviews of proposals forfacilities and services, and reporting on what isbeing done with computers by all of public educa-tion. MECC is also responsible for services tomembers, and it is this role that is being expanded(by the revised Joint Powers Agreement, August1981), while the organization’s policymaking roleand its role in approving major computer acquisi-tions is being reduced. The latter activities will bedetermined by the State Board of Education withthe Commissioner of Education.

Instructional Services Division

Operating the Time-Sharing System. The In-structional Services Division (ISD) runs theworld’s largest educational time-share system. Itworks reliably, and is “up” 99 percent of the time.Its Control Data Cyber 73 System, with 448 userports, is currently accessed by more than 2,000 ter-minals located across the State in most publicschools, all community colleges and public univer-sities, and many of Minnesota’s private schools.A multiplexing communications network with 23hubs provides access to the computer.2 ISD is alsoresponsible for the communications network—itsinstallation, maintenance, and coordination withlocal telephone companies.

‘Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Minnesota Per-spective, MECC Instructional Services Long Range Planning Project,1981, p. 39.

.—


An extensive library of programs supports arange of activities from drill and practice tomathematics problem generators, office manage-ment, and career guidance information. Thirteendifferent computing languages and programs areavailable to users. Software is continually main-tained and improved.

Technical Assistance and Training. ThroughISD, instructional computing coordinators are lo-cated throughout the State in each of the regions.These regional coordinators work with teacherswho in turn serve as local coordinators for theschool district or education agency. According toWill Jokela, MECC Instructional Coordinator forCentral Minnesota, these local coordinates are cru-cial to the program. “They make things happenand are part of the whole planning and implemen-tation process. ”

For example, when Jokela conducts workshopsacross his region, he often uses local coordinatorsas resources. Jokela also holds sessions to demon-strate new programs for local coordinators, andthese are often times when they share programsdeveloped locally and duplicate MECC microcom-puter programs. He keeps up with computing ac-tivities through the electronic mail system (alsopart of time share) and through visits to localschools and colleges. The regional coordinatorshelp in disseminating information in the newslet-ters, through conferences, and through the elec-tronic mail system.

At the same time, Jokela and others in his rolebecame the link in continuing advances andchanges. Soon after the MECC inexpensive com-puter contract was awarded, Jokela was “tryingout the Atari” and getting ready to demonstrateits use to interested educators. He also deliveredand installed the Apples purchased throughMECC, and literally carted Apples across centralMinnesota. Of his 73 public school districts inRegion III, all have Apples and 62 used the time-share system in 1981-82.

Since the first purchase of Apple microcompu-ters in 1977, increasing amounts of the coor-dinators’ time have gone into supporting micro-computers. Marcia Horn, an instructional coor-dinator in the Twin Cities area, points out that assoon as a workshop is announced, it is filled. Hornis impressed with the eagerness to learn and theexcitement of those who attend her MECC intro-ductory courses. In the sessions, technology ismanipulated, not just talked about. That par-

ticipants recognize the need for hands-on ex-periences is indicated, in part, by their willingnessto bring all the equipment to class. Microcom-puters and diskettes replace books, paper, and pen-cils, as learning tools. Principals, teachers, andlibrarians learn about and learn with the tech-nology, in much the same way as do their students.

Developing Instructional Computing Softwareand Support Materials; Dissemination and Distri-bution. Software that has been designed anddeveloped includes operating system manuals,computer literacy courses, and a range of sup-plementary instructional materials and manage-ment aids. Development is directly linked to theusers (through the creation of software at the locallevel), to field testing and revision, and to im-plementation. Networking, originally begunthrough the time-sharing system, has been ex-tended through the State instructional computingconference, regional meetings, the newsletters, andthe other user activities.

What is clear is the value of sharing ideas, of pro-viding a vehicle for development, and of dissemi-nating this new information to users. Individualteachers, school districts, and regional organiza-tions contribute software. MECC staff work withthe developers to obtain rights to the material,then they document and standardize it so thatother schools can use it. All software and supportmaterials are available to Minnesota users (forcopying) free or at nominal cost.

In October 1980, institutional membershipswere offered to nonprofit educational institutionsoutside of Minnesota. Presently, there are 51 mem-bers in 23 States, Canada, Australia, England,Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, and Switzerland.In addition, software reproduction and distribu-tion rights are arranged with commercial vendorsunder a royalty agreement. The income from theseagreements and sales goes directly back into soft-ware development.

Management InformationServices Division

Management Information Services supports arange of administrative management functions.Every school district in the State is required to usethe finance reporting system developed by MECC.This division has also developed a student supportsystem that handles student data, attendance,scheduling, reporting, and history. The person-nel/payroll system is used by half of the districtsin the State.

.


Special Projects Division

The Special Projects Division carries out re-search projects, developments of new applications,and evaluation. With funding from the NationalScience Foundation (NSF), computer literacy cur-riculum modules and support materials are beingdeveloped. An interactive video disk/microcom-puter course in economics is under way with sup-port from private foundations.

I m p a c t s

Providing Access to Computing: InstructionalTime Sharing and Microcomputing. Not only ac-cess but equal access has been Minnesota’s goalfor all students. From the very start, it was rec-ognized that there was a need to achieve economyof scale in computer hardware acquisition, tocreate a cost-effective communications network tominimize the systems design and development

Figure A-2. —MECC Timesharing System

400

300

200

100

0

costs, to share expertise and applications, to haveuniformity and compatibility of data (administra-tion), and to train educators.

The use of the timesharing system has been fair-ly consistent in time of the number of ports pur-chased by users and the increase of log-ins and con-nect time, which increased by approximately one-third during 1978-81 (see fig. A-2). Of the elemen-tary, secondary, and vocational school districts,75 percent used the time-sharing system, a slightreduction in use. At the same time, however, mi-crocomputer use rose from 57 percent the yearbefore to 85 percent of all districts.

The major use of the time-share system is forprograming-up to 45 percent–with studentsfrom all over the State having access to almost adozen different programing languages. The impactof these opportunities is not readily assessedthrough numbers, but clearly many of these stu-dent users have become outstanding programers.Winners of the MECC annual student software

Port Distribution by User System, 1975-81

—

3 3

2 2

1

3 2

2

11

—

1

—

3

2

1

—

2

1

1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-1980 1980-81

School year

Key:1 = Elementary/secondary/vocational2 = State universities3 = Community colleges4 = University of Minnesota5 = Nonmember institutions

SOURCE /m frucf/ona/ M/crocompuf/ng and T/rneshar/ng A A4/nnesofa Perspecflve, Report of the Instructional ServicesLong Range Plannlng Project, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, June 1, 1981


competition develop creative and impressive prod-ucts. “Many of the future technology leaders willcome from Minnesota, ” notes Brumbaugh, “hav-ing had 8 to 10 years of computing opportunitiesin the public schools as well as training at theUniversity of Minnesota’s world-renowned com-puter sciences programs. ” Minnesota benefitsdirectly, since many of these high school and col-lege students are hired as part-time programersat MECC and many enter Minnesota-based indus-tries.

The impact on increased access by MECC’searly entry into microcomputing with the awardof the State contract to the Apple Computer Co.is clear. The decision to standardize hardware toone system was based on the belief that standard-ization was necessary in order to be able to sup-port that system with software and training, there-by indirectly affecting access. (By early 1982, totalApple sales reached 2,863.) Most of the purchasersof these microcomputers are elementary, second-ary, and vocational schools.

In 1981, MECC developed a second set of speci-fications for a low-cost microcomputer. The Statecontract was awarded to Atari, which agreed topay MECC to convert at least 75 of existingMECC/Apple programs. In the first 3 months ofthe Atari contract, 230 microcomputers had beenpurchased.

A major reason that districts are purchasing mi-crocomputers is to provide greater access. Thehigh school in Maple Lake, a small rural district,has three Apples, one TRS-80, and one time-shar-ing port. Before the microcomputers, the 500 stu-dents had limited computing experience throughtime sharing. Even though four microcomputersaren’t enough, they make a big difference to MaryJames, a teacher and the district’s computer coor-dinator. James is adamant about reaching everyMaple Lake youngster:

By the time they are 35 they all will havecomputers—many for their farm businesses—others in technical work (if they leave MapleLake)--and for recreation . . . if most familieshave three snowmobiles sitting in their drive-ways now, they’ll soon have computers, too.

It’s not just the hardware that makes a differ-ence, it’s the support James gets from the rangeof MECC services. In this rural district, with anoperating budget of $2.5 million for 1,320 stu-dents, the opportunity to use computers for in-struction and to provide computer literacy coursesand independent study, is due in large measure toMECC and to local administrative and schoolboard support. James says:

If MECC drops the time share we’d feel it . . .the larger city districts will continue. If I losethe port, I can stand it. If I lose the supportof MECC, the whole program goes.

Developing Software and Making It Availableto Users. Software and support materials havebeen steadily developed and revised to support thetime-share system, the Apple microcomputer, andthe Atari microcomputer. On the time-share sys-tem there is a library of more than 950 programsused at all levels. More than 200 microcomputerprograms have been developed, and the numberof new programs continues to expand at a rate of8 to 10 new programs each month.

Although software development has been fo-cused on Minnesota users, in the case of materialsfor the Apple (and now the Atari), two-thirds ofthe software distribution (primarily for the micro-computer) is outside the State. Single-item sales,institutional licensing agreements, and distribu-tion arrangements with commercial vendors haveincreased significantly over the last 2 years.MECC officials point out that all of the incomefrom software sales goes back into development.The current budget for development has tripled,with only 5 percent of the funding for softwaredevelopment coming from Minnesota. Accordingto Brumbaugh:

The amount of resources invested in instruc-tional computing material development con-tinues to grow, without any reduction in sight. . . It’s estimated that 250,000 copies of MECCdiskettes have been distributed or sold to com-puter users throughout the world. Softwaresales this year are expected to reach one milliondollars.

Software development has been effective be-cause it has been tied to what teachers want. Ac-tually begun by teachers sharing ideas through thetime-share system, it has continued to build onteacher ideas. Much of the software has primarilybeen cleaned-up, field-tested, documented, andmade available to users by MECC. Another reasonfor success, many argue, was the decision to de-velop software for one microcomputer system.This decision provided an opportunity to refineauthoring procedures, understand the capabilitiesof the machine, and develop more programs (e.g.,instead of three programs for three machines, nineprograms for one machine). After the award of thesecond computer contract, it was not difficult toconvert many Apple programs for the Atari. Theneed and demand for microcomputer coursewarein Minnesota continues, however. In MECC’s 1981Computing Opinion Survey, “Schools want mate-


rials in all subject areas-with the highestpriorities given to computer science, businesseducation, mathematics, science, and specialeducation, ” with less need for drill and practiceand games and more need for problem solving,tutorial, and simulations.3

Local districts will continue to develop their ownsoftware and will also continue to purchase com-mercial software. For the latter, it may be desir-able to provide help to schools by developing state-wide purchase contracts for software, as has beendone for hardware. Finally, as the market for soft-ware enlarges, there will be an increase in develop-ment in the private sector, argues Haugo, nowpresident of a software development company.

Impacts of InformationT e c h n o l o g y

Professional Development and Training. Profes-sional development and training is cited frequentlyas a major area of need that must be addressedif education is to take advantage of computer tech-nology. Over a 6-year period (1974-80), MECC hasprovided significant development and training ac-tivities: 3,572 visitations by MECC staff todistricts and campuses; 1,639 informal presenta-tions; 1,756 workshops with a total attendance of26,340; and 623 meetings for local computer coor-dinators. As impressive as these figures are,MECC officials point out that the demand fortraining exceeds capacity. Brumbaugh notes: “Forevery request for service that we fill, we turn onedown. ” Although many local districts provide ad-ditional training activities—the educational serv-ice unit or area vocational technical institutes andcolleges and universities are offering an increas-ing number of courses—the needs for training arenot fully met.

Furthermore, as State funding resources dimin-ish, continuing to provide the current level of serv-ices will become a problem. According to Brum-baugh, there has to be a way to deal with teacherturn-over (trends show that the more highly tech-nologically trained teachers leave), with newteachers as they enter the system, and with main-taining training for those who want to stay abreastof technological advances. When asked who shoulddo inservice training for instructional computing,teachers and administrators ranked MECC staffas the most desirable-followed by local staff, thenregional service centers, and finally colleges anduniversities. Data suggests that local staff will beable to assume most introductory demonstrations,——

’198 1 MECC Computer Opinion Survey, User Opinion on Training,

but more advanced topics and courseware author-izing and design will require MECC staff.

Close Ties With Local Districts, Using Local Ex-pertise. The superintendent of the Alexandria Pub-lic Schools, Clayton Hovda, attributes his dis-trict’s early involvement with computers to the op-portunity to be part of the statewide time-sharesystem, as well as to the fact that MECC from thevery start had key people “who came through theeducational process, who knew how schoolsworked because they were school-based. ” Therewas and continues to be a symbiotic relationshipbetween the schools and MECC.

For example, the Alexandria schools sharedcomputing and time-sharing facilities with theArea Vocational Technical Institute (AVTI). Thatexperience, along with other examples (TIES), pro-vided a model for extending the time-share con-cept across the State. A further example of thissymbiotic relationship can be seen in the role ofthe local computer coordinators. According to BillFrench of Alexandria, this role is strongly sup-ported by MECC; the fact that most districts havea computer coordinator can be credited to MECC’sefforts.

Providing Leadership. There is no questionabout MECC’s leadership in providing hardwarestandardization, software development, and train-ing. However, several school districts and regionalagencies are leaders as well; and districts such asHopkins and Robbinsdale have received nationalrecognition for their computing activities. It is ap-parent that MECC walks a fine line: local auton-omy of programs is highly valued, yet service andassistance are welcomed. The revised Joint PowersAgreement puts MECC squarely in a service role.It is also agreed that there is a need for leadershipand coordination to maintain and advance comput-ing applications; in this regard MECC, as theState’s computer agency, plays a key role.

School districts outside the State, and evenother nations concerned with educational com-puting, have turned to MECC for advice, technicalassistance, and resources. For example, the firstcomputer contract specifications developed byMECC became the model for the bids developedby the Region IV Education Services Center inTexas and for those prepared by school districtsand several States including Florida, NorthCarolina, and British Columbia. A recent articlewhich surveyed all statewide computing activitiesranked Minnesota as the clear leader.4 “No otherState education agency comes close to achieving“’Survey of State Governments and the New Technologies, ” Elec-

tronic Learnkg, November/December 1981.


the level of commitment and organization achievedby MECC. But many State officials are now realiz-ing that it may be their responsibility to move inthat direction. ”

The Future

With reductions of the State subsidy for tele-communications, increased local costs pose a realbarrier to time sharing, especially to the smaller,rural districts further away from the Twin Cities.Although much of the instructional activities canand will be shifted to the microcomputers, a realloss may well be the availability of advanced pro-graming languages and the communications activ-ities and the electronic mail system which tied somany of the districts to one another. RichardPollack, Director of Special Projects, describes thetime-share system as “the glue that brought it alltogether. ”

A spate of news stories have highlighted Min-nesota’s financial difficulties. “What the rest ofthe Nation’s schools have been facing has finallycaught up with us, ” one of the educators re-marked. Many districts have begun to tightentheir belts by laying off teachers and increasingpupil-teacher ratios. However, many districts, likeAlexandria, plan to go ahead with plans for theircomputer programs. Bill French, teacher and com-puting coordinator comments: “I can see us buy-ing 4 to 6 Atari’s for each elementary school . . .What’s $500 when we pay $2,000 for a typewriteror an Apple?” The additional costs for training andsoftware are, in a sense, covered through the serv-ices provided by MECC. Although MECC has al-ready had budget cuts and expects more in thefuture, increasing revenues from software saleswill lessen the impact.

Superintendent Arthur Bruning, of the HopkinsSchool District, a Twin Cities suburb, also expectsto expand his program using the low-cost com-puters. He sees technology bridging home andschool, with the computers going home for ex-tended activities. In this district, with an $18million annual budget, he argues, “We will needto set aside resources for technology-for there isgoing to be a change (in the way we educate young-sters) and the pupil/teacher ratio will increase be-cause of economics.”

Brumbaugh is optimistic. He sees opportunitiesfor expansion of software and new technologicaladvances that will make a difference in instruc-tional computing. One example of these advancesis an interface that allows microcomputers to benetworked or clustered together. Once clustered,

software maintenance is reduced, recordkeepingand management functions are simplified, and cen-tralized printing is feasible. MECC is designing itsown interfaces and networks. By fall of 1982, thesenetworks will be field-tested in selected Minnesotaschools. In addition, MECC’s long-range plannersestimate that the number of instructional comput-ing stations in classrooms in Minnesota’s schools,colleges, and universities will reach 10,000 by1984.

Minnesota computer educators also confident-ly predict continuing developments in instruc-tional computing, pointing to present programs—the result of more than 8 years of experience. TheMECC software and materials, training activities,and the range of successful applications in com-puting, were possible because funding was sus-tained over a long enough period of time and overa critical mass of educational institutions andusers. MECC’s accomplishments, the computingactivity in Minnesota schools, and the significantnumber of students with access to these programsis the result of the State’s vision and its long-termcommitment.

Resources

Case study interviews:Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, St.

Paul, Minn.Dale L. Schneiderhan, Acting Executive DirectorKenneth E. Brumbaugh, Director, Instructional Serv-

ices, and Deputy Executive DirectorDouglas P. LaChance, Acting Director, Management In-

formation ServicesRichard Pollak, Director, Special ProjectsMarge Kosel, Manager, Instructional Systems Devel-

opmentMarcia Horn, Instructional CoordinatorKasey Mork, Instructional CoordinatorWillis Jokela, Instructional Coordinator

Minneapolis Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.Paul Dillenberger, Math Resource Teacher

Hopkins Public Schools, Hopkins, Minn.Arthur Bruning, SuperintendentKen Corens, Computing CoordinatorDon Sension, Computer Center

Maple Lake Public Schools, Maple Lake, Minn.Mary James, Teacher, Maple Lake High School, and

Computing CoordinatorEagle Bend Public Schools, Eagle Bend, Minn.

Wilbur James, SuperintendentRichard Lundgren, Communicasting Project Director

Alexandria Public Schools, Alexandria, Minn.Bill French, High School Teacher and Computing

CoordinatorClayton Hovda, Superintendent


John Haugo, former Executive Director, MECC1973-1981, presently President, Edu Systems, Inc.,St. Paul, Minn.

Bibl iography

Ahl, David H., “Minnesota Educational Computing Con-sortium, ” Creative Computing, March 1981.

Calkins, Andrew, “A Survey on State Governments andthe New Technologies, ” Electronic Learning,November/December 1981.

“Computers in the Schools, ” a message from the Com-missioner of Education (undated—estimated date fall1980).

Cost-Effective Educational Innovations in Minnesota:A Report of Projects, Minnesota Council on QualityEducation, Division of Special Services, MinnesotaDepartment of Education, St. Paul, Minn.

Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational ComputingConsortium, January/February 1981.

Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Min-nesota Perspective. The report of the MECC Instruc-tional Services Long Range Planning Project, Min-nesota Educational Computing Consortium, St. Paul,Minn., June 1, 1981.

1979-1980 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Com-puting Consortium, June 30, 1980,

198081 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Com-puting Consortium, June 30, 1981.

PACE: Projects to Advance Creativity in Education, 5thcd., ESEA title IV, pt, C in Minnesota, Minnesota De-partment of Education, St. Paul, Minn.

“The Minnesota Connection, ” an interview with JohnHaugo, Classroom Computer News, fall 1980.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l C o m p u t i n gH o u s t o n I n d e p e n d e n t S c h o o l

D i s t r i c t , H o u s t o n , T e x .

The Houston Independent School District(HI SD) was selected for study because it is a rec-ognized leader in urban education, in developinginnovative programs such as magnet schools andin implementing cooperative efforts with industryand the business community. It has successfullyhalted declining pupil achievement, a major prob-lem for urban school districts. The district alsoprovides examples of how technology can be usedto support and deliver basic skill instruction, tocommunicate with parents, to assist teachers, andto become the basis for technological understand-ing and computer literacy.

Moreover, it provides an example of districtwideleadership and coordination through a newly cre-ated department of technology and the Nation’sfirst associate superintendent for technology.With a growing minority student population, the

district has engaged in a planning effort to addressequity and access to ensure that all students ac-quire basic skills and technological competence. Asone of the largest school districts in the Nation,Houston also shows how economies of scale, crit-ical mass, and volume purchasing power can beused to implement new programs and producesoftware/curriculum materials.

The Sett ing

The Houston metropolitan area population in1981 was 2.4 million. It is a highly mobile popula-tion with a high growth rate for Hispanics andAsians. A total of 193,702 pupils attend 169 ele-mentary and 70 secondary schools. Over the last10 years the ethnic makeup of the student bodypopulation has shifted from an almost all-whitepopulation to one that is 23 percent white, 44 per-cent black, 30 percent Hispanic, and 3 percentAsian. Approximately 62 percent of the highschool graduates attend college.

Houston is at the center of a booming industrialarea. Its major industries are oil and gas, bank-ing, construction, and chemicals. There are strongties between HISD and area industries, the cham-ber of commerce, and the other business organiza-tions. This relationship has been cultivated byHouston’s superintendent, Billy Reagan, over a7-year period. Through cooperative business/school arrangements, the district’s pupils and pro-grams have benefited. For example, magnetschools receive hundreds of thousands of dollarsfor equipment and scholarships from companiessuch as Exxon, IBM, DuPont, and others. Thereis evidence that the district focus on technologyutilization, academic achievement, and careertraining programs has been positively received bythe business community.

The annual budget of $507 million supports awide array of educational programs for this dis-trict’s diverse population. The district currentlyreceives $13 million in Federal title I moneys.Houston administrators expect to feel only a slightimpact from cutbacks in Federal funds, since mostof their revenues are locally generated. Unlikemany urban districts, Houston’s financial base isthriving and its financial future appears secure.

The following issues facing the district affecteducational programs and educational quality:

● The shift from an emphasis on desegregation,to an emphasis on quality integrated educa-tion (mid-1970’s), to the current emphasis onthe prevention of resegregation.


Changes in family needs (dual wage earners)and an increasing number of single-parentfamilies.An increase in the Hispanic population andenrollment, with a critical shortage of Spanishbilingual teachers.The shortage of math, science, and computerscience teachers; a high teacher turnover ratein critical areas; and difficulty in retaining top-quality teachers.The increased computer use in all aspects ofsociety and in the district.The increase in community support from par-ents, patrons, religious organizations, andbusinesses and professional organizations.The increase in student achievement since anall-time low in 1975, and the desire to main-tain these achievement gains at all levels.

The major challenges, feels SuperintendentRegan, are “continuing to offer quality educationin an integrated environment to all children, andattracting and holding nonminority children, bothfrom within and outside the District. ”

Instructional Computing

In the early 1970’s, the district’s first instruc-tional computing programs were offered throughthe Region IV Education Service Center’s com-puter. By 1972,20 terminals were used for problemsolving, drill and practice, and BASIC program-ing instruction. Math and data-processing classesat the secondary level were primary users. Com-puting activities were limited, points out PatriciaSturdivant, Associate Superintendent, and therewere problems with inadequately documentedcourseware programs and manuals and with highcosts of hardware and associated maintenancecosts. The links through telephone lines wereunreliable, and when the mainframe was down noinstruction was available. Despite these frustra-tions a small cadre of teachers persevered. Theseeducators, more often than not, were self-taught.Few had computer-science college training.

By 1977-78, Houston’s instructional computingefforts were well established. While computer ap-plications varied, the major emphasis was on in-creasing pupil achievement in reading and math-ematics. Not only was this a major priority for thedistrict, but Federal title I funds were used to sup-port these high-cost programs. Student gains were“dramatic,” according to high school principalFranklin Wesley.

In 1979, the Region IV ESC established a mi-crocomputer task force, to evaluate what was hap-

pening in the region’s districts and to preparerecommendations for action. Task force membersincluded Superintendent Reagan, superintendentsof the Byran and Orange Cove School Districts,the director of data processing from SpringBranch ISD, and Sturdivant, then Region IV ESCInstructional Computing Coordinator. The taskforce found that use of time sharing had leveledoff (after 5 years of steady growth), that interestin microcomputers was high, and that microcom-puters were being purchased with “insufficientplanning, and little understanding of their poten-tials or limitations. ” After purchase, districts werefaced with inadequately trained teachers, a short-age of software, and a lack of technical support forhardware operation and maintenance.

The report recommended that hardware bestandardized to facilitate training, maintenanceand software exchange and development, and thathigh-volume purchase arrangements be made toreduce costs. Bid specifications were developed,and in June 1980, Bell and Howell’s Apple 11Microcomputer System was selected.

The Region IV Instructional Computing Serv-ices Division served as the fiscal agent for schooldistricts purchasing microcomputers. High-vol-ume purchases resulted in savings close to amillion dollars over a 2-year period. In addition,the center provided computer literacy training toarea school administrators and teachers, withmore than 3,000 teachers receiving training. Thecenter also offers a low-cost maintenance servicefor computer hardware; publishes a monthly news-letter; coordinates courseware purchase and selec-tion; loans video tapes, films, and other trainingmaterials; and offers special workshops to meetthe needs of individual school districts in theregion. The working relationship between HISDand the service center is evidenced by Reagan’schoice of Sturdivant as his new associate super-intendent for technology.

Current Programs

By October 1981, the district survey of micro-computers reported 200 microcomputers locatedin 47 percent of HISD campuses. The most fre-quently used system is the Apple II, 48K. Localfunds were used to purchase 45 percent of themicrocomputers in the school buildings, while Fed-eral funds paid for 31 percent. Parent-teacher or-ganizations bought or helped to buy about 4 per-cent of the systems. Of those reported uses, 44 per-cent focused on classroom instruction; 29 percent


were used for classroom management, and only 4percent were used in school administration.

A year and a half later (March 1982), the esti-mated number reached 323. While use of the ter-minals linked to a minicomputer has decreased,several elementary and secondary campuses con-tinue to operate drill and practice laboratories forcompensatory (title I and SCE) and handicappedstudents.

Managing Competency-Based Education. TheBooker T. Washington High School’s competency-based education program for students uses theschool’s PDP-11 to score student tests, monitorstudent performance on specific learning objec-tives, and report progress to teachers. The school’sprincipal, Wesley, argues that this approach isworking for this school’s depressed economic com-munity and its predominantly black population ofstudents who are at the bottom of the academicscale.

Computer Science/Programing Languages.Housed on the same campus (Booker T. Wash-ington) is one of the district magnet programs—the High School for the Engineering Profession.These students take computer science courses inBASIC, Fortran, applications, and problem-solv-ing, using terminals connected to the school’sPDP-11. The school’s computer science teacherworks jointly with an engineer on loan from IBM.Other secondary schools offer computer sciencecourses of instruction in several programinglanguages on both time-share terminals and micro-computers. In some elementary schools, studentslearn programing in mathematics.

Project BASIC. All secondary schools have im-plemented Project BASIC, a commercially devel-oped program for HISD’s Apple microcomputerswhich monitors reading lab students’ progress andtracks their mastery of reading skills. Before im-plementing the program, extensive training tookplace: first of principals, then reading teachers, andfinally technical aids who input data and retrieveinformation on the microcomputer.

Implemented in the 1981-82 school year, theproject required a reorganization of the secondaryreading labs, more than $600,000 (primarily SCEfunds) to purchase hardware, software, and mate-rials to operate the labs, and reallocation of ex-isting operating funds to hire 67 basic skills com-puter operators, one media equipment mainte-nance technician, one supervisor, six area readingspecialists, and one systems analyst.

Computer Literacy. A computer literacy cur-riculum, developed by Region IV ESC, is being

piloted in five elementary schools with languageprograms for gifted and talented students. AtAskew Elementary, students learn about com-puters and their impact on society. Their parentsare also involved, Together, they find microproc-essors that they use at home, and they collect andread newspaper and magazine articles. In class,students have experiences with the computer indrill and practice, simulation and tutorial ac-tivities. Finally, they learn simple programingroutines. These students seem to enjoy all the ac-tivities, notes one of their teachers–particularlyhands-on experiences. “They love it so long as theyhave a computer on the end of it. ”

Operation Fail Safe. The district’s computingpower has also been used since 1977 in a uniqueparent involvement program, Operation Fail-Safe.Although not a teaching application, the programaffects the instructional program. It is designedto reach parents, communicate information abouttheir children’s achievement, and help parents helptheir children (see fig. A-3).

This system-wide program is an example of howcomputer technology has been used to provide im-portant data on a timely basis and on a massivescale, impacting 200,000 pupils, notes Sara Cord-ray, program director, Using the Region IV twinCDC Cyber 170 mainframe, HISD profiles eachstudent’s performance on the Iowa Test of BasicSkills; generates progress reports listing specificskill strengths in reading and math; develops in-dividualized reading lists (sent home as a letter toeach parent) based on each students’ interest andindependent reading level from a data base of12,000 library books; and prepares vocational pro-files based on a standardized assessment of eachstudent. (Accompanying each profile is a printoutof occupational opportunities and education andtraining requirements.)

Other current uses (documented in the HISDMicrocomputer User Survey) of the microcom-puters vary from school to school. Microcomputersare used in mathematics, reading, science, lan-guage arts, accounting and business education,special education, computer literacy, and program-ing activities. Some schools have computer clubsand some offer classes after school for studentsand parents. Some teachers are creating their ownsoftware, and others use commercially preparedmaterials.

I m p a c t sWhen Houston educators assess the impacts of

technology on education, they point to improved

{.- . —,


Figure A-3.—Sample “Fail Safe” Parent Letter

SOURCE: Houston Independent School District.

•

RO OrR!C I( (;IR .ArtE l

BER 1fT ELf" lE.CHER : 'tACO

~E A R 'P A RE NT ~ YOUR SUPPORT A~~ INVOLVEMENT IN OP£QAVION FAIL-SAFE IS HiKING A BIG

nIFFERfNCE IN HELIfIING ~CCJERICK'S. REAOING S~IllS_ ATTACHE!J A".RE SOKE ~ORE ACTIVITIES THAT TOU CAN USE AT Ha~E_

GOO~ LUCX IN HELPING YOUR CHILU 8ECOME A BETTER READER.

READING PRESCRIPTION FOR RODERICK

• "AT~IALS~ - NEWSPAPER. C<1.0RE! ~ENCIl.. ASK YOUR CHiLD TO HUNT H£AOLINES FeR BLEND HORUS. ASK HIH TO

CI~ClE THE ONES HE FIN~S. HELP HIM READ H~DS HE OCESN·T KNOW. LET HI~ READ THE WORDS HE UrnES KNOW.

• PAIR PICK CAN YOUR CHILD HE.1ft THE THO HO'RDS THAT BEGIN AI..IKE? 'R£A{J THE

THREE HORDS TO HI1III. TWO OF THEM BEGIN WITH THE SA'/wE SOUND. SEE IF YOUR CHILO CAN PICK THE PA~ THAT BEGINS' ALIKE.

£X'A"PLE2 SKIP SKILL STAND WHICH TWO ~EGrN THE SA~E?

(SKIP, SKILL) HHA~ THO LETTERS ~AKE THAT SOUND? (SIO

00 THE SAME FO~ T HESE WO~DSI

1. SMUG SPILL SMELL 2. STOP SNOW Sf ArllS 3. SPUN SWIH SPOT ' .. SWING SWEATE~ SKIRT 5. SNUG STONE S J\AC K 6. SHART SHELL SNOW r. SPEAK S"UNK SMILE

• GOOFY SENTENCES ASK YOUR CHILO TO ?IAKE SO~ ··GOOFY SENTENCES" WITH THE ;Bl.ENflJS.

THE OBJECT IS TO IJ\~LUDE ls MANY BlEN~ WORDS AS YOU CAN. THE SENTENCES CAN BE SIllY FOR 'MO~ FUN.

EXAHPt.ESI

S~Al~ SNAKES SKATE SPEE~ILY.

FL1,.,SY 'BLUE FROGS DRIVE SHALL PLAY CAlRS.

TO GET 1HINGS START~D~ SUGG~ST ~UIlDING A ~IST OF 8L~Nn WO~DS FOR "ST.- -SK.- "SM.- -S~.- -SW,- "SN." -tL." -FL," -Pl,· ·Sl,- MB~~"

"CR.,'" .~()~.- oOFR,- "GR.- "p;~," .oTR,- Af\1l -BL.·· BRAINSTORM WITH YCU~ CHILD TO THINK OF MA~Y WORDS AS YOU CAN FOR EACH ~LENO. THEN WORK TOGETHER ON CREATING Tt-IE GOOFY SI£NTEN'CES.


student achievement. The profile of HISD elemen-tary students’ mean composite scores from 1971to 1981 documents the increased basic school per-formance of a student population who typically arelow achievers (see fig. A-4). In 1980-81, the districtcompleted its sequential testing program throughgrade 12. Although the results at the elementarylevel are more impressive, scores in grades 5, 7,8, 9, 10, and 11 also show a significant improve-ment in achievement. Although not the sole fac-tor, technology plays a critical role.

When the title I computer-assisted instruction(CAI) program was evaluated, students in grades2-6 averaged gains of 1.1 months in reading and1.2 months in mathematics in 1978-79. Studentsin grades 3-7 made similar gains of 1.1 months inreading, 1.4 months in mathematics, and 1.5months in language in 1980-81, Of teachers whosestudents participated in the CAI labs, 93 percentfelt that student performance improved as a resultof CAI and 63 percent reported that students’achievement was greater than would be expectedin a traditional instructional program. Whilestudents looked forward to CAI classes, teacherscomplained about the disruption to their classeswhen students were pulled out. Scheduling wasfixed and inflexible. Moreover, when computerswere down or telephone lines malfunctioned stu-dents missed instruction.

Operation Fail Safe was evaluated in 1977-78 todetermine the relationship between parent involve-ment and student achievement. The level of parentinvolvement, determined by the school principal,was compared with students’ achievement testscores. At every level—elementary, junior high,and senior high-a significant positive relationshipwas documented. A second study of a pilot parent-assist program involved 200 parents of third grade

Figure A-4.– Iowa Tests of Basic Skills,Mean Composite Scores, HISD, 1971-81

GE7.06.56.05.55.04,54.03.5

t- 1

I1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

SOURCE Houston Independent School District

students in four schools. After students’ readingskill areas were identified, materials were prepack-aged and distributed weekly for parent-child useat home.

A comparison of these students and a controlgroup (students not participating in the program)revealed higher significant gains for pilot students.Beyond these statistical gains, Operation Fail Safehas the strong support of the business communi-ty. Local businesses and corporations have paidfor a $1 million advertising campaign that high-lights parent involvement activities with the mes-sage, “Don’t Fail Me–Help Me. ” Seventy-fourpercent of elementary school parents and 39 per-cent of secondary school parents attend the pro-gram’s parent-teacher conferences.

HISD and the Region IV ESC have providedleadership for the 101 local area school districtsand for the State education agency. The Applemicrocomputer bid process and contract had na-tional recognition and was used as a basis for otherdistrict and regional education agency efforts.Region IV was one of the first to join theMinnesota Educational Computing Consortium(MECC) as an institutional member, providingarea schools access to MECC-produced software.

HISD organized a technology conference for theNational Institute of Education’s Urban Super-intendents Study Group in December 1981. Theconference brought together educational leaders,hardware manufactures, and educational publish-ers to discuss common needs and to work towardscollaborative efforts.

Finally, the district is bombarded with requestsfor information and for help–"everything youknow about computers. ” There is a steady streamof visitors who come to observe programs and seeteachers and students in action.

As HISD moves its technology programs for-ward, Sturdivant sees the need to help schools toeffectively use the technology that they have. Shebelieves that, before schools acquire hardware oradd to their inventory, they must plan for theiruse. That involves an understanding of the tech-nology’s potential and its limitations, the learningobjectives to be met, and the trained teachersneeded to implement the program. Sturdivant isalso in favor by focusing on a few applications ata time, so as to give the district leverage for pur-chasing hardware and software. The major pub-lishers will provide what the district needs “if theyknow we will buy, ” The full impact of technologyon HISD will come when “technology is fused toeducation . . . to what teachers are doing . . . and(is) not another add-on to the curriculum. If teach-


ers can’t be convinced that technology will maketheir job easier, they’re not going to buy it. ”

In addition, here will be a concerted effort inHISD to continue to identify those programs thatare working and to replicate them. The key, statesAssociate Superintendent Michael Say, “is tochannel the use of technology and coordinateit . . . Houston is on the verge of moving ahead ina significant way. ” The district will fund theemerging programs out of State and local fundsbecause “we want to determine our own emphasisand maintain our own programs. ” Federal funds,he argues, should be used for innovation and state-of-the-art development.

Future

For HISD, the future is now. Although technol-ogy is already a part of the Houston educationalscene, with diverse activities well under way, thereis a pervasive feeling among educational leadersthat hard decisions must be made, innovative ac-tions initiated, and major resources reallocated asquickly as possible. At the same time, cautionsSay, “We can’t just throw technology out thereand expect it to be used. ” Houston’s efforts willfocus heavily on teacher and administrator com-puter-literacy training, and on acquisition of hard-ware and software that is coordinated withplanned program development. SuperintendentReagan believes technology holds “untold prom-ises . . . not to replace teachers but to become thefull partner of the teacher. ” The district’s futureplans are diverse; several are close to implemen-tation or are already under way. Other plans are2 to 5 years away from completion.

New Roles for Teachers. The position of teachertechnologist with pay incentives (increased salarysupplements) has been approved. Teacher technol-ogists will teach teachers, parents, and youngstersand serve as catalysts, planners, and implementersof computer literacy and other programs on indi-vidual school campuses. These teachers will drawon the small cadre of staff members already im-plementing programs, as well as on others who areready to move into this role. It is hoped that thesenew opportunities and increased pay will hold thedistrict’s trained teachers and attract new recruits,many of whom are choosing industry for theircareers.

Extensive Staff Development. Through existingprograms offered at the microcomputer center andthrough the establishment of additional centersand demonstration projects in schools involvingteacher technologists, training activities will be

significantly expanded. First priority for aware-ness and training activities will be school prin-cipals. School officials note that the principal is thekey figure in program implementation.

Expanding the Use of Microcomputers as In-structional Delivery Systems in the School andHome. School officials expect the number ofmicrocomputers in HISD to increase from thepresent 250 to 300 to approximately 1,000 in ayear and to 5,000 to 7,000 in 5 years. A major useof these machines will be to increase student time-on-task in basic skill areas, especially in title Ischools. Moreover, microcomputers will be madeavailable to parents who have participated in train-ing sessions and who are willing to help their chil-dren increase academic skills at home. Pilot pro-grams will begin in September with schools thathave implemented parent-school training and theOperation Fail-Safe partnership activities.

Although there is a lack of available, appropriatesoftware, district leaders believe that there isenough to begin the programs and that more willfollow as the microcomputers are purchased, andthe district envisions software lending librariesavailable to parents who will purchase hardwareon their own. Eventually, Houston’s cable systemwill become part of home-school activities, with in-dividual student prescriptions, homework assign-ments, and a range of learning packages gearedto terminals in the home.

Computer Literacy for Diverse Student Popula-tions. Over the next 4 years, the district plans toexpand and develop magnet elementary and sec-ondary schools located near major government,business, industry, higher education, and culturalcenters of the city. This in-town consortium ofmagnet schools will be linked together by commonprogram components and a common HISD trans-portation system. The plan is to integrate diversecultural, racial, and socioeconomic student popula-tions by offering a strong academic program thatintegrates the use of the computer as an instruc-tional tool in skill development and enrichmentactivities.

Educational programs will take advantage ofnearby resources, expanding HISD’s BusinessSchool Partnership Program, which brings volun-teers into the schools to tutor, teach minicourses,and organize field trips. These magnet programswill also use the resources of libraries, museums,universities, colleges, and community centers.With the increased focus on technology, the prac-tical technical expertise of resource people from in-dustry and the business community will play aneven more important role.


Developing Technology-Based Courses. Oneway to deal with the district critical shortage ofmath, science, and bilingual teachers is to developcourses that do not require a full-time teacher.Although not on the district’s immediate horizon,there is a growing idea that such courses, mini-courses, and the like can be developed because ofadvances in computer and video disk technologies.There is also a plan to make better use of the dis-trict’s in-house television arid cable capabilities bydesigning remote-learning stations with instruc-tion coming from a teacher in one location.

While some educators see these plans as vision-ary, others point to HISD’s innovations in otherareas and argue that, under Superintendent Rea-gan’s leadership, these ideas will become reality.The superintendent is a powerful persuader: “Un-less technology -i.e., the microcomputer, the videodisk, and television—is fully developed and ex-ploited to the maximum degree, we will fall fur-ther and further behind in Houston in providingthe manpower for industry, for our defense, andfor our future. ”

Resources

Case study interviews:Houston Independent School District, Houston, Tex.Billy Reagan, SuperintendentMichael Say, Associate Superintendent for InstructionPatricia Sturdivant, Associate Superintendent for

TechnologyRonald Veselka, Assistant Superintendent for Research

and EvaluationSara Cordray, Program Administrator, Parent Support

ProgramsFrank Wesley, Principal, Booker T. Washington High

SchoolRichard Frazier, Teacher, Booker T. Washington High

SchoolJohn Roustenstraugh, Test Engineer on Loan from IBM

and TeacherHelen Heard, Principal, Askew Elementary SchoolTwo classrooms of gifted and talented students using

microcomputersJoy Louisa, Principal, River Oaks Elementary SchoolSusan Otto, Teacher of K-5 computer literacy classesMadeline Reed, Director of MathematicsCarol Kukendahl, Director of Reading and Language

ArtsPatsy Rogers, Computer Resources Director, Microcom-

puter Center for Teachers

Bibl iography

Houston Independent School District3830 Richmond AvenueHouston, TX 77027

Final Evaluation Report—Computer Assisted Instruc-tion (CAI), Nov. 6, 1981.

Preliminary report on Districtwide Needs Assessmentand Plans for Establishing District goals for the NewAccredition Cycle, Jan. 21, 1982.

Quality Integrated Education: Challenges and Re-sponses, prepared for the Workshop on the Imple-mentation of the Recommendations of the MagnetSchool Task Force, Dec. 21, 1981.

Houston Independent School District, packet of in-formation, November 1981.

Factors Affecting Education in HISD and Texas in the1980’s, February 1981.

Elementary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981.Secondary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981.Approval to Create the Department of Technology,

December 1981.A Status Report on Microcomputer Developments,

Patricia Sturdivant, Region IV Education ServiceCenter, October 1979.

Information Technologyand Education in the

State of Alaska

The State of Alaska is providing extensive andvaried applications of computer and communica-tions technology to education. Special geographic,demographic, sociological, and financial factorshave made the State a forerunner in educationalinformation technology. Alaska has a populationunusually receptive to change and technology; acompelling need to apply communications and in-formation technology to education; and the finan-cial capability to invest in capital-intensiveinnovations.

Although many of the technical, political, legal,organizational, and educational issues and prob-lems being addressed in Alaska are common toother parts of the United States, the special cir-cumstances of Alaska require that any attempt togeneralize from Alaskan experience be done care-fully. Given this provision, it seems reasonable tolook to Alaskan experience for useful lessons in theapplication of technology to education.

The Setting

Alaska is the largest State in the United States,covering a land area equal to about 20 percent ofthe remaining 49 States. Physically separatedfrom the contiguous 48 States, it is characterizedby rugged terrain, extremes of climate, low popula-tion density, limited land transportation, andmany small isolated communities accessible only


by sea or air. The total population of 400,000 in-cludes 50,000 native Americans who belong toseven major and distinct culture and languagegroups. Over 50 different native languages anddialects are spoken in the homes. Alaska’s popula-tion overall is relatively young. The frontier char-acter of the region attracts pioneering youngadults, while the rigors of life discourage retireesfrom remaining for their later years.

Alaska has about 90,000 school-age children dis-tributed over an area twice the size of Texas.Alaska’s 450 public schools vary in size from 2,500students in an Anchorage high school to 8 or 10students in one-room schools in remote areas.Although some of the 52 school districts in Alaskaare geographically larger than those in most otherStates, they may have only about 1,000 students.The State is required by court decision to provideeducation to students aged 7 through 16 in theirhome communities, rather than by sending themto boarding schools in other communities.

In rural communities, most students are nativeAmericans who have only brief history of school-ing. The educational level of many parents is low,and the benefits of standard American schoolingare not necessarily valued. Many of the studentshave a history of poor academic performance anda negative view of schools.1

The recent discovery and exploitation of oil inAlaska has provided the financial capability to in-vest large sums of capital in education. In addi-tion to the average per pupil expenditure of near-ly $7,000, there are special projects–such as $200million for construction of schools and about$125,000 for the installation of a satellite receiverin a rural village. Rural schools are financed totallyby State funds.

It is far beyond the scope of this case study totrace the general history of communications inAlaska. But it is important to recognize that thedevelopments in educational technology in Alas-ka have occurred in the context of a generallyatypical communications situation.

Communications technology that most Ameri-cans take for granted-telephones, radio, and tel-evision-have had a very complex and problematichistory in Alaska. Alaska’s long-distance tele-phone facilities were operated until 1971 by an armof the U.S. Air Force. The system, served by high-frequency land radio stations, was unreliablebecause of ionospheric disturbances common to

‘William J. Bramble and Ernest E. Polley, “Microcomputer Instruc-tion in Remote Vllages in Alaska, ” Alaska Department of Education,1981.

the region. In 1971, 142 villages had no telephoneservice at all. RCA Alaska Communicationsbought the system and was certified by the AlaskaPublic Utilities Commission to provide telephoneservice.

RCA encountered a variety of difficulties in-cluding hindrances by weather, unreliable electricpower, employee problems in coping with villageconditions, and villagers’ lack of sophistication indealing with the new system.2 Because of the dif-ficulties of providing communications on a privateindustry basis, the Alaska State government hastaken a more active role in providing communica-tions.

By the early 1970’s, it became apparent that sat-ellite technology offered a more promising meansof providing telecommunications services to vil-lages than had any previous technology. Severalprojects involving satellites were initiated by theState government, including an experimentfunded jointly by the U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare (HEW) and the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration. (Latertransferred to the National Institutes for Educa-tion (NIE)).3 HEW and NIE support for this“ATS-6 experiment” was about $2.5 million.

The ATS-6 experiment involved educational andbiomedical applications of satellite-transmittedcolor television and interactive audio to 19 sitesin Alaska. Actual operations lasted only 9 months,during 1974-75, but planning had begun in 1972.The experiment was extensively evaluated and re-ported on.45 6

While some of these evaluations concluded thatthe experiment was not cost-effective, the projectdid build a base of technical expertise in the Statewith regard to satellite communications technol-ogy.7 For example, a great deal was learned about

aA. Hills and M. G. Morgan, “Telecommunications in Alaskan Vil-lages,” Science, vol. 211, January 1981, pp. 241-248.

‘L. Grayson, “Educational Satellites: The ATS-6 Experiments, ” J.Ed Tech Sys., vol. 3(2), fall 1974.

4B. Cowlan and D. Foote, “A Case Study of the ATS-6 Health, Educa-tion and Telecommunications Projects, ” ARC No. 308.3 -C875, EHR-19,Office of Education and Human Resources, Bureau of Technical As-sistance, Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C.,August 1975.

‘Office of Telecommunications, “Alaska ATS-6 Health/Education Tel-ecommunications Experiment: Alaska Education Experiment Final Report, vols. I, II, III and Executive Summary” (Juneau: Office of Tele-communications, Office of the Governor of the State of Alaska,September 1975).

aPractical Concepts, Inc., Implications of the Alaska Education Sat-elh”te Communications Demonstration for Telecommunications Poh”cy-makers (Washington, D. C.: Practical Concepts, Inc., January 1976).

‘T. S. Pittman and J. Orvik, ATS-6 and State TelecommunicationsPolicy for Rural Alaska: An Analysis of Recommendations, Center forNorthern Educational Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,Alaska, December 1976.


the use of low-power ground stations.8 Effective-ly structured audio conferences for adult interac-tion were found to be effective for educational pur-poses.’ Institutional issues regarding media beganto be addressed, such as ways of providing for local(as opposed to State or national) control overmedia and methods of providing appropriate pro-graming for rural Alaska.

In 1975, the Alaska State Legislature providedan appropriation of about $10 million to initiateconstruction of more than 100 small Earth sta-tions throughout Alaska that would extend sat-ellite-based long-distance telephone service tomany communities. The following year, the legis-lature expanded this satellite network to includetelevision broadcasts for some communities. Since1977, daytime instructional television (ITV) pro-grams have been broadcast by satellite, and sitesreceiving these broadcasts have increased innumber.

In 1978, the Alaska State Department of Educa-tion, with joint funding from NIE and the State,initiated the Educational Telecommunications forAlaska Project. This project, funded at $6 million,has developed several of the major educationaltechnology systems and applications described inthis report, including an electronic mail network,an information retrieval system, and multimediaindividualized courses.

To help determine the instructional potential ofsatellite television, the legislature in 1979 re-quested that a study be made of the feasibility ofusing television for instruction on a statewidebasis. “A Report on the Feasibility of Telecom-munications for Instruction in the State ofAlaska” was submitted to the legislative councilin February 1980, In response to the recommenda-tions of this report, the legislature approved an ap-propriation of $8.6 million to implement the in-structional television and audio conferencing sys-tems now known as the LEARN/ALASKA Net-work. LEARN/ALASKA is managed by the Uni-versity of Alaska Instructional Telecommunica-tions Consortium (UAITC), a joint organization ofthe University and the State Department of Edu-cation.

Use of Information Technology

Six major kinds of computer and communica-tions applications are in varying stages of im-

personal communication with William Bramble, Alaska State De-partment of Education, December 1981.

W. S. Pittman, op. cit., p. 15.

plementation and use in Alaska. These include thefollowing:

● instructional television;● audio conferencing;● electronic mail;● information retrieval;● individualized study by technology; and● computer literacy.Instructional Television. By December 1981,85

Alaskan communities were receiving instructionaltelevision via satellite dish antennas. Additionalcommunities continue to be added to the LEARN/ALASKA television network. The statewide in-structional television channel broadcasts nearly 18hours of programing every day for audience levelsranging from preschool through adult. The pro-grams may be used directly in class or taped forlater use.

Most of the programs are purchased from educa-tional program producers in the contiguous 48States. However, the State of Alaska is now pro-viding funds for Alaskans to produce programingtailored to the special needs of its regional andcultural groups. The Northwest Arctic SchoolDistrict has received a grant from the State todevelop programing appropriate for the InupiaqEskimos who live in 11 villages scattered through-out the 35,000 -square-mile district (about the sizeof Indiana). Students in Kotzebue are producingITV programing which can be broadcast live fromKotzebue’s transmitter.

Despite the large commitment to State instruc-tional television, many problems remain. First,scheduling of broadcasts to meet user needs is aproblem in a State that spans five time zones.Local taping of broadcasts for later use can resolvethis problem, but there are copyright issues in-volved and not all programs can legally be copied.Second, the high cost of developing the needed pro-grams can not be amortized over a large audiencedue to the sparse populations. Moreover, program-ing aimed at adults in the home is often ineffec-tive when the home environment is crowded andnot a suitable learning environment. Finally, po-litical problems arise when the State-run networkis perceived by local cable TV operators to be incompetition with private industry.

The cultural impact of television has been anissue of considerable interest since the State firsttook initiatives in this area. Mechanisms for pro-viding native consumer control over programing,scheduling, and operations have been of major con-cern since the earliest experiments. For example,James Orvik of the Center for Northern Educa-tional Research observed, “Depending on how the


development of a system is managed, early reli-ance on satellites as the principal means of deliverycould be an open invitation to begin centralizingand homogenizing the entire process of media de-livery and media use. To the extent such a trendwould erode the emergence of local and regionalsystems, there is cause for concern."10

One of the strategies that has been adoptedto ensure local and regional control for theLEARN/ALASKA network is the provision forregional programing facilities and the establish-ment of local capability to develop programs.

Audio Conferencing. In addition to instructionaltelevision, the LEARN/ALASKA network pro-vides the hardware and the communications capa-bility for audio conferences, which cost about $64per line per hour to operate. In December 1981,the network had 59 audio conferencing sites; 104are planned by September 1982. At each communi-ty audio conference center a coordinator helpsusers with the technical and administrative as-pects of setting up and conducting a conference.A guide assists users in conducting effectiveteleconferences.

The University of Alaska has been an early userof this system for education. Students at many ofthe remote university campuses can join togetherin class discussions through the audio conferenc-ing system. Some faculty members are beginningto develop expertise in the use of this technology,which, although powerful, requires a considerableamount of administrative time to implement. Ac-cording to one professor, a faculty member mustspend about four times more time administeringa course that operates via audio or computer con-ference than he spends for a similar conventionalcourse. These pioneering faculty are developing ex-pertise in the appropriate structuring, manage-ment, and coordination of audio conferences.

Another major application of audio conferenc-ing is for teacher inservice training. This methodis highly cost effective in this State, where travelcosts are very high.

Electronic Mail. Certain characteristics of anelectronic mail system (EMS) make it an ideal tech-nology for overcoming cultural, geographic, andscheduling barriers to education. Through EMS,students with different cultural backgrounds,located in distant places in different time zones,engage in seminar-type discussions with one otherand with their professors. Even when all the stu-dents in a particular class are physically located

10J. Omik, “ESCD/Alaska: An Educational Demonstration, ’ J. ~m-munication, vol. 27:4, autumn 1977.

at the main campus, they have more interactionwith each other and with their professor throughthe system than they would be able to have in atypical classroom. This is particularly true fornative Americans whose minority culture back-ground often results in little class participation.The asking and answering of direct questions ina face-to-face setting is often in opposition toculturally accepted modes of interacting.11 InAlaska two EMSs serve educational users: theUniversity of Alaska computer network and anEMS operated by the State Department of Edu-cation.

The University network is by far the largest,serving 7,000 users at campuses and agenciesthroughout the State. In the month of November1981, 104,000 messages were transmitted on thissystem. Used in innovative ways for learning andteaching, the University’s system made it possi-ble throughout the winter for high school studentsin Nome, Anchorage, Juneau, Kenai, Fairbanks,and Petersburg to participate in an honors pro-gram managed by a professor in the mathematicsdepartment of the University of Fairbanks. Thestudents received assignments, collaborated witheach other, and transmitted their work to the pro-fessor through the system.12 Problems encoun-tered in using the University network for class-room interaction have included: lack of visualmaterial; lack of cross referencing of messages; toomany simultaneous threads of conversation; toohigh a reading level in messages; inability to con-trol negative messages; and student inability todigest unrelated topics.

EMS operated by the State Department of Ed-ucation was developed by the Educational Tele-communications for Alaska (ETA) project. Thisnetwork links administrators of the 52 schooldistricts with each other and with the StateDepartment of Education at Juneau. The systemis directly accessible only to district ad-ministrators, not to school personnel, since thedistrict offices are distant from rural schools. InNovember 1981, the system transmitted about3,500 messages. The primary benefit of thissystem is for State and district administration.

There is no physical interface between theuniversity network and the State EMS. The mostcommonly cited reason for this is security.

Information Retrieval. The Alaska KnowledgeBase, developed as a part of the ETA project, is

llPWSon~ co~~cation with Ronald Scollen at the ~ntar for @ssCultural Studies, University of Alaska, December 1981.

l~person~ communication with Dr. van Veldhausen, Department OfMathematics, University of Alaska, December 1981.

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 231

a computerized guide to help Alaskan educatorsfind current information about curriculum mate-rials, successful classroom programs, and resourcepeople willing to serve in the schools. Users accessthe knowledge base through the computer ter-minals located in the administrative offices of the52 school districts and the department of educa-tion. During a 3-month period in 1981, about halfthe school districts used the system, retrievingabout 3,500 items of information from this knowl-edge base.

Individualized Study by Technology (1ST). Amajor product of the ETA project is a series of 1STcourses for high school students in remote schools.These courses are designed to provide instructionthat would allow the small, isolated schools to offera variety of high-quality courses at the secondarylevel without increasing the staff size and withouttransporting students to schools in large popula-tion centers. When a school adopts 1ST courses,it acquires an Apple computer. The computer isalso used for a variety of other applications suchas high school accounting courses, computerscience and data processing training, and drills inbasic skills.

Six 1ST courses have been developed: Alaskahistory, English, developmental reading, generalmathematics, general science, and U.S. history.The course packages include student reading ma-terials, lab guides, audio cassettes, teacher guides,text and reference materials, and computer-basedexercises and tests. The computer materials oper-ate on stand-alone microcomputers (Apple II). Animportant component of the course design, com-puter-based activities provide a high degree of in-teraction with the student. In pilot tests of thecourses the computer exercises were the mode ofinstruction most preferred by 74 percent of thestudents. Audio tapes were liked the least.

As typical of technology-based instructional sys-tems, the pilot test evaluations indicate that revi-sions are needed.13 “The lack of an overall modelfor what and how to teach in 1ST courses has con-tributed to some of the problems with course de-sign, such as the lack of higher cognitive leveltasks, high levels of reading difficulty, and prob-lems with use of audio tapes.”14 Nevertheless, theadoption rate in 1981 far exceeded expectations.As of December 1981,95 schools had adopted one

‘SM. Howe, et al., “ Individualized Study by Telecommunications PilotTest Final Evaluation Report, ” Alaska Department of Education, June1980.

l~Education~ Skills K)evdoprnent, Inc., “Final Report Evaluation of1ST Courses FY 81 Pilot Study, ” Alaska Department of Education,November 1981.

or more of the courses. Apparent benefits of the1ST courses include the following:

the courses work well for students whose at-tendance at school is irregular or seasonal,which is the case in many rural Alaskanschools;the courses provide more educational optionswithin a small school;the computer component is motivating, andthe equipment has other applications in theschool;the courses are complete and self-contained,and are not dependent on local material re-sources or teacher knowledge of content;the courses provide continuity of curriculumin schools where teacher turnover is high.

Availability of the initial 1ST courses has pro-vided Alaskan educators with an example of whatis possible through technology. Demand for addi-tional courses is building, particularly for highschool mathematics and science courses. However,it is not clear at this point how development ofsuch courses will be funded, or even how revisionand maintenance of the initial courses will besupported.

The cost per student of 1ST courses will dependon the overall number of students using thecourses, the number of students per course perschool, and the lifespan of the materials and pro-grams. It appears that the cost per student percourse of about $900 will be less than the averageAlaskan rural conventional course cost per student(about $7,000). One major cost component for 1STis teacher training. In fiscal year 1981, the cost perteacher for training was about $1,500. Travel andper diem expenses accounted for a large propor-tion of these teacher training costs.

Computer Literacy. In Alaska, as in otherStates, the availability of low-cost microcomputershas generated considerable interest by educatorsin computer-related skills that should become partof the curriculum. Several hundred microcom-puters are now available for student use in schools,and the number is growing rapidly. The AlaskaAssociation of Computer Using Educators hasbeen formed with the help of the State Departmentof Education. The department also publishes anewsletter for the association.

By providing teacher inservice workshops incomputer literacy and by providing informationto educators on available software, the StateDepartment of Education assumes a leadershiprole in promoting computer literacy. In an arrange-ment with the Minnesota Educational ComputingConsortium (MECC) the department provides cop-


ies of MECC educational software free of chargeto the schools. It is now establishing a process forevaluating commercially available courseware andwill seek to make arrangements with publishersto license distribution of courseware in the State.

Computers and Culture. In 1971, the ComputerCenter Director of the University of Alaska begana series of educational experiments in Alaskanhigh schools. He hypothesized that the use of com-puter technology could assist Alaskan natives inovercoming cultural barriers to learning in theclassroom. He found that Eskimo children inNome broke through cultural isolation through theuse of Fortran programing; that a teacher couldinteract with Indian children through computerterminals when they would not interact with himface-to-face; and that Eskimo children gained anunderstanding of arithmetic through the use ofhandheld calculators.15

Impact on the Use of InformationT e c h n o l o g y

The LEARN/ALASKA network and the ETAprojects have been implemented in the past 2years and are just now beginning to be used opera-tionally. The impact of these systems on educa-tion will not be observable for some time. Thereappear to be no plans by the agencies involved tomonitor or evaluate the impact of these systems.

Knowledgeable persons in Alaska make the fol-lowing kinds of predictions of the impacts of com-puter and communications technologies on educa-tion:

●

●

●

●

●

●

curricula of small schools will become morestandardized through use of the 1ST courses;nonschool-based education, such as corres-pondence courses, will become more impor-tant;individual schools, as opposed to school dis-tricts, will assume greater decisionmakingcontrol;previously isolated cultures will become moresocially sophisticated;native languages will disappear; andcultural barriers to educational progress willbe overcome.

The increasing use of audio conferencing is ren-dering obsolete some institutional mechanismsand jurisdictional boundaries. Communicationsnetworks cut across school district and State lines,

“E. J. Gauss, “Computer Enhancement of Cultural Transition, ” pro-ceedings of the 1979 National Educational Computing Consortium,Iowa City, June 1979.

raising issues about institutional jurisdictions overaccreditation of courses, tuition payments, schoolschedules, and the like.

Through their varied experiences in the imple-mentation of computer and communications tech-nology in education, Alaskans have addressedissues of design, implementation, and public policythat very likely all Americans will eventually haveto address. By no means have all these issues beenresolved in Alaska, but there is a more mature un-derstanding of them now than 10 years ago.

What are the risks involved in technologicalinnovation, and how might they be mini-mized? According to a model being developedat the Center for Cross-Cultural Studies at theUniversity of Alaska, the risks of wasted cap-ital investment and undesirable cultural sideeffects can only be minimized if systemsevolve with a high degree of user control overgrowth rate and direction.Should the cultural and other impacts of in-novation be monitored and, if so, how? Thereis no formal mechanism for monitoring im-pacts and outcomes in Alaska. Some believethere is no point in it; others are concernedover our lack of understanding of impacts.What is the appropriate role of State govern-ment in delivering instruction-e. g., via televi-sion or computer-assisted instruction?By what mechanisms can educational needsbe taken into account in the processes of es-tablishing policies and regulations regardingtelecommunications?How can educators and users drive the designof innovations?How can development of high-quality, user-relevant programing be financed? -

The Future

Increasing use of computer-assisted instructionis highly likely in Alaska. The Report of the Gover-nor’s Task Force on Effective Schooling recom-mends “computer-assisted instruction as a viablemeans of enhancing schooling with respect to thedevelopment of skills and acquisition of content.”16

Application of video disk technology, combinedwith microcomputers, is planned. The Office ofPlanning and Research in the State Departmentof Education has established a design team to ana-lyze authoring systems, assess feasibility of group

1eGovernor’g Task Force on Effective Schooling, ‘‘Effective School-ing Practices, ” State of Alaska, December 1981.


interactive video disk systems, and prepare recom-mendations for applications to instruction.

Audio conferencing will be combined with in-structional television to provide interactivecourses. Students watching an instructional televi-sion program will be electronically linked togetherand to the instructor, thus providing a techno-logically advanced kind of correspondence course.

University students in Alaska will have increas-ing access to courses at out-of-state institutionsvia computer and audio conferencing systems.

E D U C O M

EDUCOM was founded in 1964 as a nonprofitorganization for colleges, universities, and othernonprofit institutions of higher education. Its cur-rent membership includes over 360 university andcollege campuses in the United States and abroad.The goal is to help its members make better useof computing and information technology. Areasof application are academic instruction and re-search, college and university administration, andlibrary and information dissemination. EDUCOMprovides the following types of services and activ-ities:

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sharing and exchange of specialized compu-ter and information resources;consulting on the management and use ofcomputer technology;maintenance and dissemination of a financialmodeling system;conferences, seminars, workshops, and pub-lications; andresearch and specialized software.

Services and Membership Activities

1. EDUCOM Bulletin. The EDUCOM Bulletin ispublished quarterly, with a circulation of about10,000. The bulletin reports on presentations,research projects, applications of informationtechnology to higher education, and systems ofinterest to the education community.

2. Annual Conference. Annual conferences addressresource sharing, computer networking, the de-velopment of information systems, and othertopics of current interest to member institu-tions.

3. Seminars. Seminars in 1981 included, “Manag-ing Microcomputers on Campus, ” and “EFPM:The EDUCOM Financial Planning Model. ”

4.

5.

6.

7.

Research Reports and Monographs. For exam-ple, the report of a 2-year, NSF-funded study offactors affecting the sharing of computer-basedresources.Informal Communications. These include lettersto presidents, memoranda, and other mailingsrelating to the sharing of resources and the useof computing and other technologies in highereducation.Discounts. EDUCOM provides for discounts onthe purchase or lease of computing equipmentand related materials and services from selectedvendors.Task Forces. Task forces are designated tostudy special issues of interest to members.

Special Activities

EDUCOM provides specialized services throughthe activities of EDUNET, the EDUCOM Con-sulting Group, the EDUCOM Financial PlanningModel (EFPM), and research and development.

EDUNET. This is an international computingnetwork for higher education and research.EDUNET itself neither owns nor operates anycomputing facilities. Rather, it acts as a broker,linking using institutions who have unusual com-puting requirements with 1 of 16 institutional sup-pliers. Connecting links are established throughcommercial communications networks, providedby networks such as Telenet and TYMNET. Typ-ical communications charges are $4 to $6 per hour.All arrangements, including billing, are handledcentrally by EDUNET.

Planning for EDUNET was initiated in 1966under partial sponsorship of NSF. Several studiesand experiments followed, and a full network wasestablished in 1979. On July 1, 1979, EDUNETbecame a permanent and self-sustaining activityof EDUCOM.

Membership in EDUNET in June 1981 included168 institutions. Local access is provided in 250U.S. cities, 50 Canadian cities, and 30 foreign coun-tries. Resources available from EDUNET supplierinstitutions include:

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electronic mail and conferencing systems,tutorial programs,CAI authoring languages,statistical packages,subroutine libraries,planning and analysis models,simulation languages and games,data bases,data-base management systems,


c information storage and retrieval systems,● programs for textual analysis,“ graphics software, andc text editors.EDUNET services also include a hotline, the

quarterly EDUNET News, the in formalEDUNOTE, a Member’s Guide, electronic mailand conferencing, training workshops and in-troductory seminars, an on-line catalog of re-sources available from suppliers, and searchestailored to special requirements. EDUNET hasdeveloped special software so that microcom-puters such as the Apple II can access the largecomputers used by EDUNET suppliers.

EDUCOM Consulting Group. EDUCOM Con-sulting Group was formed in 1972 as a source ofimpartial advice on the use of computing and in-formation technology in higher education. Con-sulting is available in four areas:

1. System Performance Evaluation.2. Strategic Resource Planning.3. Organization Planning.4. Management Systems Implementation.In 1978, with a grant from Eli Lilly, & Co.,

EDUCOM built the EDUCOM Financial PIarmingModel (EFPM). Users can build and operatebudget models through a question-and-answerroutine that requires no computer sophistication;access is via the EDUNET dial-in network.

EFPM now resides on a Cornell University com-puter. It is used by over 120 institutions. As ofAugust 1981, it cost $2,000 per year ($1,750 forEDUNET members), plus $2,250 startup con-sulting ($2,000 for EDUCOM members), and from$8 to $20 per terminal hour. It is supported by userfees and grants. EDUCOM supports an EFPMUsers’ Group through a monthly newsletter andperiodic meetings. Recent applications have beenmade in foreign higher education, in noneduca-tional settings (the New York Public Library), andin the development of linkages for access by mi-crocomputer.

Research and Development. Previous studieshave addressed EFPM (described above), com-puting in small colleges, and the role of technologyin library resource sharing. Of special interest isa 2-year study, completed in April 1981 for NSF,to identify factors affecting individual and institu-tional sharing of computer-based resources.

Budgets and Financing

The financing of EDUCOM is like that of othertypical regional service organizations (RSOs).

The typical RSO functions on a very tight budgetwith virtually no discretionary funds, and some pro-portion of continuing income derived from exter-nal funding agencies. With a tight budget, a smallstaff, and high reliance on volunteer efforts, thetypical RSO is in a precarious financial situation.In order to offset financial instability, most RSOsrely on a mixture of revenue that includes member-ship fees and fees-for-service, as well as externalfunding.’EDUCOM was incorporated with $1,000 pri-

vately donated by five faculty from five differentmedical schools. No public moneys were involved.It operated entirely on the basis of membershipdues, fees for service, and volunteerism until 1972.Then, in the early 1970’s, NSF sponsored threeseminars and the development of a network simu-lation model. This led to the establishment of thePlanning Council on Computing Education andResearch. The council’s activities were funded bygrants from 20 EDUCOM institutions, withmatching grants from the Ford, Carnegie, andExxon Foundations. This funding was restrictedto special activities and did not support day-to-daycomputing. In 1979, the council disbanded withthe launching of EDUNET.

Additional funds have been granted by the LillyFoundation to develop and maintain EFPM andby the Exxon Foundation to support computingrelating to the law. Over the last 10 years,EDUCOM’s total budget has changed, however,from over 50 percent reliance on outside grants toless than 10 percent. Membership dues and feesfor service provide the large majority of its income.A tiny fraction is generated by TELENET dis-counts. Residual requirements are met by the cur-rent Lilly grant.

Future requirements for external support are ex-pected to run between $50,000 and $100,000 peryear. Thus, although EDUCOM has made signifi-cant progress toward self-sufficiency, its financialfuture is not yet secure. For example, EDUNETcan balance its books only by drawing on a reservefund established at its inception.

EDUCOM expects to receive progressively lesssupport from the Federal Government, in partbecause of current Federal attitudes and in partbecause EDUCOM’s own goals rarely match pre-cisely the program interests of specific agencies.One successful strategy has been the solicitationof matching funds, preferably from private foun-dations. This approach assures consensus and

‘D. D. Mebane, “Computer-Based Resources Sharing in Higher Edu-cation, ” EDUCOM Bulletin, vol. 16, No. 3, fall 1981, pp. 27-32.


commitment on the part of EDUCOM users, asharing of the financial load, and isomorphism be-tween EDUCOM goals and resources.

Industry-Based Training andEducation Programs

The following discussions describe applicationsof educational technology in the corporate instruc-tional programs of three companies. Exampleshave been drawn from the airline, high technologyand tobacco products industries. Forms of infor-mation technology utilized by these companies in-clude computer-assisted instruction (CAI), com-puter-managed instruction, computer-based simu-lation, video disk and teleconferencing.

High Technology

CAI is put to extensive use by a high-technologyfirm with corporate headquarters in the Northeast.The company has a large internal education groupand an executive team that views training andeducation as an integral part of the product devel-opment and manufacturing process. Managementinstruction, technical training, and customereducation curricula are developed centrally by thestaff within this unit, but instruction is highlydecentralized. Field training centers located inareas of good market potential, are the sites ofmost training for staff and clients. Computer-based instructional packages developed for use atthese centers, are often distributed directly to cor-porate field offices for initial and refresher stafftraining.

Over the past few years, the company has ex-perienced a severe shortage of college-educatedgeneralists, a type of individual it had previouslyrecruited to fill field-service engineering positions.Formerly, these individuals were given instructionin total systems design and, with access to engi-neering specifications, were expected to be fairlyself-sufficient on field service calls. However, asthe company’s product line became more and morediversified, this approach to training and main-tenance became unworkable.

At about the same time, the problems presentedby classroom training on a fixed schedule, plus theever-increasing travel and salary costs incurredwhile staff were receiving instruction, began tohave impacts. Responding to these conditions, thecompany decided to revamp its recruiting programand training system for field-service engineers. Ajob analysis led to the development of three sep-

arate types of task-related instruction for threedistinct types of hardware:

● terminals,c small computer systems, and● larger computer systems.Having made the divisions, it was possible to

lower educational recruitment criteria far belowthe bachelor’s degree level for those to be trainedto service terminals and small computer systems.(This was a major breakthrough, since the com-pany employs some 16,000 field-service engineersworldwide.) CA I packages were developed in-houseto reduce travel and salary expenditures of class-room training at the field-education centers. Field-diagnostic centers were established as backups tothe new field-service structure, so that customerscould contact experts knowledgeable in hardwareand software design to diagnose the specific equip-ment malfunctions they were experiencing and torecommend their remediation.

This new training and maintenance system ispaying off in a number of ways. The CAI systemhas proven to be very cost effective. It has enabledmanagers to weave training into existing workschedules, and has been more responsive to in-dividual learning requirements. The new field-service organization has enabled the firm to over-come what was a severe personnel shortage andto keep customer service charges to a minimum.However, a technical education representativestated that the firm must continue to be aware ofthe limitations of CAI in that” . . . people can onlyuse a linear system for so long before the learningcurve is affected; they need contact with other in-dividuals. ” He urges managers of individual in-stallations to use the system with groups of train-ees in a classroom setting for maximum effective-ness.

At present, no other forms of information tech-nology are used in the staff education program. Inthe near future, there are plans to use video diskintegrated with a microcomputer. Cable televisionand satellite communications may also be used inthe technical education programs.

Tobacco Products Co.

As an outgrowth of technological change, amajor tobacco products firm has established a unitwithin its information systems group charged withanalyzing the potential uses of newly availabletechnologies in production and support activitiesof the corporation, including training. As a resultof this program, a project on applications of syn-thetic speech and voice recognition is under way;


Hughes Aircraft Co. ’s Training and MaintenanceInformation System (TMIS) is being used for thefirst time on a corporate production line; CAI isbeing extensively employed; and, within the nextfew months, a teleconferencing network will beestablished.

At one time, TMIS was being used as a train-ing and maintenance aid for the U.S. Army’s tankmaintenance technicians. Under contract to theArmy, Hughes Aircraft had developed the device,which consists of a video disk unit integrated witha microcomputer. Its cathrode ray tube (CRT) isused to present text and digital graphics-oftensimultaneously. After seeing a demonstration ofthe system in the company’s corporate trainingcenter and conducting a formal evaluation of itspotential in the factory environment, the tobaccofirm decided to contract with Hughes to developtwo prototype units to train employees to main-tain and repair cigarette packaging equipment(both mechanical and electronic maintenance). Thetwo devices—approximately 4½ ft high, 2 ft wide,and 2 ft deep—were installed in 1978.

Initially, the company saw two distinct applica-tions for TMIS. They planned to develop a train-ing software package for classroom use togetherwith one designed to run in the plant on the pro-duction line, where several units would be in-stalled, to assist maintenance/repair personnel onan ongoing basis. They soon discovered that onemaintenance/repair software package with “im-bedded training" would work in both settings, butin practice still-motion mode (single frames) wouldbe used in the factory.

An evaluation of the prototype units in the train-ing center was conducted in 1979. The results weredramatic in terms of the time and money savedas compared with traditional classroom instruc-tion. As a result, three devices that had beenspecifically constructed for placement in the in-dustrial environment were ordered from Hughes.Installation of the prototype in the plant is nowin progress and will be followed by an evaluationof actual production-line use.

Because of the successful use of TM IS, the com-pany is now considering the use of video disk toarchive office records and to create an electronicparts catalog containing simulations of equipment.Users would be able to walk around a particularitem, focus on its component parts, and then—using the same system— ascertain the number andavailability of the part. Recommendations havealso been made to use video disks for managementtraining.

Many uses of CAI may be observed throughoutthe company. For the past 3 years the companyhas used PLATO basic engineering and computerscience skills to train factory and office personnel.It uses Apple computers to teach task-specificskills, such as those entailed in learning machineoperations, where simulation can be a particular-ly useful learning device. Approximately 35 per-cent of all training is devoted to the retraining ofexisting personnel, a process necessitated by con-tinual modernization and modification of factoryequipment.

A considerable amount of new construction andexpansion of existing plants is now under way, anda teleconferencing system designed to link thesefacilities with corporate headquarters is about tobe installed. The company is already examininghow this technology, although originally designedto monitor construction progress, can be appliedto training.

Airline Industry

A major commercial airline has an elaboratetraining development system that consists of:

● a corporate headquarters-based program forsales, instructor, and management training;

● a corporate headquarters-based computer di-vision training activity;

● a centralized flight training center, located ata major airport away from corporate head-quarters; and

. a centralized maintenance training center, lo-cated at another major airport some distancefrom corporate headquarters.

Once the design phase is complete, sales, instruc-tor, and management training may be deliveredcentrally (corporate headquarters) or at individualairports or ticket offices. A CAI group developscourses that are then used by airline staff via ex-isting terminals to book reservations and relatedactivities. Wherever possible, CAI is used for“straight knowledge transfer. ” For example, CAIdevelopment staff have devised courses on how tobook reservations, compute fares, and carry outother tasks that are necessary in occupations suchas that of a reservations agent, a passenger serv-ice agent, a storekeeper (airline supplies), a flightattendant, and airport operations personnel. Eachtime the airline’s computer division develops anewapplication, lessons are developed centrally, andnotices of their availability are distributed to allairports, ticket offices, and other locations, wheremanagement uses them to the extent that they

——


apply to entry-level training and/or instruction ofexisting staff.

The airline would like to use the PLATO systemin its management training program, but found ittoo expensive. Uses of satellite technology andtelecommunications systems have been investi-gated, but costs have also precluded their use eventhough it is recognized that they are cost effectivein the long run. Video disk technology has not beenemployed, nor are there any plans to use it in thefuture. Video cassettes are frequently used in man-agement training to enhance traditional methodscarrying out role-playing exercises.

Computer Division Training

The Deltac self-instructional video-cassettesystem is used by the computer division to pro-vide technical training to programers, not for ini-tial instruction but for professional developmentand upgrading. No other forms of informationtechnology are currently being used.

Flight Training

Many applications of the PLATO system maybe seen at the airline’s Flight Training Center. Aprogram for Initial First Officer training has beendesigned and tested, but little or no use has beenmade of it as yet due to current economic condi-tions within the industry. The company has alsoused PLATO in pilot training, and is now movingahead with a Boeing 767 pilot training programto be developed entirely on PLATO. For the firsttime, this system will be used in lieu of flightsimulators. Simulating various types of cockpitequipment, PLATO will give 767 pilot trainees away to master these individual systems that is lessexpensive than using them in combination. Up tonow, PLATO has only been used to substitute forthe cockpit procedures trainer, a device that allowsparticipants to practice certain processes afterclassroom instruction, but before flight simulatortraining.

The airline has also been investigating the useof video disks in conjunction with PLATO forflight training of visual effects and it may incor-porate their use into the instructional package bythe end of this year. Teleconferencing is being usedto keep 767 course developers in daily contact withBoeing Aircraft engineers so that training designsmay proceed in advance of actual aircraft delivery.(The airline also used teleconferencing for Boeing747 design conferences.) While there are no plansto use satellite technology, a complete video tape

production facility has just been installed at theFlight Training Center, which the manager offlight training hopes to use to develop instruc-tional tapes for distribution to field operations atairports across the country.

M a i n t e n a n c e T r a i n i n g C e n t e r

All airline personnel engaged in maintaining air-planes and ground equipment either receive in-struction at the Maintenance Training Center orare trained by means of video tapes that are pro-duced there and then shipped to 56 maintenancestations (located at major airports). This is thethird year that the airline has utilized video tapein developing maintenance training packages, ata rate of about 40 packages per year.

The manager of Training Support Servicesstated that the bulk of maintenance training is stillcarried out in the classroom by an instructor,Overhead projectors are used, as are slide-tapepresentations that are developed by in-house cur-riculum specialists. Over the years, the airline hasdeveloped a number of computerized simulatorsfor use in training airplane maintenance person-nel, but high cost of simulators cannot be justifiedby the amount of use they get prior to delivery ofa new line of equipment. After the planes are re-ceived, there is always sufficient “ground time”available for training.

Computer graphics are being investigated, sinceengineering drawings produced in the designphase are made available by airplane manufac-turers on magnetic tape and their volume makesthe use of manuals very difficult. However, costmay turn out to be the key obstacle here. The useof video disk technology has also been explored,but the manager of Training Support Servicesfound it to be “ . . . too costly to make that firstdisk . . . ,“ since his distribution network consistsof only 56 maintenance stations. The cost of con-verting video tape to video disk is also a major pro-hibiting factor.

Information Technologyand Libraries

The library-an institution that acquires, man-ages, and disseminates information—both pro-vides educational services and serves as an educa-tional resource. Information technologies offer li-braries unique opportunities and capabilities forenhancing their current services and for extendingthem to new areas-particularly if, “The task of


the library is to consider itself an institution forallowing people to utilize information.”] Conse-quently, the advent of the information revolutioncould alter both the way libraries operate and theirrole in society.

FindingsInformation technology has changed the oper-ation and user information programs of public,special, and academic libraries.Utilizing information technologies for opera-tional programs can make libraries more produc-tive and efficient and allow them to devote moreresources to other programs-e. g., user services.Information technologies permit a library(sometimes called an information center) togreatly expand its resources. Networks, on-lineinformation services, and cable services permitthe sharing of materials and provide access toinformation in a way that was not previouslypossible.Libraries may be the only way that certainmembers of society can gain access to informa-tion technologies and to the information thatthese technologies provide.Libraries that fail to adopt these new technol-ogies for information services many risk be-coming irrelevant.

Libraries and InformationTechnologies

Use of information and communication technol-ogies has affected all aspects of library services.Software is now commercially available for practi-cally all aspects of library operations: circulation,inventory, acquisitions, periodicals, cataloging,and reserves. The use of the technologies for infor-mation user services has resulted in the formationof library networks and in the ability to access na-tional data bases, thus allowing faster and moreefficient access to information.

Programs oriented both to operation of the li-brary and to user needs are critical for fulfillinga library’s mission. For instance, an on-line acquisi-tion system can reduce the ordering and receivingtime for a new library purchase, thus providingpatrons with the desired material in a shorter time.Circulation, cataloging, and other automated li-brary systems offer similar benefits. One exampleof a commercially available system for library

IM. Turoff and M. Spector, “Libraries and the Implications of Com-puter Technology, ” proceedings of the AFIPS National Computer Con-ference, vol. 45, 1976.

operations is the Automated Library InformationSystem. This system can support many of theoperational procedures in a library and is fullyintegrated. * Its many uses range from charge anddischarge functions to cataloging and the mainte-nance of master holdings.

N e t w o r k s

Two or more libraries may form communicationnetworks utilizing information technologies toenhance the exchange of materials, information,or similar services. The formation of local, regional,and national networks has already significantly al-tered the operation of libraries.

The IRVING Network. When fully operational,the IRVING network in the Denver-Boulder,Colo., area will use communications technologiesto link the library systems of Aurora, Boulder, Lit-tleton, Denver, and Jefferson County in order toenhance their current capabilities. Each of the li-brary systems employs different automated sys-tems and in some cases different library operationsprocedures. Connecting these heterogeneous databases, this new communication link will allowshared cataloging, more efficient interlibraryloans, shared acquisition, enhanced developmentof special collections, circulation within the entiresystem, an electronic message service, a referenceinformation service, access to administrative data,and increased access to special collections (e.g.,Denver’s Western collection and Jefferson Coun-ty’s Asian collection.)

To date, no such system exists anywhere in theUnited States. This network, designed to expandbeyond the current five systems to accommodateup to 30 other libraries, could serve as the founda-tion for the larger, automated, statewide networknow under consideration.

The planning for IRVING was made possiblethrough a Library Services Construction Act(LSCA) grant, and its implementation was fundedby the Colorado Board of Education. Studies iden-tified a distributive configuration as the most ef-fective system for transmitting electronic dataamong the libraries in an interactive, on-line mode.Conventional analog service from Mountain Bellwas chosen as the transmission media. The distrib-utive option will require a smaller investment ini-tially than would other alternatives (e.g., the useof public packet switching using public networksaccessed via telephone links). Moreover, software

*A system which is fully integrated is one in which the individualprocedures operate in support of the other system procedures.


for such a system will be easier to develop andmaintain. This approach also permits the separa-tion of the operation and the control of the net-work by allowing each participating library to beresponsible for the operation of its own system.2

The CARL Network. Through the Colorado Alli-ance of Research Libraries (CARL) network, sevenresearch libraries will share an on-line public ac-cess catalog reflecting the holdings of all institu-tions. Six of the CARL members are academic li-braries; the seventh is the Denver Public Library,which, as members of both IRVING and CARL,expands the network. The holdings of these li-braries represent 47 percent of the total collectionsand over 90 percent of the unique items in theState. Once these holdings are on-line, a user willhave to search only a single public catalog ratherthan seven. Creating a single on-line catalog forthese institutions will require modifying manyoperating procedures to comply with common for-mats, common records, and a common data base.

The University of Colorado at Boulder, the Colo-rado State University, the University of NorthernColorado, the Colorado School of Mines, the Aur-aria Complex, the University of Denver, and theDenver public Library have established a nonprof-it organization to create this new research resourcewithin the State.

As in the IRVING Project, LSCA funds wereused for the initial planning efforts. Currently,moneys from the seven institutions; DataPhaseSystems, Inc.; and Tandem are being used to com-plete the project. Two-thirds of CARL is now com-plete. Testing will begin by the summer of 1982;implementation is scheduled for the following fall.Once the public-access on-line catalog is in opera-tion, member libraries intend to investigate elec-tronic delivery of materials between their institu-tions.3

The OCLC Network. On-line College LibraryCenter (OCLC) network is an example of a majorcomputer-based cooperative network that is em-ployed by all types of libraries nationally and in-ternationally. The OCLC network allows librariesto acquire and catalog materials, order custom-printed catalog cards, initiate interlibrary loans,and locate materials in member libraries (2,500)and more. Through dedicated, leased telephonelines, members access OCLC services on speciallydesigned terminals, through dial- access terminalsutilizing the TYMNET telecommunications net-

2S. Hartman, IRVING Coordinator, Boulder Public Library, Boulder,Colo., February 1982.

‘W, Shaw, Executive Director, CARL, January 1982.

work, or by direct dial. The OCLC On-line UnionCatalog contains over 7.4 million bibliographicrecords in MARC (Machine Readable CatalogingFormat). If a library identifies an item of interest,OCLC produces presorted catalog cards. Alsoavailable are accession lists of newly catalogedmaterials for microform catalogs, circulationrecords, and selected dissemination of information(SDI).*

On-line Information Services. The increasing in-ventory of literature and information is making italmost impossible for a user to keep up, let aloneto catch up. An example of the explosive rate ofinformation growth can be seen in the areas ofchemistry and chemical engineering, where therate of literature growth can be tracked by thenumber of papers abstracted in the publication,Chemical Abstracts. For the 10-year period from1961 through 1970, the rate of increase was 8.4percent; during the 5-year period from 1971through 1975 it more than doubled, to 16.9 per-cent. The recent increase has been even more dra-matic—4.6 percent annually from 1976 through1980.4 This rapid expansion of information has alsotaken place in many other fields, such as medicine,law, and computer science.

On-line services such as national bibliographicdata bases (e.g., DIALOG and BRS)–which arecomputerized retrieval systems covering a wide ar-ray of continually expanded subject areas-willmake it possible for libraries to offer their patronsrapid access to a variety of information sources atrelatively low cost. For example, PATSEARCH/Video PATSEARCH, contains information on800,000 patents heretofore available only in theU.S. Patent and Trademark Office files in Wash-ington, D. C., on microfilm, or piecemeal throughother data bases. The advantages of on-line serv-ices are listed in table A-3.

Maggie’s Place: Pikes Peak Regional LibraryDistrict. On-line community information and refer-ral programs are being explored and instituted bysome libraries as a concomitant of their access tonational information sources and the resources ofother libraries and information services. The PikesPeak Regional Library District in Colorado, for ex-ample, has developed Maggie Place, a communi-ty information resource, which consists of comput-erized local and regional information of interest toits patrons. Users can access on-line all of the ca-reer and recreational adult educational courses

*SDI is the selection and dissemination of information of specific in-terest to a library patron.

‘D. B. Baker, “Recent Trends in Chemical Literature Growth, ” C&ENews 59(22):29, June 1, 1981,

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240 w Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table A-3.—Advantages of On-Line Services

Advantages of on-line services:●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Produce results very quicklyAre cost effectiveCan be used for most types of searchersCan search fields (or data categories) for which there isno printed indexHave the capability for searching very complex andelaborate strategiesOffer the opportunity for increasing completeness ofcoverage through searching of multiple sourcesMay contain information more current than available inthe corresponding printed indexCan be easily updated on demand or at regular intervalsPermit any amount of strategy broadening, narrowing,or changingCauses less fatigue per search and reduces searcher’serrorsRequire very little space for operationSave staff timeSome kinds of data are retrievable only on a computersystemMany more types of information can be searched on-linethan in a manual systemMaterial can be ordered with a simple command andcharged to an account— a copy on demand service


available in the region through this program. Simi-larly, information is available about day-care cen-ters, clubs and other community organizations,social services, and a matching carpool data base.The files are available both in the library and toapproximately 500 members of the communityand businesses with access to terminals.

Programs developed and in use at Maggie’sPlace include those for library resources, network-ing, and community resources. The library re-source files are automated programs that relate tothe operational needs of the library such as circula-tion, reserves, and acquisitions. Networking filesgive the user access to State and national informa-tion resources, such as DIALOG, BRS, ORBIT,RLIN, GIS, COCIS, and The Source.5 The commu-nity resource files contain on-line information ofinterest to members of the Colorado Springs com-munity. Currently, they include five files: calendar,day care, clubs, courses, and carpool. All of theseare available for use in the library or in homes orbusinesses via telephone lines.6

Maggie’s Place, compared with other public li-braries, has a number of unique features. First, theamount of automation is unusual. A substantial

5DIALOG: Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc.; BRS: BibliographicRetrieval Service, Inc.; ORBIT: System Development Corp.; COCIS:Colorado Career and Occupational Information System; RLIN:Research Libraries Information Network; GIS: Time Share Corp.

‘K. Dowlin, Director, Pikes Peak Regional Library District, February1982.

investment has been made by the library districtfor this effort (almost $400,000 since 1976). Yet,despite the initial large investment, savings havebeen high-over $500,000. Second, the communityresource files are the only such files in the Nation.Beneficial to librarian and user alike, they are acentral and easily accessible source of the kind ofinformation frequently requested. They demon-strate that information technology can assist boththe operational needs of the library and the re-source needs of the patrons.

Third, by making the library’s programs accessi-ble to outside users (over 500 presently), the li-brary has expanded its capabilities for communityuse and utilized the information technology to itsbest advantage. And last, through the use of thetechnology, Maggie’s Place offers all users accessto information resources.

Microcomputers in the Library. Many librariesare considering installing a microcomputer on acoin-operated basis. Recently, several firms havebegun to actively market such services to publiclibraries across the country. For example, in a con-tractual arrangement with Copy Systems, Inc.,and CompuVend, a TRS-80 was installed in theTredyffrin Public Library near Philadelphia. Thecomputer is available for patron use at a cost of$0.50 per 15 minutes. The company is responsiblefor the operation and the maintenance of the equip-ment and has provided 24 Radio Shack programtapes, manuals, and workbooks on BASIC lan-guage and programing.

Library patrons may use the terminal for home-work, statistical manipulation, learning how toprogram, playing games, and work. Children andteenagers appear to be the predominant users (65percent), although this is expected to change in thenear future. Average use of the microcomputer hasbeen 2 to 4 hours per day, 7 days a week. Basedon such community response, a computer with alarger capacity will be installed shortly. The newsystem will provide access to The Source and willattempt to satisfy the computing capacity requirements of the local business community. New pro-gram tapes such as Visicalc will be supplied.

With this arrangement the library uses the tech-nology as an informational and educational re-source. In addition, the library makes it possiblefor all those who do not have access to this tech-nology in their homes or in their businesses to be-come familiar with computers and to have accessto the valuable information resources they pro-vide. The library also benefits in a number of ways:limited staff time is involved; the library is notresponsible for operation and maintenance of the

—


equipment; no financial burden is placed on thelibrary (e.g., purchase of the equipment); the equip-ment will be updated to reflect changes in the tech-nology and to reflect market needs in the commu-nity; step-by-step instructions allow the user touse the microcomputer with little, if any, assist-ance from a professional; and, thus, no extra stafftraining is necessary.

Other examples of microcomputer use includethe following:

● The Clinton-Essex-Franklin Library Systemin upstate New York has installed a micro-computer for use by patrons. The decision wasprompted by concern on the part of the librar-ian that patrons, particularly children, wereneither familiar with computers nor had ac-cess to the technology. Although the micro-computer was installed in the Children’sRoom, it is available to adults as well. Volun-teers have been teaching computer program-ing, and librarians believe that, based on itsusage, the overall program is an overwhelm-ing success.

● A cooperative effort has been initiated be-tween the San Bernardino City School Dis-trict, Calif., and the public library to assiststudents in preparing for proficiency tests.Microcomputers in three of the city’s librarybranches provide CAI in mathematics and inthe language arts. A queuing system allowshigh school students to be first-priority usersthrough June 30, 1982. Other library patronshave access to the terminals that are not be-ing used by students.

● The public library in Providence, R. I., has in-stalled INFORM, a system whose uses rangefrom bibliographic instruction to the use ofaudiovisual equipment. INFORM is regardedas an on-line library guide or handbook thatalso includes updated information on commu-nity events and agencies. Its touch-sensitiveterminals are available with graphic and tex-tual capabilities.

● Groups of school librarians in the St. Louis,Me., area have developed a series of self-instructional programs for the Apple 11 thatare user guides for periodical indexes andalmanacs, Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations,Current Biography, and poetry indexes. Theprograms are aimed at the secondary schoolto adult levels.

● The St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Li-brary in Missouri has instituted a wide rangeof programs on an Apple 11 Plus computer.

Current programs include, among others: rec-ordkeeping and reporting for nurses, continu-ing education classes, an “intelligent’ termi-nal for on-line searching, nutritional assess-ment of intensive-care newborns, audiovisualinventory listing, and the logging and analy-sis of on-line searching records.

The provision of such services raises new ques-tions for participating libraries. Where should theterminals be located. Should provisions be madefor privacy? What type, if any, of collection devel-opment should the library engage in? Should thelibrary sell disks for patron use’! Should there bea scheduling or reservation system or should pa-trons use the computer on a first-come first-servedbasis?

Cable Services and Video Facilities. With the ex-pansion of cable franchises nationwide, an increas-ing number of libraries are exploring the potentialof cable for delivering library services. Many li-braries have employed video capabilities for years,but the addition of cable services in a communityhas expanded the library’s resource base. Themost extensive users of cable and video are juniorand community colleges and public libraries. Theformer rely on cable services as a means of deliv-ery, production, and housing of course materials;and the latter, for expanding the library’s role asa community information resource center.

Generally, junior and community colleges, be-cause they are relative newcomers to the academicscene, are most actively involved in video pro-graming and cable services. Many colleges con-structed during the 1960’s and early 1970’s incor-porated video capabilities in their library facilityor plan. Older research institutions and libraries,on the other hand, generally cannot afford to in-vest in video facilities nor to adopt their currentstructures to include such facilities.

The Division of Learning Resources at theGreenfield Community College in Massachusettsis an example of a community college library thathas integrated video capabilities with local cableservices. The library houses both commerciallyavailable video tapes and faculty/student-pro-duced products. Students in conjunction with theLearning Resources Center and the local cablefranchise produce weekly cablecasts for the com-munity.

The Monroe County Public Library in Blooming-ton, Ind., is an example of a local public libraryactively involved in all aspects of cable and videoservices. The library has cablecast 3,000 to 4,000programs a year (or 60 to 64 hours of programing


per week) to the community on Community AccessChannel Three. Half of the local subscribers(90,000) watch programs on Channel Three. Also38 percent of the subscribers noted that local pro-graming was a primary reason for initiating cableservices.

A wide range of programs are offered and pro-duced by the library. Some programs, such as“Kids Alive,” are produced by children with assist-ance from the library staff. Local teachers, trainedby library staff, allow the equipment to be usedfor many school activities. City council meetingsare regularly cablecast; and special-issue pro-grams, about housing and the elderly, for exam-ple, are presented.

Because of its active involvement in cablecast-ing, the library and Channel Three have beenasked to participate in the refranchisement proc-ess. Library involvement in this process is com-mon and occurs frequently. In fact, in franchiseproposals library needs and desires are solicitedby the bidders. Some of the programs developedat Maggie’s Place will be used at other librariesas a result of cable awards.

Implications of Library Technology. Approxi-mately 10 percent of the libraries of the UnitedStates have some form of automated capabilities,and an increasing number of libraries are explor-ing the possibilities of these technologies. On-lineinformation retrieval services and provision of in-formation technologies enhance the traditionalservices provided by libraries but also raise impor-tant questions of cost. For example, can a libraryafford to run searches for patrons on DIALOGfree of charge? Can it afford to use these nationalbibliographic data bases, which require trainedsearchers, and entail cost ranging from $10 to $150per hour? Such costs place an added financial bur-den on public as well as on academic and speciallibraries. For some libraries faced with reducedfunding from State, Federal, and local sources, theprice of the technology may be particularly bur-densome. However, by not providing these serv-ices, libraries may prevent people from finding andutilizing the information, a situation contrary tothe traditional role of libraries in society. (Further-more, it has been suggested that when librariesprovide these services and develop community re-source files they become competitive with privateinformation vendors. )

Such concerns are particularly relevant to a re-consideration of the role of public libraries in aninformation society. At present, libraries provideaccess to information and knowledge to all users

free of charge, but it is questionable whether theywill be able to continue to do so. One role proposedfor libraries incorporates and reflects societalchange. This role would entail:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

providing access to complicated or seldomused data bases;providing community conferencing and mes-sage center programs;providing on-line access to information or li-brary resources;providing access to community data and com-munity information locations for referrals;providing access to resources in other librariesvia networking;providing access to high-demand informationand materials via computer or video disks;andproviding access to electronic resources forthose who cannot afford home computers orterminals.7

M u s e u m s

Findings● More and more museums are incorporating in-

formation technology, particularly computers,into both their exhibits and their educationalprograms. The technology is used for operation-al purposes and to provide computer literacyand related courses.

. The introduction of the technology to museumsis altering the role of these institutions. Thischange is especially evident in the recent estab-lishment and success of childrens’ museumsacross the country.Museums, like libraries, provide important edu-

cational services. Since the establishment of thefirst public museum in 1743, museums have ex-erted a strong influence on U.S. culture. They func-tion as repositories for conserving the world’s cul-ture and for relaying it to present and future gen-erations.

Beyond the overall educational nature of theirexhibits, most museums conduct and provide addi-tional educational services. Recently, more andmore have incorporated information technology,particularly computers, into both their exhibitsand their educational programs. They are usedgenerally for operational purposes and to providecomputer literacy and related courses. The delayin acquiring information technology until only re-

71bid.


cently, has been primarily due to the fiscal con-straints common to most museums, which operateon a limited budget and depend on donations thatcan fluctuate from year to year.1

The Use of Computers

Computers are generally used for four purposes:for interactive exhibit devices, for exhibit control,for administration, and for education programs.All have educational applications.

Interactive Exhibit Devices. Museums use com-puters and related technologies to increase the at-tention span and alter the traditional experienceof the typical patron. It is possible, for example,to increase a viewer’s attention span from 10 sec-onds to 3 to 10 minutes, a significant improvementthat has enormous implications for how a museumcan present information. Examples of exhibitsrange from instruction on how to use a computerto using a computer to calculate quickly the nutri-tional value of a meal. Simulation programs arewidely utilized, although these are also the mostdifficult to create.

Incorporating computers into an exhibit pre-sents some special problems not generally encoun-tered with other media. The exhibits must be ap-pealing in order to attract users, but the programsmust be relatively simple, since most users are un-familiar with the technology. Furthermore, suchprograms must be able to contend with repeatedmistakes, constant use, and even abandonment bythe patron. ’ Thus, developing programs suitablefor a museum environment involves considerableskill.

Exhibit Control. The control of exhibits by com-puters has a number of advantages: 1) cost andmaintenance are reduced because of fewer compo-nents; 2) additional features can be added at mini-mum cost; 3) control devices can be standardizedfrom exhibit to exhibit; 4) the potential exists tocustomize a patron’s experience; and 5) computerspermit greater flexibility in altering an exhibit atrelatively low cost.3

Administrative Uses. Computers are largelyused for such standard purposes as word process-ing, accounting, updating mailing lists, record-keeping, collection management, and inventory.

i R. King, Director of Exhibits, Boston Museum of Science, February1982.

‘D. Taylor and D. Rhees (eds. ), Survey of Computer Use in Science-TechnoJogy Museums (Washington, D. C.: Association of Science-Tech-nology Centers, 1981).

‘Ibid.

Education Uses. During the past 10 years sever-al museums have introduced computer literacyprograms and computer labs. Offering thesecourses is a natural extension of previous andongoing educational activities within museums.And, as with libraries, the availability of such pro-grams makes it possible for users to become ac-quainted with this technology in a nonthreaten-ing environment in which there is no pressure tosucceed or fail.4

The Hands-On Approach

The Lawrence Hall of Science. In general, muse-ums that provide programs in computer literacyhave adopted a hands-on philosophy. This princi-ple was first initiated at the Lawrence Hall of Sci-ence in Berkeley, Calif., in 1972, when an exhibitentitled “Creative Play With Computers” was in-troduced. The exhibit used the university’s time-sharing system and teletypes. Since then, this pro-gram has been expanded to include a computer lab-oratory, and computer technology is used exten-sively throughout the exhibits. The computer lab-oratory has 30 microcomputers that can be usedfor computer literacy programs or individual pro-graming by anyone 8 years or older. The Hall ofScience also operates the Science Shuttle, whichtransports microcomputers to local schools forcomputer literacy and related classes. The ScienceShuttle has greatly increased the access to com-puter technology by local school-age children.

The Capitol Children’s Museum. Newly estab-lished in Washington, D. C., the Capitol Children’sMuseum is a learning center with a strong empha-sis on communication. The most recent additionto the facility, the communications wing, tracesthe growth and development of communicationthroughout human history. Like the LawrenceHall of Science the museum uses the hands-on ap-proach in all of its exhibits. Similarly, the muse-um has a computer classroom, the Future Center,with 20 microcomputers.

A visitor to the museum’s communications wingis introduced to communication through a soundand light show held in a model of a 30,000-year-oldcave. The cave depicts the earliest type of commu-nication: drawings of man’s experience with hunt-ing and tools. Further developments in the formsand means of communication are shown througha wide range of exhibits: torches used by theGreeks to relay messages, drums used by African

4P. Hirschberg, Coordinator, Communication, Capital Children’s Mu-seum, April 1982.


tribes to relay messages via different sound pat-terns, and a variety of written forms—alphabetsand hieroglyphics. In addition, other ways to com-municate such as Braille, Morse code, pig latin,and sign language are shown. Many of the morerecent types are demonstrated by means of videotape players or microcomputers.

The wing also contains telecommunication de-vices. For instance, there is a fully equipped radiostudio available for use where children can produceand tape messages for their own use. There arefuture plans for a comparably equipped televisionstudio. Also, there is a scale model of a satellitedish inside the museum that replicates the muse-um’s communication satellite dish which can re-ceive up to 40 cable channels.5

The Future Center is a classroom equipped with20 Atari 800 microcomputers complete with print-ers, disk drives, and color monitors. Its purpose

‘Ibid.

is to introduce new users to microcomputers andto allow previous users access to the technology.The center thus makes available to everyone boththe technology and the skills and information itprovides. The courses offered range from thosedesigned to assist teachers who are unfamiliarwith the technology to become computer-literateto those to introduce children to the technology.Schools that do not have microcomputers canschedule class visits on a regular basis.

The courseware are combinations of programsdeveloped by the museum staff and software do-nated by Atari. For example, PAINT, a softwareand book package, allows the user to create paint-ings on the Atari, while using a variety of learn-ing skills as well as learning about and exploringthe microcomputer. For more experienced usersthere are courses in programing BASIC. Becauseobtaining quality software is a major problem, thestaff of the museum is actively engaged in design-

In the Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington, D. C., a visiting primary school teacher works with her students asthey become computer-literate. Schools from throughout the Washington area utilize this facility to introduce theirstudents to the world of computers. Many schools enroll their students in a special series of classes designed to

enhance their primary and secondary education


ing and developing software for the Future Cen-ter’s constantly growing and enthusiastic clientele.

As a nonprofit institution, the Capitol Children’sMuseum relies on corporate donations and grantsto continue its operations and to develop new ex-hibits and educational services. The majority ofthe museum’s equipment has been donated by pri-vate companies; e.g., the satellite dish by Scien-tific Atlanta, the microcomputers from Atari, anda PDP 11/70 and supporting hardware (printer,video terminal, and disk pack) from the DigitalEquipment Corp. (DEC), to name just a few.

The recent gift of a minicomputer by DEC repre-sents a significant contribution to current museumservices, but more importantly to future potential.Once operational, the PDP 11/70 will be able to in-terconnect all of the museum’s exhibits, therebyincreasing the control over their use. It will alsoprovide an internal tracking and information sys-tem of exhibit users—how many visitors utilizewhat exhibit for how long, and so forth.

In the long term, the computer will be the basisfor Kid Net, a time-sharing system that will beboth an internal and external network. Internally,the system will facilitate such activities as elec-tronic mail, games, and demonstrations. External-ly, the network will be connected with other Wash-ington-based institutions such as local schools andCongress and will possibly tie in with otherchildren’s museums such as the one in Boston.Other long-term possibilities include a nationalelectronic newsletter. G

The Use of Video Disks

Several museums are experimenting with videodisks for storing and preserving collections. Be-cause they are both very new and very costly, fewmuseums, have employed this technology. How-ever, the video disk’s features make it uniquelysuited for collection management: large amountsof material can be sorted; materials don’tdeteriorate; researchers are not dependent onoriginal materials; and the content of a museum’scollection of photos, slides, or art can be sent forviewing to other institutions around the world.

The Smithsonian Museum of American Historyis placing some of its collection of (30,000 to38,000) slides and photographs on a video disk.This measure will ensure the life of this combina-tion of materials since most of it is fragile and sub-ject to damage from repeated use.’ In a similar

‘Ibid.‘J. Wallace, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian,

May 1982.

project, the National Air and Space Museum isplacing some of its photograph collection on videodisks and interfacing the disks with the museum’scomputer. The museum also has an interactivevideo disk which allows patrons to design anaircraft. s

The National Park Service (NPS) of the Depart-ment of the Interior also uses video disk technol-ogy. NPS originally used video tape players atmany of its visitor centers. However, the initialhigh cost of purchasing the equipment, plus thehigh rate of failure, maintenance costs, and tapebreakage, led to initiating trials of video disk tech-nology. Several video tape players have since beenreplaced by video disks. NPS is also consideringvideo disks for use in collection management forreasons similar to those of the Smithsonian Ameri-can History Museum. If collection management ofselected projects at NPS is implemented, the diskwould provide access to a variety of educationalmaterials.

Military Uses of InformationTechnology

FindingsAll branches of the military have made substan-tial investments in research and development(R&D) on applications of information technol-ogy to education.The Department of Defense will likely be theonly Federal agency likely to make major in-vestments in R&D projects with educational ap-plications.Educational uses of information technologyhave focused on two areas: training and basicskills.The need for a very large investment in basicskills training by the military, $56 million in1979, is an indication to some that the publicschools are not providing an adequate educa-tion.Many of the projects initiated by the armedservices could be transferable to the civilian sec-tor, although there may be barriers to transfer.Considering the large investment made by thearmed forces in information technology R&D,it would be useful to establish a mechanismwhereby potentially transferable projects couldbe identified and barriers to transfer removed.

‘H. Otano, Chief, Audio-Visual Systems, National Air and SpaceMuseum, Smithsonian Institution, May 26, 1982.


Fort Gordon Signal Corps Training Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.—in former days, Ft. Gordon students would get 12 minutesof “hands on” instruction at this $7 million satellite down-station. The rest of the classroom time was spent in costly

waiting. But with the new information technologies, instructional time has increased fivefold

The military has been a leader in the develop-ment and use of instructional delivery systemshaving used high technology for many years. Itsgreat need for technical skill training, togetherwith the critical nature of its national security mis-sion and its nonprofit orientation, has led to atraining technology revolution and a good marketfor state-of-the-art technology in military educa-tion and training.

Interested in new methods of training that im-prove efficiency, reduce training costs, and in-crease the effectiveness of training, the militaryhas turned to information technology for solutionsto some of its educational and training problems.The armed services need people in operational as-signments. By advancing and applying state-of-the-art technology in training, they hope to turnout quality individuals sooner for operational jobassignments.

In addition to supporting improved general andspecific military skill training, the armed servicesalso support basic skills training. Military jobs de-mand basic skills equal to or greater than thoseof civilian jobs.1 Many current recruits lack com-petency in basic skills, a situation that has impor-tant implications for the operation of sophisticatedtechnology and that has led to plans to increase,improve, and automate technology training pro-grams. Anticipated manpower shortages undoubt-edly will necessitate the enlistment and subse-quent training of individuals of less aptitude, thusplacing even greater emphasis on programs for in-struction in basic skills.

‘G. Sticht, Basic Skills in Bfense (Alexandria, Va.: Human ResourcesResearch Organization, Final Draft Report, November 1981).

As the largest education and training institutionin the Nation, the military constitutes a large andviable market for training equipment, programs,and services. In fiscal year 1982, for example, ap-proximately $10.5 billion will be spent on individ-ual training. The training of individual officers andenlistees is differentiated from the training of oper-ational combat units, and individual training canbe broken down into a number of categories. In-doctrination and basic training for approximate-ly 338,000 students will cost $822 million, whileapproximately 709,000 students will receive spe-cialized skill training for military jobs at a cost of$2.4 billion.’ (See table A-4.) In fiscal year 1982,approximately 236,500 student man-years will bespent at training schools.

The Department of Defense (DOD) now spendsabout $267 million for R&D on training and per-sonnel systems technology, with $181 million or68 percent of this for R&Don simulation and train-ing devices and education and training. 3 (See tableA-5.) The three service laboratories primarily re-sponsible for military education and training re-search are: The Army Research Institute for theBehavioral and Social Sciences (ARI); the NavyPersonnel Research and Development Center(NPRDC); and the Air Force Human ResourcesLaboratory (AFHRL). The number of instructionaltechnology R&D work units by major categoriesin operation as of April 1981 is estimated in tableA-6. While all of the categories listed receive ongo-

‘J. Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products inTraining, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning Tech-nology, Warrenton, Va., February 1981.

‘Ibid.

-.————


Table A-4.—Number of Students and Cost of Various Typesof Individual Training, Fiscal Year 1982

ApproximateNumber of students Cost in in thousands

Type of training in thousands miIIions per study

Recruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 $822 $2.4KOne-station unit training (Army) . . . . . . . . . . . 104 322 3.1Officer acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 313 19.4Specialized skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 2,382 3.4Flight training (basic flying skills) . . . . . . . . . 6 1,458 229.7Professional development education

(e.g., military science, engineering,management) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 330 10.2

Medical training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 276 —Support, management, travel, pay . . . . . . . . . — 4,618 —

$10,521 MSOURCE M!lltary Manpower Train!ng Report for Fiscal Year 1982

Table A-5.—Cost of R&D in Training andPersonnel Systems Technology,

in Thousands of Dollars, Fiscal Year 1982

A r m y N a v y A i r F o r c e T o t a l

Human factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17.6 $ 14.1 $14,4 $ 46,1S i m u l a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g d e v i c e s . 2 4 . 2 1 0 7 . 1 17,5 148,9Education and training . . . . . . . . . 13.4 11.8 6.6 31.8Manpower and personnel . . . . . . 9.0 19.0 12.0 40,0

Totals ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $64.2 $152.0 $50.6 $266.8

SOURCE” J Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products in Train-ing, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning TechnologyWarrenton, Va , February 1981

Table A-6.—Number of Ongoing InstructionalTechnology R&D Work Units By Service and

Department of Defense Total, April 1981

Service

T e c h n o l o g y Army Navy A i r Force Tota l

Simulation/games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 49 68 143Instructional system development . . . 51 59 25 135Training management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 14 10 50Learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 18 11 42Computer-based education . . . . . . . 13 16 9 38Basic skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 — 6Voice technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 3 — 3Video disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 2 — 2Artificial intelligence. . . . . . . . — 1 1 2NOTE’ Inclusion of work units into the categories in the table are fairly arbitrary

and are based on work unit titles The absolute numbers of work unitsIisted are approximations of service R&D efforts as of the date of direc-tory publication It should be noted that this enumeration does not con-sider size of the work units, only number of work units cited

SOURCE: Directory of Researchers for Human Research and Development Proj-ects (Washington, D C Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Re-search and Engineering), pp. 7-43.

ing support, high-technology simulation and thedevelopment of instructional systems and capabil-ities for more efficient and effective training ap-pear to receive the most emphasis.

Interservice coordination shows potential forminimizing duplication of research efforts andfunds. The Office of the Under Secretary of De-fense for Research and Engineering is currentlybuilding a management information system thatwill document all of DOD’s training research to in-clude funding levels. This system, Manpower andTraining Research Information System (MATRIS),will be fed into the Defense Technical InformationCenter (DTIC).

Comparison of Military andCivilian Education

In considering educational needs, distinctionscan be made between the civilian and military edu-cation sectors, differences which influence the na-ture of education programs introduced. Some ofthe similarities and differences between militaryand civilian education and training are:

● The military educates and trains personnelwithin a more restricted age, sex, and rangeof ability; typically, military enlisted traineesare 18- to 21-year-old males with a high schooleducation.

. Military personnel are paid their salaries whilein training. Thus, instructional proceduresthat reduce training time and increase opera-


tional assignment time can assist in reducingtraining costs.Within the civilian sector, vocational educa-tion, job training for business or industry, andnonmilitary Government training are general-ly more similar to the military’s educationalgoals and priorities than is education in ele-mentary and secondary school systems.Measures of effectiveness may vary betweenthe military and civilian institutions. Militaryresearch on computer-based instruction, forexample, has emphasized saving studenttraining time while maintaining constantachievement. Nonmilitary research generallyemphasizes increasing the amount of achieve-ment while keeping the length of courses con-stant.

Computer-ManagedInstruction

In computer-managed instruction (CM I), learn-ing takes place away from the computer. The com-puter scores tests, interprets results, advises thestudent what to do next, and manages student rec-ords and administrative information.

Advanced Instructional System. The AirForce’s Advanced Instructional System (AIS) isan example of a military CMI system. It is a large-scale, prototypical computer-based education sys-tem installed at the Air Force Technical TrainingCenter, Lowry AFB, Denver, Colo. The presentversion consists of 50 student terminals, 11 man-agement terminals, and a CDC CYBER 73-16 com-puter that can support up to 3,000 students a dayin four courses: inventory management, materialfacilities, precision measuring equipment, andweapons mechanics. These courses were selectedto represent a cross-section of the technical train-ing courses at Lowry, and they serve about 25 per-cent of the base’s student body. Management ter-minals provide computer-assisted instruction(CAI) services for use by instructors (for develop-ing or revising lessons and for retrieving data col-lected by the system). The system could be ex-panded to provided CAI services to students.

The AIS was designed with two objectives inmind: 1) to develop and implement an individual-ized, computer-based training system in an opera-tional military training environment; and 2) to pro-vide a testbed for computer-based educationalR&D. It includes over 700 student carrels and 500media devices that permit the instructional deliv-ery device (sound-slide, filmstrip, programed text,

etc.) to be adapted to the individual student. Forexample, a slow reader might learn more efficientlyvia audiovisual presentation rather than viaprinted text. With instructional content duplicatedacross delivery media, the computer assigns mate-rial and devices according to student aptitudesand preferences, as well as by resource availabil-ity. The actual allocation of media in the AIS is55 percent printed materials, 35 percent audiovisu-al presentation, and 10 percent CAI.

The AIS computer provides three main supportfunctions: 1) administration and management (re-source allocation, materials development, record-keeping, and report/roster generation); 2) instruc-tion (student predictions, individual and team les-son assignment, test scoring, and delivery of in-struction); and 3) data analysis/research (automat-ic data accumulation, sampling capability for sta-tistical analysis, and standard statistical analysisprograms). The computer thus takes over the ma-jority of the managerial functions of the instruc-tors, permitting them to concentrate on individualstudent instruction.

Many measures were used to evaluate the A IS,including costs, student and instructor attitudes,attrition rates, and the ratings of AIS students intheir post-school jobs. In most cases, comparisonswere made between AIS students and pre-AIS stu-dents in the same courses. Cost savings estimateswere made by the Air Training Command man-power accounting personnel.

AIS results have been documented in severaltechnical reports issued by the Air Force HumanResources Laboratory. In general, AIS students’achievement have been equal to or greater thannon-AIS students-with net time savings of 15 to40 percent, depending on the course evaluated.Maximum savings have been achieved in the low-er-level, routine courses. Overall cost analysisshows that the system was totally amortized byJanuary 1979, in a period of only 2½ years. Thiscomplete recovery of costs through savings in stu-dent instructional time is particularly noteworthyconsidering the extensive R&D costs included forresearch purposes. The AIS suggests that large-scale implementations of CMI would be cost effec-tive.

Student attitudes were clearly very positive. Thestudents felt that they had more opportunity totalk individually with their instructors than in con-ventional courses (61 percent), that the self-pacedinstruction was a good use of their time (77 per-cent), that they preferred AIS instructions to lec-tures (55 percent), and that the instructors wereavailable whenever they needed them (73 percent).


Instructor attitudes, on the other hand, tendedto be negative in general. They felt threatened andmissed the ego-bolstering lecture method. Courseattrition rates overall tended to rise slightlythrough the first 5 years of A IS implementationfrom a pre-AIS baseline of about 4 percent in 1974to slightly over 5 percent through 1978. Attritionrates, it should be noted, are very sensitive to pol-icy changes. The supervisors of A IS graduates re-ported satisfaction with their performance. Theratings of AID graduates were significantly higherthan comparable ratings of pre-AIS students. Asample of 199 supervisors rated the performanceof their AIS graduates as follows:

Excellent. ... ., ., . . . . . . . . 25 percentVery Satisfactory . . . . . . . 34 percentSatisfactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 percentMarginal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 percentUnsatisfactory . . . . . . . . . . . 0 percentOverall, the AIS appears to be a successful,

large-scale implementation of CMI. McDonnellDouglas Corp. is currently modifying the systemto be transportable, to operate on smaller comput-ers, and to be marketable to the Canadian armedservices and to U.S. civilians.

Job-Oriented Basic SkillsTraining

Schools traditionally have 12 years to equip stu-dents with the level of skills necessary for themto function as adults in jobs or in further educa-tion. For the most part, schools are successful intheir approach to imparting necessary basic skillsfor adult life. Fewer than 10 percent of those whohave completed 12 or more years of schooling areseverely deficient in their application of skills topractical tasks, as estimated by a 1975 adult per-formance level study.4

However, a substantial number of people eitherdo not complete 12 years of school, or do so with-out gaining the requisite mastery of necessary ba-sic skills for adult life or career performance. Theservices have had to cope with the critical prob-lems presented when large influxes of poor read-ers entered the armed services, for instance, dur-ing Project 100,000. The traditional approach toremediate the problems of adults with insufficientbasic skills for career success has been a continua-tion of the school general-literacy program.

However, traditional literacy training by the mil-itary has not been demonstrably successful. The

‘Adult Performance Level Project Staff, Adult Functional Competen-cy: A Summary (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas, 1975).

most direct way to ensure that an individual cancope with specific military skill applications (tocope with a military career or environment) is toteach these applications or ones as similar to themas possible. For these reasons, the military hassponsored R&D leading to a technology for job-oriented basic skills or remedial literacy training.

A considerable investment in basic skills pro-grams has also been made. As indicated in a De-partment of Defense (DOD) study, during fiscalyear 1979 approximately $56 million and an enroll-ment of 160,000 were allotted to basic-skills edu-cation.5 The military has a high demand for listen-ing, reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Read-ing levels of material, for example, average in the10-13 grade level range. This far exceeds the read-ing skill levels of many military enlistees as wellas much of the civilian youth population.

Thus, there are a variety of basic skills programsin DOD and the four services. Pre-enlistment pro-grams, such as referral to civilian adult basic edu-cation and English as a second language (ESOL)programs, are sponsored by DOD for applicantswho do not meet service enlistment requirements.All of the services have some form of basic-skillseducation available from the time the new recruitenters the service. One such program is the AirForce PLATO SIP (Skills Improvement Program),which uses CAI to improve the reading skills ofmedical personnel and the math skills of main-tenance technicians.

Project FLIT. Project FLIT, a job-oriented, orfunctional literacy program, is being developedunder Army support. Work on this program wasstarted in 1967 and is ongoing. Military job liter-acy tasks are really quite different from readingskills applications practiced in traditional schools.For example, schools emphasize “reading to learn”while military job tasks involve “reading to do”(e.g., finding specific information or following di-rections). While schools test memory for what isread with closed book tests, military job tasks aregenerally performed in the presence of the writtenmaterial, which is consulted frequently.

Researchers attempted to estimate the actual lit-eracy demands of military jobs. One product ofthis research was the FORECAST readability for-mula, which was developed using Army job read-ing material and an adult Army recruit population.Another product was a “Guidebook for the Devel-

‘Defense Audit Service, Report on the Review of Instailation-Spon-sored Education Programs for DOD Personnel (Report No. 81-041, Jan-Uary 1981).


opment of Army Training Literature."6 Thismanual attempted to help Army writers createperformance-oriented training materials written atan appropriate level for Army readers and orientedto identified job reading tasks.

Project FLIT provides training in identifiedArmy reading tasks using actual Army materials.It was extensively field tested and was found toresult in gains in the performance of the job taskstrained. The ideas and techniques of the FLIT pro-gram were incorporated in a job-oriented readingprogram (JORP) for the Air Force, targeted at adifferent population and using different materials,a program also field tested with some success. Ex-pansion of this program to include all “problem”job fields in the Air Force is being considered. TheNavy JOBS program, a remedial program de-signed to prepare motivated, but otherwise ineligi-ble, people for technical training is also a productof this technology. An additional product is aprototype job reader’s task test developed for theArmy and now being modified and reformed.

PREST Program. In the future, the servicesmay be forced to enlist a greater number of mar-ginally qualified recruits because of manpowershortages. In response to this, the Navy is expand-ing its Academic Remedial Training (ART). TheChief of Naval Education and Training contractedfor the development and testing of a computer-based approach known as the Performance-Related Enabling Skills Training (PREST) pro-gram. PREST involves on-line reading and studyskills instruction via the PLATO system, aug-mented by Navy-related off-line drill and practice.An automated system such as this was thoughtto be an attractive alternative to increasing thenumber of instructors.

A 1980 cost analysis showed the automated pro-gram to be less cost effective than increasing thenumber of military instructors. The usage chargefor PLATO with its centralized mainframe wasfound to be the chief reason. This difference in costshould, however, steadily decline in future years.Advances in computer technology will make stand-alone systems more attractive economically thanthe centralized mainframe for this type of fixed in-struction. In addition to project PREST, NavyR&D efforts are under way to examine the feasi-bility of teaching phonics by a computer-drivenvoice synthesizer. If this is successful, there are

‘R. P. Kern, T. G. Stichti D. Weltz, and R. N. Hanke, Guidebook forthe Development of Army Training Literature (Arlington, Va.: U.S.Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, No-vember 1976).

plans to computerize vocabulary development,reading comprehension, and study skills.7

Simulation Programs

Flight training simulations are extremely variedin scope, purpose, and fidelity of realism. Theysave expense and training time because the simu-lator can be repositioned to some starting pointin flight without taking the actual time and fuelto fly there. Moreover, simulators provide the op-portunity to interrupt the flight at any point togive the student immediate feedback on particularaspects of pilot performance. Finally, the simula-tor can be used for training in emergency maneu-vers that are inherently dangerous to actuallyattempt.

In 1970, the U.S. Air Force Human ResourcesLaboratory’s Advanced Systems Division con-tracted with the Singer Co. to build the mostsophisticated flight simulator yet devised, the Ad-vanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT). Un-like other simulators, it was intended for researchas well as for flight training, giving it a multipur-pose potential for transference of research resultsto the civilian sector.

The Army Research Institute for the Behavioraland Social Sciences (ARI) is engaged in the devel-opment of computer-assisted simulation of tacticalcommunications as part of an overall effort in thearea of simulation-based training systems. This ef-fort will provide the Army with the capability tosimulate battlefield communications between lead-ers in the field and support personnel, such as artil-lery fire direction controllers, and the superior andsubordinate commanders. Battlefield communica-tions are typically very structured and stereo-typed. For instance, the exchanges between an ar-tillery forward observer in the field and the firedirection controller are specified in Army regula-tions.

Training simulations are used to replicate manymilitary situations—from tank driving to elabo-rate ship docking. The Army tank driver simula-tors are fully automatic and include audiovisualas well as motion cues. Such devices simulate mal-functions such as brake failure or engine shut-down. Many of these procedures and malfunctionsappear more than once throughout the programs,and thus allow for repeated practice. The devicealso simulates such activities as driving up hillsand over obstacles.

‘R. A. Wisher, &mputer-Assikted Literacy hwtruction in Phonics(NPRDC TR 80-21) San Diego, Calif.: Navy Personnel Research, May1981.


In maintenance simulation, the Navy throughthe NPRDC is developing an Electronic Equip-ment Maintenance System that will simulate elec-tronic receiver and radar systems, using a micro-processor. This system shows promise in facilitat-ing the management of troubleshooting problemsthrough electronic equipment. NPRDC has alsodeveloped a program that teaches how to solvedynamic problems involving the variational anal-ysis of current flow in complex electronic circuits.

The interchangeability of technology transfer isdemonstrated through the Army’s adaptation ofa commercial coin-operated game by Atari called“Battlezone” to train tank operators. “Battle-zone” is a three-dimensional war game in which theoperator moves around the battlefield at will andshoots at targets as they appear. Because thegame is very realistic, trainees’ reflexes and oper-ating skills are improved with practice. Atari hasredesigned the keyboard to mimic an actual con-trol panel and realistically simulate the actions ofa tank.

Video Disks in Military Training

The military services, particularly the Army,have been very active in video disk research. Mostof this work has been initiated or coordinated bythe Army Communicative Technology Office(ACTO) at Fort Eustis, Va. ACTO’s mission is toget the Army “off paper” and into electronic me-dia for storage and communication. Both theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) and ARI have also supported a numberof video disk research projects for training pur-poses.

One of the first ACTO projects was a “Call forFire” disk that demonstrated the potential of vid-eo disk for packaging multimedia self-study train-ing materials. This disk involved a specially de-signed computer-controlled video disk system. Anumber of different existing training materials(field manuals, training extension course lessons,video tapes, films, and skill qualification tests)used to train forward observer skills were inte-grated on a single video disk, a good illustrationof the economy of video disk storage. Cost studiesconducted for ACTO around this integrated train-ing package indicated that it would result in sav-ings over the existing materials on the basis of re-ductions in duplication and distribution costsalone.

A second innovative use is the SIDE (Soldier In-formation Delivery Equipment) project, which in-volves the use of video disk for tank turret main-

tenance training. This project utilizes a computer-controlled video disk system called TMIS (Train-ing Management Information System). Video diskis used to store the contents of a large volume (thatis, thousands of pages) of maintenance manualsand skill performance aids. By means of a 5-inchcathode ray display tube connected by cable to theTMIS computer/video disk station, soldiers areable to use the system while actually doing main-tenance inside a tank. With their electronic mainte-nance manuals, the trainees have more informa-tion at their fingertips than would normally bepossible in the confined space of a tank turret.

A third innovative project is the use of videodisk for a satellite communications ground stationrepair course (MOS 26Y10) at the U.S. Army Sig-nal Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.8 The satellite commu-nications equipment needed for the course costsabout $12 million, and each repair involves $200to $2,000 worth of parts. There is a great need tominimize equipment usage by unskilled studentswherever possible. The video disk provides low-cost hands-on equipment and repair practice with-out using the actual equipment or parts. A light-pen is used by students to identify switches, selectswitch positions, plug in jacks, or indicate faultyparts to be replaced. In addition to reducing theneed for actual equipment, it is now possible tomeasure student performance in accuracy or speedand to provide feedback while the student is learn-ing.

Yet another innovative effort is the Video DiskInterpersonal Skills Training and Assessment(VISTA) project at Fort Benning, Ga. VISTA in-volves the study of interactive video disk for lead-ership training and assessment. It is used in a two-screen paradigm to present conflict scenarios thatmight arise between an officer and a subordinate.The officer trainee or candidate is first presentedwith a dynamic, visually simulated situation, in-cluding the initial remark of the subordinate on thescreen. The trainee must select a response with thelightpen from four options presented visually onthe screen control. The trainee then sees the subor-dinate’s reaction to this response on the colormonitor.

The disk features two modes: an experimentalmode in which the interaction simply proceeds onthe basis of the responses and a pedagogical modein which feedback is immediately provided on theappropriateness of the response selected. A totalof eight disks are planned that will provide over

‘W. D. Ketner, “The Video Disk/Microcomputer for Training, ” Train-ing and Development Journal May 1981.


100 leadership scenarios. A major use of thesedisks is seen to be an effective, objective, and in-expensive assessment of officer candidates.9

A number of other application areas are beingexplored by the Army. One area is the use of videodisk for recruiting. The Joint Optical InformationService (JOINS) allows local recruiters to show vis-ually what type of duties and training are associ-ated with a specific military occupational specialty(MOS). Currently, some 30 MOSS are available onJOINS. ’O In the equipment simulation areas,WICAT, Inc. has developed an electronics trouble-shooting video disk for the Hawk missile system.Perceptronics Inc. has developed a video disk-based simulation for the M60 tank gunnery train-ing. Both of these projects were supported byDARPA.

A number of video disk projects are also underway in the basic skills area. The U.S. Army Europeis supporting the development of functional liter-acy instruction using a particular job category(MOS 63, Vehicle Maintenance) as a focus. Also,DARPA is exploring the use of the video disk-based Spatial Data Management System (SDMS),originally developed at the Massachusetts Insti-tute of Technology for training in various life-cop-ing skill areas (e.g., spatial orientation, studyskills, listening).

In addition to these application projects, whichhave resulted in the development of actual videodisks, the Army and DOD have supported re-search projects that explore theoretical or proce-dural aspects of the technology. For example, ARIhas supported studies of how video disk relates tothe standard instructional system developmentmethods used to develop training materials in themilitary. The Navy supported an early study of

video disk authoring approaches.11 ACTO has sup-ported research on the electronic conversion ofprint media to video disk and the optional presen-tation features for electronic delivery systems.(See table A-7 for a summary of these applica-tions.)

These research projects have all involved inter-action between a number of different Army/DODagencies and contractors. They have also involveda variety of different hardware configurations. Itis noteworthy that all of the video disk applica-tions discussed have involved externally pro-gramed interactive capability. Although the Armyhas conducted a few projects with manual and in-ternally programed interactive video disks (notdiscussed here), it appears that the Army believesthe type of interactive capability provided by ex-ternal microcomputer control is necessary for theinstructional applications involved in militarytraining. In contrast, industrial training applica-tions have focused on the manual and internallyprogramed level of interactive video disks, possi-bly because industry cannot afford the greatercosts of an externally controlled system.

Direct To The Home

All of the information technologies currentlyused by schools, the military, libraries, museums,and industry can also be used in the home. The in-creasing availability of these technologies coupledwith their rapidly declining cost, presents a uniqueopportunity for learning in the home. While mostof the present applications have been directed ata specific age group, the focus is now shifting toprovide programs for more diverse populations,

‘F. N. Dyer, et al., “Interactive Vidw for Interpersonal Skills Train-ing, ” 1981.

‘OJ. Tice, “Video Disk Could Get Army ‘Off Paper’, ” Army Times,Aug. 31, 1981, p. 14.

“H. D. Kribs, “Authoring Techniques for Interactive Video Disk, ”Journal of Educational Technobgy Systems, 8(3), 1980.

Table A-7.—Summary of Military Video Disk Projects

Project Groups involved Hardware involved (player, microcomputer)

Call for fireSIDEMOS 26410VISTAJOINSI HAWKLCP-IMOS 63

SDMS

ACTO/WICAT Inc.ACTO/Hughes AircraftACTO/Signal SchoolARI/ACTO/TDl Litton-MellonicsACTO/Recruiting Cmd.DARPA/WICAT Inc.ARI/Perceptronics Inc.USAEUR/University Utah/

University MarylandARI/DARPA/HumRRO

Magnavox, Pascal MicroEngine (custom)Thompson, Hughes (custom)DVA 7820, Apple IIDVA 7820, Apple IIDVA 7820, Apple IIDVA 7820, Pascal MicroEngine (custom)DVA 7820, ? (custom)DVA 7820, Apple II

DVA 7820, Cromeco (custom)SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment

—


Findings

There has been a dramatic increase of micro-processors, hand-held devices, and informationservices provided via cable or public televisionin the home.Educational products and services are increas-ingly being marketed directly to the home.In response to market forces, these educationalproducts and services are targeted predom-inantly at professionals and families with rel-atively large disposable incomes.As with other educational markets, there is aneed for materials that review and evaluatethese products and services.

A d u l t M a r k e t

An estimated 37,000 to 73,000 adults participatein some sort of educational program. Adult pro-grams are offered in a wide variety of institutionalsettings—in elementary and secondary schools,universities, private institutions, businesses, li-braries, and museums. Adults, the fastest grow-ing segment of American society, represent a po-tentially large sector, of the educational market.However, while many adults might benefit fromcontinuing education, a large proportion of themhave, as yet, remained uninvolved.

Apart from their number, there are several rea-sons why adults might be expected to constitutea growing sector of the educational market:

● Approximately one-third of all Americanadults are changing or considering changingtheir careers and realize the need for addi-tional education.

● More and more States require additionaleducational programs for professionals; e.g.,for recertification of physicians. Continuingeducation has become one condition for licenserenewal in many areas.

● Within certain fields, education requirementsare being upgraded, increasing the need forcontinued educational

Adult participation in instructional activitieshas been limited by situational, dispositional, andinstitutional factors. Situational barriers are, forexample, lack of money, insufficient time becauseof job and home responsibilities, lack of child care,and lack of transportation. Attitudes and self-per-ceptions form the basis of dispositional barriers.Thus, an aged person may feel incapable of learn-

‘~blic Broadcasting Service, “program Service, Section IV, ExhibitP-l, ” Washington, D. C., Jan. 6, 1982.

ing or a high school dropout may feel inadequate-ly prepared in basic knowledge to do well in an-other formal instructional setting. Institutionalbarriers are exemplified by high tuition charges,inconvenient scheduling of courses, and the lackof student services geared to adult needs. Educa-tional services delivered directly to the home viaboth existing and new technologies may overcomemany of these barriers. z

Instructional Television

In an innovative effort to capture this expandingmarket, 600 colleges and universities in coopera-tion with the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)provide college courses for credit via local publicservice stations. These courses are aired national-ly by over 200 stations (80 percent of the publicTV stations). Although institutions and stationscan choose from up to nine programs, most offertwo per semester. In the fall of 1981, enrollmentsexceeded 20,000. An increase was expected for thespring semester.

Recognizing the large, virtually untapped homemarket, PBS has already designed courses for theundergraduate student, and, in the near future,plans to provide informal learning courses as wellas professional and career development programs.Current courses, such as “The American ShortStory” and “Personal Finance and Money Man-agement, ” are of both general and professional in-terest. Colleges and universities participating inthe program provide materials and counselors oncampus, and give midterm and final examinations.They pay PBS a licensing fee and a small chargeper student enrolled. The student pays approxi-mately $150 per course, which covers materials.3

PBS is not alone in providing educational serv-ices via television. Community colleges such asthose in the Coast Community College District,Dallas Community College District, and Miami-Dade Community College District have also beenactively involved in instructional television en-deavors. Cable television companies also supplyeducational materials nationwide. Columbia Cable-vision of Westchester Inc., and Qube, in Colum-bus, Ohio, offer courses with an interactive capa-bility that allow students in the home to answer

‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Delivered bj’ In-formation Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981.

‘Public Broadcasting Service, PTV-3/Adult Programing Department,Background Paper on the Partnership Between Public Television andHigher Education to Deliver Adult Learning Cburses, Washington,D. C., n.d.: and Public Broadcasting Service, Adult Learning I+ogram-ing Schedule Fact Sheet for Colleges and Universities for Fall 1981,Washington, D. C., n.d.


questions posed by the instructor in the classroom.Qube (Warner Amex) currently has 50,000 sub-scribers, approximately 34,000 of whom receive itsinteractive programs. ’ This company offerscourses for credit from four institutions: OhioState University, Capital University, ColumbusTechnical Institute, and Franklin Institute. Be-cause of its interactive capabilities, the Qube sys-tem is educationally unique.

A proposal that could greatly expand education-al services in the home is now under considerationby PBS. The proposed “National NarrowcastService” would establish a resource to nationallydistribute educational, professional training, cul-tural, and information video materials. This serv-ice would also alter the local PBS stations’ role,transforming them into local telecommunicationscenters. Using a satellite distribution system tointerconnect local PBS stations, and InstructionalTelevision Fixed Service (ITFS)* to connect thestations, colleges, and other users, programing inthe following areas would be available:

Training material in special skills; safety pro-grams; material designed for rehabilitation of theaged, infirm, or mentally disturbed; clinical studies;new arts and crafts; material intended to keep pro-fessional and semi-professional people abreast of thestate-of-the-art in various fields; in-service trainingfor teachers; instructional material for purposes ofentertainment or cultural advancement. b

Multimedia Instruction

The School of Management and Strategic Stud-ies of the Western Behavioral Sciences Instituteoffers a management program that relies heavilyon information technology. The program is de-signed for executives in the private and public sec-tors (Federal and nonprofit). Following a shortstudy program in LaJolla, Calif., participants con-tinue their studies via on-line services, telephoneconversations, teleconferencing, and electronicmail. The terminals and other equipment are in-cluded in the cost of tuition and are retained bythe user at the conclusion of the formal program.Participants install the technology in their homesor offices. This approach has a number of benefits:the participants continue to work for their spon-soring organization throughout the course of

‘LINK, Survey of Selected U. S Videotexfl%o Way CA TVE1’eletext@erations (New York: LINK, June 15, 1981).

*lTFS is ~ short rmge multiple distribution technology mowing foran unlimited number of users in a specific area. PBS is proposing theuse of four ITFS channels in each community served by a public serv-ice station.

‘Public Broadcasting Service, op. cit., 1982.

study (thus, no work time is lost); informationgained from the program can be employed immedi-ately in a working environment; the users becomefamiliar with the technology, which is not usuallythe case for most higher level executives; and usersare networking with both members of the programand with others following completion of the pro-gram.’

Electronic Learning Devices

Approximately 18 million electronic devices—microprocessor games such as “electronic base-ball” and hand-held devices such as Speak andSpell-were sold between 1979 and 1980. Typical-ly, the price for these games ranges from $10 to$3,000, the cost of a microcomputer. Users of thesedevices can be as young as four, or they can beadults. The growth of this market has been rapidand impressive. Although these games and learn-ing devices were not introduced until the mid tolate 1970’s, there are a vast number on the market.While OTA has made no attempt to evaluate theireffectiveness—and particularly the effectivenessof those designed for learning, their uses in thehome will be briefly described.

Given the relatively low cost of production anda growing desire by parents for enhanced educa-tional services, the market for microprocessorgames has grown so fast that some major manu-facturers been unable to keep up with it. Sales ofnonvideo electronic games have skyrocketed from$20 million in 1977 to $1 billion in 1980.7 The ex-perience of Texas Instruments in the home marketprovides some insight into the development oflearning technologies. One of the early leaders inthis field, Texas Instruments originally sought todevelop a market in schools and not in the home.Their first product was a Texas Instrument calcu-lator accompanied by a package of instructionalmaterials that was designed to assist teachers andstudents in the classroom. With it the companyhoped to demonstrate the use of the calculator asa learning device. Although this initial packagewas unsuccessful, it led the company to focus onthe home market and to market directly to the in-dividual consumer. Their next product, Little Pro-fessor, was a hand-held device that provides aseries of mathematical problems and answers de-signed to become increasingly difficult. Since theintroduction of Little Professor, Texas Instru-ments has developed and successfully marketed

—


several similar games. One of these, Speak andSpell, differs from earlier games in that it has asynthesized voice that helps the user to spell.

Other manufacturers have also introduced math-ematical games—e.g., National Semiconductor’sQuiz Kid. There are also other kinds of hand-heldlearning devices such as Coleco’s Quiz Wiz, amultiple-choice game which asks and providesanswers to 1,001 questions on a wide variety ofsubjects such as sports, movies, television, andhistory.

Video Disk

Since the video disk is relatively new, there arevery few examples that demonstrate its education-al applications in the home. Disks that are avail-able for school use are, however, equally applicablefor use in the home. Some examples of these arethe films of Jacques Cousteau, the National Gal-lery’s art masterpieces, movies such as “TomSawyer” or “Better Tennis in 30 Minutes. ”

The first video disk designed specifically for chil-dren, the “First National Kiddisc, ” is an interac-tive video disk produced by Optical ProgramingAssociates. It allows for individually paced in-struction. Games on this disk include The FlagGame, in which the user identifies national flags,and A Trip to the Zoo, by which the child can learnto identify 40 animals. Another section of the diskuses the unique two-channel audio available on thevideo disk players to explain pig latin. On onechannel, a child on camera explains in pig latin howto speak pig latin; on the other channel there isa voice-over translation. In a section on sign lan-guage, the manual alphabet is taught by showingthe sequence in slow motion.

Publishers of educational materials and othersare currently planning new video disk projects.Walt Disney Production, Children’s TelevisionWorkshop, and Scholastic Productions as well asencyclopedia publishers are among those who planto utilize this new technology.

In addition, Arete Publishing in cooperationwith the International Institute for Applied Tech-nology (II AT) has produced an experimental inter-active optical video disk with information fromArete’s American Academic Encyclopedia. Soundand films were added to articles and illustrationschosen from the encyclopedia. The more than 20segments on the video disk demonstrate the capa-bilities of the technology. Starting from a generalsection on the species of dinosaurs, a user maybranch off to find more information about aspecific type of dinosaur. The segment on Ludwig

von Beethoven presents his biography, illustra-tions of his life and musical scores, and musicalsegments from the composer’s works. Designed tobe experimental, this disk does not yet cover all21 volumes of the encyclopedia, although ARETEhopes to put the entire encyclopedia on disk in thefuture. Still in the research and developmentphase, these disks are not commercially availablefor use in the home. When they come on the mar-ket, each disk will cost about $500. After purchas-ing a disk, each year the consumer can exchangeit for an updated version for about $100.8

Impacts of InformationT e c h n o l o g y

Of all the information technologies available forthe home, the personal computer is the one thatis expected to have the greatest use and for whichthere is expected to be the largest and fastestgrowing market. Furthermore, the microcomputer,in conjunction with other technologies such as thevideo disk or two-way interactive cable, appearsto have the greatest potential for home use.

With the increasing use of microcomputers inthe home, the educational applications are grow-ing at a fast pace. The personal computer marketwas estimated to be a $1.5 billion to $2 billion in-dustry in 1981. One recent figure notes that thehome market accounts for over $100 million insales of both hardware and software.9 The numberof personal computers purchased between 1977and 1980 was estimated at around 1 million, anda similar figure was estimated for sales in 1981.Sales are expected to increase substantially forseveral reasons: greater exposure to the technol-ogy in the schools or in business, the introductionof cable services, the availability of informationresources such as The Source and Dow Jones/Retrieval Service, the development of more con-sumer-oriented software, and the declining cost ofthe microcomputer. 10 Also, manufacturers will beactively marketing their equipment to the con-sumer.

Together, these factors will lead to a serge in themarket. Microcomputers are now available for aslittle as $100. At this price, the microcomputer canbe used for games or simply to familiarize the userwith the technology. Advertising emphasizing the

‘LINK, Optical Videodisc Applications (New York: LINK, NRM, vol.3, No. 1, First Quarter, 1982).

‘B. Isgur, W. Paine, and H. Mitchell, personal communications,January 1982.

‘“LINK, Using Personal Computers (New York: LINK, NRR, vol. 3,No. 1, Second Quarter, 1982).


educational applications in the home has increasedenormously. In fact, these commercials recall theearlier ones of the encyclopedia salesmen, theirsales pitch being that the microcomputer will as-sist the student in school.’] Moreover, the prolif-eration of computer stores and the retailing of thetechnology through department stores and the likehas given rise to increased purchases. For exam-ple, Texas Instruments plans to sell their micro-computers through national chain stores such asJ. C. Penney.

The growing diversity of home applications suchas gaming and word processing, and the develop-ment of financial and statistical packages such asVisicalc and others appeal to a wide range of users.One indication of this is the formation of a largenumber of computer clubs. All of the clubs swaphardware and software information. Some providetraining sessions; some are affiliated with a specif-ic manufacturer (e.g., Crab Apples and Crab Pol-ishers); and some are directed at specific interests(e.g., Theater Computer Users in Dallas, Tex., andthe Behavioral Sciences Specialists in Murfrees-boro, Term.’2

There are hundreds of software packages avail-able to assist students in all grades and age groupsin many subjects such as mathematics, the sci-ences, reading, writing, and spelling. The rapid ex-pansion of the personal computer market shouldresult in a greatly increased volume of educationalsoftware together with a demand for evaluativematerials. As in all other markets for educationalsoftware, there has been very little evaluation ofnew software. While there are catalogs for consum-ers, there are few reviews of most educationalpackages. Users must depend for their evaluationson a limited number of sources: computer newslet-ters, computer magazines, an underground net-work, and the few computer manufacturers whohave begun to produce evaluative reports.

Many analysts believe that the market for homeand business microcomputers will be driven by theneed to use the technology to retrieve informationand to perform transactions. The technology al-lows a user to connect to on-line data bases andother services via a modem, a device that connectsthe microcomputer to a telephone line. Home userscan now connect to services such as The Source,CompuServe, the Dow Jones News/Retrieval Serv-ice, and others. The Source, available through Tele-net and Tymnet packet switch networks, offers

“A. Pollack, “price Decline Spurs Sales, ” New York Times, June 17,1982, pp. D1,6.

IZLI NK, op. cit., 1982.

games, electronic mail, news, the “electronic col-lege,” and other services. The college, althoughlimited to three courses this year, plans to expandits listings within the next few years. CompuServe,very similar to The Source, acts with the Associ-ated Press as the system operator for 13 U.S.newspapers in an experiment of electronic news-paper delivery. Viewtron, a videotex experimentin Coral Gables, Fla., offered slightly differentservices to home users. Knight-Ridder Newspa-pers and AT&T sponsored news, shopping, travel,banking, games, learning aids, consumer advice,and more to over 700 sites via modified televisionsets. Similarly, Cox Cable Communications is de-veloping INDAX for use by its cable franchises.13

The introduction of cable services in the homewill give rise to a large number of new educationalprojects. An estimated 28 percent of the homes inthe United States are wired for cable. It is pre-dicted that 38 percent will be wired by 1985 and50 percent by 1990.14 Educational services such asthose provided by Cox Cable, Qube, and others areexpected to grow quickly.

Information Technology andSpecial Education

Technologies that are now being developed mayoffer great benefits to individuals that requirespecial educational services-a group that includesthe gifted and those with learning, physical, andemotional disabilities. Since special education isa field, and not an institution, OTA did not fullyexplore the uses, impact, and effects of these tech-nologies on special educational services. However,because the technologies will have a considerableeffect on schools overall, OTA examined some oftheir applications for the gifted and handicapped.

Findings●

●

●

Providing educational services for students withspecial needs is costly and requires more effortthan providing for students in general.Information technologies will be particularlyvaluable to students with special needs becausethey will reduce the cost of their education andthey will provide them self-paced, individualizedinstruction.Using information technology could ease thefinancial and resource burdens placed on the

!3L1NK, Op. cit., 1982.“LINK Executive Conference, New York City, May 26, 1982.


schools by laws mandating education for thegifted and handicapped.

c The overall cost of R&D to address the specificneeds of this diverse group is very high, and insome instances, even prohibitive. Each disabil-ity may require a unique technological applica-tion. It has been suggested that increased Fed-eral funding is merited to support the R&D ef-forts needed to encourage the marketing ofthese technological applications.

● Although a number of technological applica-tions to help handicapped persons are available,they have not been marketed because they aretoo costly.

“ Information technologies can help train manyhandicapped persons for productive work.Information technologies may offer greater ben-

efits to the gifted and the handicapped than to anyother segment of the education market. These stu-dents benefit from specialized individualization, acapability of many emerging instructional technol-ogies. For example, computer programs can be de-signed to translate written material into speechthat is understandable to the blind, or to instructretarded children on a step-by-step basis. Overall,such capabilities can help to make handicappedpeople more independent. Other types of programscan help maximize the abilities of gifted students.Recognition of the special needs of these twogroups have led to the passage of two laws–Pub-lic Law 142 and Public Law 80-313. These laws re-quire that, using formula grants and preschool in-centive grants, handicapped and gifted children beprovided with special services to be funded in partby the Federal Government.

Information technologies have several attri-butes that make them particularly useful for ad-dressing the special needs of gifted and handi-capped students.1 Because their individual situa-tions vary significantly from case to case, thesestudents most often need to have individualizedinstruction that can best be provided by highlyspecialized personnel. Thus, their education is gen-erally labor intensive, and very costly. The new in-formation technologies can provide self-paced andindividualized instruction at a considerably lowercost.

The cost and difficulties entailed in developingthese technologies may, however, preclude theirwidespread application. Although the overall pop-ulation of gifted and handicapped students is sta-tistically large, it is very small when measured in

‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Deiivered b-v In-formation Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981.

terms of individual disabilities or needs. When de-signed to meet the needs of a particular group,these technologies can be too costly to produce.2

Moreover, the time required from their develop-ment to their production may take as long as 20years.3 For these reasons, it has often been pro-posed that the Federal Government provide sup-port for research and development in this area.

Technology for Administration

The use of information technology to administerspecial education programs is only now in the proc-ess of being developed, tested, and evaluated.There is a large potential for data management ap-plications in this field, particularly given the re-quirement that each student participate in Indi-vidualized Education Programs (IEP). An IEP de-fines a student’s disability(ies) and appropriateeducation program. This exercise is a very time-consuming process that could be greatly facili-tated by the judicious use of information technol-ogy. Computerized diagnostic models are nowbeing developed. One model, developed by Colum-bia Learning Systems, generates a computerizedIEP based on diagnostic information supplied byspecialists. It contains information about studentneeds, their areas of deficiencies and suggestedideas and material for remedying them. It alsomonitors the student’s progress. Other programssuch as these are becoming more and more com-mon.4

The development of diagnostic remedial infor-mation technology procedures is relatively new inthe United States. This type of program tracksstudents to discover their strengths and weak-nesses in specific skills and how they relate to astudent’s approach to a specific problem. This in-formation can then be used to determine a courseof remedial action. Most diagnostic models are formathematics, s

Information technologies can also be used toschedule the handicapped in specialized workingor instructional groups using criteria such as in-

‘V. W. Stern and M. R. Redden, Draft Case Study of Selected Telecom-munication Devices for the Deaf contractor report to OTA, December1981. Much of the work done to develop teletypewriters for the deafwas done on a volunteer basis, donated by handicapped or concernedindividuals. The present rapid advances in information technology,along with declining costs, may reduce this developmental time.

‘I bid., p. 11.4M. Lindsey, Statt+of-the-.4rt Report; Computers and the Handicap-

ped (Medford, (1-eg.: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory,August 1981 ), p. 133. There is. for example, the Organized ResourceBank of IEP Text (ORBIT), and Programing for Individualized Educa-tion (PIE).

‘Ibid., p, 133.


structional needs, student academic levels staff-ing requirements, and availability of staff andspace.6

Technology As Prosthet icDevices

By enabling handicapped persons to speakthrough video and speech synthesizers, some infor-mation systems can serve as prosthetic devices.For example, the Total Talk Full Speech ComputerTerminal, developed by Maryland Computer Serv-ices, converts computer-transmitted data and in-formation into synthetic speech. The system hasan unlimited vocabulary. It uses rules for enunci-ation, and inflection for clarity. Total Talk, whichcosts around $6,000, can provide two-way informa-tion. Similar devices, the VS-6 and ML-1 voice syn-thesizers, developed by the Votrax Division ofFederal Screw Works, produce electronically syn-thesized speech from a low-speed, digital input.Both of these systems are designed for personswith visual impairments, and both enable the usersto work in the areas of computer programing, in-formation processing, and information retrieval.

Many such projects have been successfully in-troduced through joint efforts between the FederalGovernment and the private sector. One exampleis the caption decoder, developed under the spon-sorship of the Department of Health, Education,and Welfare (now the Department of Education),the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the Na-tional Broadcasting Co., and the American Broad-casting Co. When attached to a television set,these decoders allow deaf viewers to see captionson selected networks and programs. Costing $269,they are available through Sears, Roebuck, & C0.7

Another example is Optacon. This device, de-signed for the blind, produces images of printedletters using small, raised, vibrating wires. Withone hand the user guides the pick-up along theprinted page, while the fingers of the other handdetect the images on a stationary device. TheKurzweil Reader, also developed for use by theblind, “reads” a page of text aloud, using elec-tronic voice synthesis. For these projects, Federalfunds were invested in the R&D efforts as well asin purchasing equipment for the users.8

Technology As Instruct ionalA i d s

Information technologies have many applica-tions as instructional aids. CAI, for instance, isused for a number of different handicaps or disa-bilities. Early use of CAI for the deaf began at theInstitute for Mathematical Studies in the SocialSciences (IMSSS) at Stanford University. Assess-ments of this work with CA I show general in-creases in the mathematical skills of 3,000 deafstudents. Nonspeaking autistic children have alsobenefited from the use of CAI. Having witnesseda display of 1,000 different audiovisual experienceson a television-like screen, 13 out of 17 childrenbegan to use some level of speech. The effective-ness of using a computer to teach extremely men-tally retarded children was also demonstrated,when substantial gains were noted in the readingability of 40 children.

In Chicago, students with hearing, visual, men-tal, or other learning disabilities have participatedin a project sponsored by the South MetropolitanAssociation for Low Incidence Handicapped. Theproject used CAI programs-in math, reading, andthe language arts-that were prepared by theComputer Curriculum Corp. Although evaluationsare still underway, student progress has correlatedwith the amount of on-line access to programs.

In an ongoing study at Utah State University’sExceptional Child Center, computer and videodisks are used with the mentally handicapped. Thetechnologies allow for self-paced and individualizedinstruction. The project programs focus on dis-crimination between sizes, shapes, and colors; ontelling time; on identification of functional words;and on the identification of colors. If successful,this project will not only assist mentally handi-capped nonreaders but also those with other disa-bilities.’

To “encourage research in devising methods toassist handicapped individuals, ” NSF and RadioShack sponsored a contest in the fall of 1981. Itspurpose was to “create a partnership between per-sonal computing and the rehabilitation, educa-tional, and handicapped communities."10 Therewere 900 entries in the contest. A few sample proj-ects were:

‘Ibid., p. 134.‘Department of Education, The Historical Role of the U.S Depart-

ment of Education in Applying Electronic Technology to Education(Washington, D. C.: Department of Education, February 1981).

‘Ibid.

‘R. Throkildson, W. K. Bickel and J. G. Williams, “A Microcomputer/Videodisc CAI System for the Moderately Mentally Retarded, ” Jour-nal of Special Education Technology, vol. II, No. 3, spring 1979.

‘“’’prizes Awarded in Search for Microcomputer Applications to AidHandicapped People, ” Electronic Learning, vol. 1, No. 3,January/February 1982, p. 12.


●

●

●

A pocket-sized computer to assist deaf peopleto communicate over telephone lines-a RadioShack pocket computer with a coupler and aminiprinter.An “Eye Tracker” to aid severely handi-capped individuals to express words via an in-frared camera and a computer. The cameranotes the position of the user’s eyes with aspecific word and the computer “speaks” theword.A computer that teaches deaf children to readlips by outlining lips, mouth, and tongue on

a screen and then moving them to pronouncewords.

The entries in the contest used off-the-shelf tech-nology. Most of the projects could be made avail-able immediately and would be of some use to adisabled person. The contest demonstrated thatthere is no immediate need for extensive R&D.What is needed instead is a way of identifying andencouraging the reformatting of the technology toaddress the diverse needs of the handicapped pop-ulation.

—

Index

Action for Children’s Television (ACT), 172Advanced Computer Service (ACS) (see American

Telephone & TelegraphAFL-CIO, 105, 108

Human Resources Development Institute, 107Airline industry, 236-237Alaska, 227-233Alaskan Public Broadcasting Commission, 42American College, 130American Academic Encyclopedia 255American Federation of Labor (AFL) (see AFL-CIO)American Federation of Teachers (AFT), 106American Postal Workers, 108American Society for Training and Development

(ASTD), 100American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T), 5, 7

Advanced Computer Service (ACS), 52and packet switching systems, 40plan to enter the information business, 21, 49reorganization of, 40

Anderson, Governor Wendell, 215Angevine, Martha, 194Apple Computer Co., 43, 145, 199, 200, 218Arete Publishing Co., 255Aristotle, 68Army Research Institute (ARI), 119Associated Press, 50Atari (see Warner Communications Co.)AT&T (see American Telephone & Telegraph)Audio conferencing (see electronic conferencing)Automation, 8, 30

Bacon, Roger, 206, 207, 208Bailey, Florence, 191Bailey, Russ, 202Bank of America, 30Barnett, Harvey, 202Basic Education Opportunity Grants, 87, 88Bigelow, Gary, 208Birchard, Elaine, 208Bitzer, Donald, 128Bloom, Gloria, 190, 194BLS (see Bureau of Labor Statistics)Bristol, John, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214Broadcasting

by direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 41, 47, 164instructional television fixed services

(ATFS), 163-164low-power, 37, 41-42low-power television (LPTV), 164multipoint distribution services (MDS), 163operational fixed service, 163private operational fixed microwave services

(POFMS), 163Brown, Governor Edmund G., 196Brumbaugh, Kenneth E., 218, 220Bruning, Arthur, 220Buck Foundation, 198

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 32, 33Burek, Mary Ann, 204

Capitol Children’s Museum, 243-245CARL network, 239Carnegie Foundation, 112, 114Carter administration, 161Catholic Church, 153, 154CBS, 47Chamberlain, Judy, 202Chemical Abstracts, 239Chicago Tribune, 210Children’s Television Workshop, 56, 112, 121,

126-128Clapp, Lewis, 194Clark, Frank, 202Coates, Tric, 214Coleman College (LaMesa, Calif.), 90Commission of Education (U.S.), 156Commission on New Technological Uses of

Copyrighted Works, 170Commodore Computers, 145, 189Communication

accessibility of information, 16cable, 6, 40-41computer-enhanced telephone networks, 5, 39-40of data, 15, 30, 52decentralization of systems for, 18employability of individuals skilled in, 30integration with computers and video, 48-49local distribution networks, 40-41quantity of information transferred, 16by satellites, 5, 6, 37, 38-39speed of, 16trends in, 37two-way cable systems, 37-38

Competitionbetween banks and computer service bureaus, 7between IBM and AT&T, 7between investment houses, retail stores, and

banks, 7between telephone companies and newspapers, 7, 21between U.S. Postal Service and

telecommunications firms, 7CompuServe, 50Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) (see computers,

educational and instructional uses)Computer conferencing (see electronic conferencing)Computer Curriculum Corp. (CCC), 133-134Computers, 15, 42-45

animation techniques with, 56automation with, 8, 30in consumer products, 42data storage technology, 6, 46in design and manufacturing, 101desktop, 6, 43-44educational and instructional uses, 3, 9, 43-44,

263

264 . Informational Technology and its Impact on American Education

56-58, 90-91, 93, 103-104, 112, 122, 128-134,141-143, 145, 178, 187-259

EDUNET system for sharing programs andequipment, 40

encouragement of educational use by industry,43-44

hand-held, 6, 44-45human interface (input/output) technology, 6, 45-46information networks for, 7, 40, 42, 50-51integration with communications and video, 48-49literacy in, 60manpower needs for, 32-34in museums, 243number installed in schools (table), 44number of personal (table), 44in patent searches, 49personal, 5, 93PLATO system (see separate entry)printers for, 45-46programing languages, 45, 91, 135, 189, 190,

198, 201software for, 44, 58, 145-147software protection, 166-173in telecommunication, 5, 6, 39-40, 49voice output technology, 46word processing, 5, 44

COMSAT, 41CONDUIT, 135Conference Board, 100

Annual Surveys of Corporate Contributions, 115Congress

acts of (see legislation)House Committee on Education and Labor, 4House Committee on Science and Technology, 4House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and

Technology, 4House Subcommittee on Select Education, 4House Subcommittee on Telecommunications,

Consumer Protection, and Finance, 165Library of, 160National Telecommunications Program, 119policy alternatives for (see policy options)Senate Commerce Committee, 165tuition tax credit bill, 77

Congress of Industrial Organizations (C1O)(see AFL-CIO)

Constitution (U.S.), 7, 162Contreras, Vince, 195Control Data Corp. (CDC), 57, 128-129Corens, Ken, 220Cordray, Sara, 227Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), 56, 165Cox Cable, 40Crucible Steel Corp., 107Cupertino, Calif., 200-203

Dartmouth College, 60Data banks

DIALOG Information Services, 51econometric, 51

HARFAX service of Harper and Row, 51Legis (legal citations), 51Medline service of the National Library of

Medicine, 51National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 51on natural resources, 51New York Times Information Service, 51of patent information, 51

Data Resources, Inc., 51Deafnet Telecommunications Model, 118Democratic Party, 154Department of Commerce, 112Department of Defense

Army Non-System Training Devices DevelopmentProgram, 121

funding of educational technology research anddevelopment by, 111-112, 116

Training and Personnel Systems TechnologyProgram (TPST), 116, 119

Department of Education, 152Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, 134Division of Educational Technology, 118, 121estimates of video disk units in schools, 143Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary

Education, 119funding of computer-based mathematics

instruction, 134funding of educational technology research and

development by, 112, 116, 121, 122funding of PLATO computer-based instruction

system by, 128Mathematics Education Using Information

Technology Program, 119report on science and technology education, 32Technology Initiative, 146-147

Department of Energy, 51Department of Health and Human Services, 153Department of Interior, 152

funding of educational technology research anddevelopment by, 112

Department of Justice, 40Department of Labor, 108Department of Treasury, 152DIALOG Information Services, 51DiGiammarino, Frank, 189, 191, 194Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC), 189

entry into desktop computer field, 43Digital telephone networks, 6, 37, 39-40

use of computer technology by, 48Dillenberger, Paul, 220Direct broadcast satellite (see broadcasting)Donnelly, Jean, 214Dow Jones, 51Driscoll, Francis, 204, 205, 208

Economy (U. S.)changes in, 19-21educational levels and growth of, 27-28growth from technological innovation, 25-27

Index ● 2 6 5

service sector predominance in, 19-20information sector of, 20-21

Educationbusiness, 59computer-assisted instruction, 3, 43-44, 56-58cost and effectiveness of technology for, 63-64the courts and (see litigation)decentralization of, 101-102declining achievement levels of students, 30-31definition used in this report, 4and economic growth, 25-28elementary and secondary, 70-77and employability, 27-28Federal aid for, 78-79, 87, 88, 89Federal role in, 3, 151-174financial problems of colleges and universities,

80-83governmental control of, 162-164in the home, 92-94of information professionals, 32-34of information scientists, 34information technology and, 9, 55-64, 143-145,

227-233interactive instruction, 56-59as investment in productivity (human capital

theory), 28land-grant movement, 78-79legislation, 151-157medical, 58-59need to link different information technologies

for, 63passive instruction, 55-56private schools, 74-77productivity growth in, 20proprietary institutions, 85-92public schools, 70-74as a public good, 68-69research and development in technology for,

111-137and social change, 67-69technical, 29teacher training for educational technology, 9-10tuition tax credit for private, 77two-year and community colleges, 83-85by unions, 105-108in the United States, 67-108universities and four-year colleges, 78-83voucher plan for funding, 76-77video disks in, 57in the workplace, 99-105, 235-237

Educational Broadcast Facilities Program, 112Educational technology

in the airline industry, 236-237continuing Federal projects in, 119courseware development, 146-147courseware industry (table), 144discontinued and consolidated Federal projects in,

118-119effect of reduced Government spending on, 115

Federal funding of research and development in,111-112, 114, 116-118

Federal grants for fiscal year 1982, 121-122hardware and educational software vendors, 145industries competing for courseware business

(table), 146private funding of research and development in,

113-114, 114-116research and development support by other

nations, 122-125for special education, 256-259in Tobacco Products Co., 235-236

EDUCOM, 60, 233-235EDUNET, 40, 60, 233-234The Electric Company (children’s television), 56,

112, 121, 126, 127, 128Electronic conferencing, 7, 51-52

EIS computer conferencing system, 52in industry-based training, 104NOTEPAD computer conferencing system, 52PLANET computer conferencing system, 52

Electronic games, 43, 46Electronic Learning, 146Electronic newspapers, 50Eli Lilly & Co., 234Enenstein, Bob, 202Environmental Protection Agency

funding of educational technology research anddevelopment by, 112

FCC (see Federal Communications Commission)Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 40, 41,

42, 50, 161and educational telecommunication services,

162-163Federal Security Agency, 152Federally Insured Student Loans, 87, 88Ferreira, Pat, 208Finkel, Le Roy, 195, 202Firestone, Kim, 214Fisher, Glenn, 202Fisk, K. A., 202Ford Foundation, 112Franklin, Ronald, 197, 202Frazier, Richard, 227French, Bill, 220Fund for Improvement of Postsecondary Education

(FIPSE), 135

Gal-da, Esther, 211, 214Gatze, Kenny, 208Gentry, John, 214Ginzberg, Eli, 27Good, Ed, 194Goodson, Bobby, 196, 200, 201, 202Gutierez, Jose, 202

Hakansson, Joyce, 196, 197, 202Hammer, Doug, 214HARFAX, 51


Harper and Row, 51Haugo, John, 215, 221Heard, Helen, 227Hewlett Packard Foundation, 114Horn, Marcia, 220Houston (Texas) Independent School District,

221-227Hovda, Clayton, 219, 220Hughes Aircraft Co., 236

IBM, 5competition in telecommunications by, 7entry into desktop computer field, 43

Infomedia, 52INFORM system, 241Information

AT&T plan to enter business of, 21conflicting views of, 8characteristics of modern systems for collecting

and using, 16-17history of systems for, 16as a major sector of the U.S. economy, 5-6, 20-21networks, 7, 50-51professional manpower needs, 32-34

Information services, 7, 48-51advanced business services, 52

Information technologyin administration and management of

instruction, 60automation and, 30in broadcasting, 6in cable systems, 6, 37case studies on application of, 8-9, 187-259climate for use in schools, 143-145in communications, 37in corporate instruction, 102-105cost of application to education, 10cultural effects of, 18data processing, 30data storage, 6, 46decentralizing effect on communications, 18definition of, 4dependence on, 15-16digital telephone networks, 6, 37, 39-40in distribution of education, 60-62economic and social impacts of, 16-19and education in Alaska, 227-233educational uses of, 55-64effect on organizational decisionmaking, 18effect on political process, 18effect on relationship between individuals and

organizations, 18factors affecting further application in education,

141-147Federal role in, 3, 9, 111-112, 114for the handicapped, 9in higher education, 81-83in the home, 252-256impacts on education and training, 4, 8, 9

impacts on the home, 255-256impacts on societal institutions, 4, 7-8institutional barriers to use in education, 9integration of various technologies, 9, 48-49the industry for, 5-6labor unions and, 107-108in libraries, 237-242and literacy, 17-18, 19manpower needs for, 10, 32-34military uses of, 245-252potential of, 4private sector role in, 113, 114-116in proprietary education, 90-92protection of software, 166-174psychological effects of, 4-5, 9, 10, 18quality of software for education, 10satellite communications, 6software needs for education, 10socioeconomic inequities created by, 10and special education, 256-259teacher training in, 9-10in testing and diagnosis, 62trends in, 37-52video technology, 6-7

Institute for the Future, 52Institute for Museum Services (IMS), 160INTEL Corp., 201Internal Revenue Service, 6, 15, 115International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers

(IBEW), 108I. P. Sharp Co., 51IRVING library network, 238-239

James, Mary, 218, 220James, Wilbur, 220Japan, 32Jaquith, Luree, 194Jennings, William, 194Johnson administration, 156Johnson and Wales College (Providence, R.I.), 90Jokela, Willis, 216, 220Jones, Allen, 207, 208Joseph, Helen, 196, 198, 199, 202Josiassen, Jody, 192, 194

Kaski, Janet, 214Kent, Karen, 202King, Steve, 202Kosak, Casey, 199Kosel, Marge, 220Kukendahl, Carol, 227

LaChance, Douglas P., 220Lathrop, Ann, 193, 202LaMar, Ron, 202Lawrence Hall of Science, 243Lawson, John, 188, 194Legis (legal citation data bank), 51Legislation

Blair Bill (1880’s), 153-154

—

Index ● 2 6 7

Communications Act of 1934, 162, 165Comprehensive Employment and Training Act

(CETA), 106Computer Software Copyright Act, 171Cooperative Research Act of 1963, 122Copyright Act of 1976, 171Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, 113, 115Educational Amendments of 1972, 87, 155Educational Amendments of 1978, 119Elementary and Secondary Education Act

(ESEA) of 1965, 134, 153, 155, 156, 157, 160Emergency School Aid Act of 1972, 119Enabling Acts, 152General Education Provisions Act, 162George-Barden Act of 1946, 154GI Bill, 154Hatch Act of 1887, 153Hoar Bill of 1870, 153Higher Education Act of 1965, 160, 161Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, 155Lanham Act of 1941, 155Library Services and Construction Act

of 1964, 160Massachusetts Bay Law (1642), 151, 152Merrill Act of 1862 (establishing land-grant

colleges), 79, 152National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

of 1958, 155New Deal programs, 154Old Deluder Law (Mass., 1647), 151Pierce Bill of 1872, 153Preemption Act of 1841, 152Public Law 16, 154Public Law 815, 155Public Law 874, 155Public Telecommunications Financing Act, 165Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, 154Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 154, 157Social Security Act, 156Statehood Acts, 151, 152Technology Education Act of 1982, 145on telecommunications, 165-166Vocational Education Act, 89, 155

Lexington, Mass.computers in public schools of, 187-194

Libraries, 4as automated information centers, 60communication networks for, 238-242computers in, 240as educational institutions, 94-97Federal role in, 160-161impact of information technology on, 7-8, 96-97information technology in, 237-242

Lippert, Del, 204, 205, 208Literacy

in different countries, 32effect of information technology on, 19need for information literacy, 29-32

LitigationInternational News Service v. Associated

Press, 170Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, 158on parental right to educate, 158on religion in the schools, 158Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School

District, 159on State and local school funding, 158-160Serrano decision, 159Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 172

Louisa, Joy, 227Lewd, Beth, 194Luehrmann, Arthur, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202Lundgren, Richard, 220Lyons Township Secondary School District

(LaGrange, Ill.)computers in public schools of, 209-214

Maggie’s Place: Pikes Peak Regional LibraryDistrict, 239-240

Marin Community College (California), 199Marin Computer Center (California), 199Marin County (California) Teachers Learning

Cooperative, 198McGee, Julie, 213, 214McGraw-Hill, Inc., 91Mchalski, Bill, 214McKell, Don, 202Medline, 51Melendy, Richard, 202Microprocessors (see computers)Mill, John Stuart, 68Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, 58

and computers in Minnesota schools, 214-221Mork, Kasey, 220Museums

as educational institutions, 97-99Federal role in, 160impact of information technology on, 4, 99,

244-245

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 112National Assessment of Educational Progress, 30National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),

85, 89, 144National Education Association (NEA), 153National Education Television, 126National Home Study Council (NHSC), 91National Institute of Education (NIE), 112, 118, 119National Institutes of Health (NIH), 112National Library of Agriculture, 160National Library of Medicine, 160

Medline service, 51National Radio Institute (NRI), 91National Science Foundation (NSF)

funding of computer-based mathematicsinstruction, 134


funding of educational technology research anddevelopment by, 111-112, 114, 116, 121

funding of museum programs, 160funding of PLATO computer-based instruction

system, 128Mathematics Education Using Information

Technology Program, 119Office of Science and Engineering Education, 112,

114, 135report on science and technology education, 32, 33sponsorship of research computer network by, 40

National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 51National Telecommunications Information

Administration, 119National Youth Administration (NYA), 154Nelly, Mark, 214New Jersey Institute of Technology, 52Newspapers

electronic, 49fear of competition from AT&T, 21

New York Times Information Service, 51Ninth Circuit Court (U.S.), 172Nixon administration

educational voucher plan of, 76-77policy on library funding, 160-161

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory,122, 136

Novato, Calif., 197-199NSF (see National Science Foundation)

OCLC network, 239Odom, Mike, 204, 208Office of Education (OE) (see Department of

Education)Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), 3, 107

case studies by, 8-9Computer-Based National Information System, 4findings of this assessment, 4-5, 15-16, 25, 37,

55, 67, 111, 136-137, 238, 245premises of this assessment, 4

Olney, Dave, 191, 194On-line information services

BRS, 239, 240COCIS, 240DIALOG, 239, 240Dow Jones/Retrieval Service, 255GIS, 240ORBIT, 240RLIN, 240The Source, 50, 51, 240, 255

Open University (educational television), 56Oregon State University, 164O’Reilly, Jill, 194Orvik, James, 229OTA (see Office of Technology Assessment)Otto, Susan, 227Oxford, Mass., 203-209

Packet switching, 40Patent Office (see Patent and Trademark Office)Patent and Trademark Office, 153, 168, 169Pergamon Press, 49Phillipo, John, 204, 205, 208Pierson, Geoff, 188, 194Plato, 68PLATO (computer-based instructional system), 57,

91, 112use in flight training, 237use in higher education, 130, 132use by industry, 130use in medical education, 133use by the military, 130, 132use in public schools, 130-131use by special populations, 131use by Tobacco Products Co., 235-236

Policy optionsarguments for and against Federal action, 177-179assumption of Federal leadership in educational

technology, 180-181direct funding of demonstration projects,

teacher-training, and institutions, 11direct funding of technology acquisition by

schools, 11elimination of unintended regulatory barriers, 12general education policy incorporating information

technology, 11-12, 181-184subsidies for educational computer hardware, 179subsidies for educational computer software,

11, 180support of research and development, 12tax incentives, 11

Pollak, Richard, 220Postal Service, 7Prizant, Jerry, 202Protestant churches, 154Public Broadcasting Service, 164Publishing

impact of information technology on, 7-8overlap with high technology, 49

Pugh, Richard, 201, 202Purdue University, 164

Radio Shack (see Tandy Corp.)Reading (Pennsylvania) Area Community

College, 130Reagan administration, 161Reagan, Billy, 221, 222, 227bed, Madeline, 227republican Party, 154Richardson, Rob, 204, 208Rogers, Patsy, 227Rothe, Jack O., 202Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 68Roustenstraugh, John, 227

Index . 269

Sakai, Brian, 202Satellite Business Systems, 52Satellites

communication by, 6, 37, 38-39in industry-based training, 104-105direct broadcasting from, 41-42

Say, Michael, 226, 227Schneiderhan, Dale L., 220Schools

climate for information technology use in, 143-145elementary and secondary, 70-77impact of information technology on, 4, 7-8, 19mathematical, technical, and computer literacy

and, 31-32private, 74-77public, 70-74public perception of, 4productivity enhancement by information

technology, 11proprietary, 85-92two-year and community colleges, 83-85universities and four-year colleges, 78-83

Schur, Walter, 208Sension, Don, 220Serrano decision, 159Sesame Street (children’s television), 56, 112, 121,

126, 127, 128Smith, Beverly, 194Social Security Administration, 15Sonoma State College, 198Sony, 47Southwest Regional Laboratory, 122Soviet Union, 32Sputnik 155Stanford University, 134

Institute for Mathematical Studies, 133Storm, Bruce, 194Strategic, Inc., 142, 143Sturdivant, Patricia, 222, 225, 227Suppes, Patrick, 133Supreme Court (U.S.), 172

Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent SchoolDistrict, 159

Tandy Corp. (Radio Shack), 43, 145Telecommunication

effect of Federal regulation and legislation oneducation, 161-162

Government control of, 162Teleconferencing (see Electronic conferencing)Teletext, 7

American-Canadian demonstration project, 119principle of, 49

Television (also see video technology)cable systems, 38high-resolution, 5, 47instructional television fixed services (ITFS),

163-164National Science Foundation funding of

educational, 112

0

passive instructional programing in, 56satellites in, 39

Texas Instruments, 46Tobacco Products Co., 235-236Toqueville, Alexis de, 68Training and Maintenance Information System, 236Troy, Patricia, 208Tucker, Bob, 194Turner, Cheryl, 201, 202

United Carpenters and Joiners of America, 108United Press International, 50United Rubber Workers, 108United Steelworkers of America, 107University of Alberta, 133University of Colorado, 130University of Delaware, 130University of Illinois, 57, 112, 128University of Pittsburgh

Learning Research and Development Center, 122University of Southern California, 163University of Wisconsin

Wisconsin Center for Educational Research, 122University of Quebec, 130Urban Institute, 114U.S. Military Academy at West Point, 152

Veselka, Ronald, 227Veterans Administration, 166Video conferencing (see electronic conferencing)Video disks (see video technology)Video technology, 15

computer animation systems, 56filmless camera, 7, 47improved quality of, 47integration with communications and computers,

48-49in proprietary education, 90-92video cassette recorders, 7, 47, 56, 143video disks, 5, 7, 9, 47-48, 56, 57, 58, 104, 143,

145, 245, 255video processing computer techniques, 56videotext system, 7

Videotext, 49-50VISICALC (computer software), 44, 58Vojta, George, 27

Wagner, William (Sandy), 195, 202War on Poverty, 156Warner Communications Co. (Atari), 43, 46Wayne State University, 106, 107Wesley, Franklin, 222, 227West Germany

technical literacy in, 32White House Conference on Education (1954), 155Winiarski, Paul, 208

Xerox, 43

Zachmeier, William, 200, 202

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