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ENGLISH LITERATURE

SUBJECT CODE – 30

9118 888 501

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CONTENTS

Literary Criticism

Literary Theory Vs. Literary Criticism

Classical Literary Theory Plato

Aristotle

Longinus

Horace

Literary Theory from Renaissance to Victorian Age Shakespearean Criticism

Neo Classical Literary Theory

Modern Criticism

Critical Theory

Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaylovich (1895 -1975)

Barthes, Roland (1915 - 80)

Beauvoir, Simone De (1908 - 86)

Bloom, Harold (1930 - )

Colonialism

Cultural Materialism

Derrida, Jacques (1930 - 2004)

Discourse

Ecocriticism

Ego

Ethnocentricity

Fish, Stanley (1938 -)

Foucault, Michel (1926 - 84)

Frankfurt school

Freud Sigmund (1856 -1939)

Frye Herman Northrop (1912 - 91)

Globalization

Hermenutics

Ideology

Interextuality

Kristeva, Julia (1941)

Lacan Jacques (1901-81)

Langue and parole

Leavis, Frank Raymond (1895 - 1978)

Marx, Karl (1818 - 83)

Said Edward William (1935 - 2003)

Saussure, Ferdinand De (1857-1913)

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CRITICAL THEORY

The relationship between literature and literary theory is symbiotic. Literary criticism

is not a new concept. It was a development that ran parallel to the history of literature in

ancient Greece. Critical theory stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and

culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities.

Q. What comes first -- Literature or Literary theory?

The questions that researchers often face in this area is whether theory as a conceptual

model generate practice or practice (writing of literature) generates theory. An etymological

understanding of the word „theory‟ provides the answer. Etymology is the study of the origin

of words.

The word „theory‟ is of Greek origin. It is derived from the Greek word „Theoria‟

which means - Contemplation and speculation. By this logic theory is the contemplation of

the practice of writing literature and comes after it.

Literary theory vs Literary Criticism

Literary theory is a conceptual model and provides a theoretical framework for the

study of a work of Literature. Literary criticism is the practical application of literary theory.

It is the study, interpretation and evaluation of literature. It judges the quality of a literary

work. Thus the terms, literary theory and literary criticism are closely related. Literary

criticism is fundamentally the estimation of the value of a particular work or body of work on

such grounds as: the personal and/or cultural significance of the themes and the uses of

language of a text; the insights and impact of a text; and the aesthetic production (or,

performance) of the text; particularly as these areas are seen to be mutually dependent,

supportive or inflective.

Classical Literary Theory

The classical theory revolves around the three key figures. They are:

1. Plato

2. Aristotle

3. Longinus

Plato

Plato gave us the Theory of Mimesis, according to which all art is mimetic by nature.

It is an imitation of life. he believed that „idea‟ is the ultimate reality and art imitates idea.

Therefore it is an imitation of reality. He exemplified this with the example of a carpenter and

chair.

The idea of the chair came first in the carpenter‟s mind. He gave physical shape to the

idea and created a chair out of wood. The painter (an artist) imitated the carpenter‟s creation

in his picture. Thus the painter‟s chair is twice removed from reality. Hence, he believed, art

is twice removed from reality.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critiquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities

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Philosophy vs Poetry

According to Plato, philosophy is superior to poetry. Philosophy deals with ideas whether

poetry deals with illusion. Plato rejected poetry as it is mimetic in nature on moral and

philosophical grounds. Plato authored two seminal critical texts:-

1. Ion

2. The Republic

ION- it is a very short dialogue which involves two speakers - Socrates, who is Plato‟s

mouthpiece in the dialogues, and Ion, who is a Rhapsode (classical Greek performer of epic

poetry).

As Ion recites and praises Homer‟s epic in public performances, his range is limited.

Socrates questions the geniuses of Ion‟s art. In fact, he observes that Ion‟s gift of word is not

an art, he has no real skill. He is like a soothsayer or prophet in being divinely possessed.

THE REPUBLIC- It is an extended conversation and the central argument is advanced by

the proponent of the argument, Socrates. In it, Plato‟s intent is to philosophically establish an

ideal state. Plato here presents us with a negative view of literature. Though the work has a

dominant social and political concern, Plato discusses the role of poets in his perfect

commonwealth at several place. This work is written in 10 books.

Aristotle

He wrote a major critical treatise called The Poetic, in which he gave us the Theory of

Imitation. He defined Art as mimesis but his theory differs radically from Plato‟s views on

art. For him, mimesis is not a mere portrayal of representation of reality but a re- presentation

of the world or human life in all its happiness and misery. Hence, for him, as poetry presents

a slice of real life, it is a constructive activity, an idealized representation of human action.

Definition of tragedy

1. Tragedy is the imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude.

2. It is embellished with an artistic language.

3. It is highly action based/ not narrative based) and contains incidents arousing pity and

fear out of sympathy for the plight of the protagonist.

4. The aim of the tragedy is to bring about the Catharsis of the emotions of pity and fear.

5. Every tragedy must have six paths: Plot, character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle and

Melody.

The detailed description of these six paths are given below:

a. Plot: It refers to how incidents are arranged and presented to the audience. It presents a

well structured cause and effect chain of action.

Features of the plot:

It must be whole- with a beginning, middle and an end.

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It must be complete having Unities of Time, Place and Action. Though Aristotle never

mentioned about unity of Place.

It must be of certain magnitude.

b. Character : The protagonist should be a man of high stature with a noble nature.

He must possess ethical goodness but not perfection.

A completely blameless character is not suitable for tragedy.

Hero‟s downfall is not caused due to his depravity but due to a tragic flaw

called Hamartia.

c. Thought : Aristotle says very little about this aspect and most of what he says is

associated with how speeches should reveal character.

d. Diction: It is the expression of meaning in words, the stylistic aspects of tragedy.

e. Melody: It refers to the musical element of the chorus.

f. Spectacle : It refers to the external stage mechanics that produces spectacular effects.

Longinus

He was a Greek critic who authorized the critical treatise On the Sublime. It may be

termed as the Bible of modern poetics because of its laying down a number of rules and

postulating many a principle for poetic performance. Longinus happens to be both a

classicists and romanticist and his On the Sublime presents a happy blend of romantic as well

as classical traits.

He introduces the concept of sublimity as the primary characteristics of great writings.

The sublime style, according to him, is a blend of great conceptions, noble passions and

elevated diction. According to Longinus, Sublimity has five characteristics:

Grandeur of thought

Strong and inspired motion

The proper construction of figures(use of metaphors + ornamental language)

Nobility of diction

Dignity of composition

Longinus also gave the Theory of Transport which states that the test of great

literature lies not in the instruction, delight or persuasion but in transport i.e. the ability of

ecstasy by the irresistible power of sublime language.

Horace

He was a Latin critic whose Ars Poetica is a great treatise on poetry. According to

him the function of poetry is either to edify or delight. He theorises about the uses of poerty

to society as of patriotic and religious kind. He wrote:

I have erected a monument

More lasting than bronze

And taller than the regal peak

Of the pyramids…

I shall never completely die.

These are the famous lines from Horace‟s Third Book of Odes.

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Literary Theory from the Renaissance to the Victorian Era

Renaissance

The renaissance was the period of revival of learning. With the exposure to the new

ideas, there was an active interest in Literature coupled with a critical bent of mind.

Aristotle‟s Poetics was rediscovered and there was intellectual discussion on that

treatise among the Italian Humanist scholars. This activity laid the foundations and

determined the course of English criticism of that period. The English renaissance criticism

festered critical discussion of classical texts and Aristotelian theory.

Contributions to dramatic theory in the Renaissance was by two figures -

Thomas More

Roger Ascham

Thomas More- In his book Utopia (1516), objected to the mingling of tragic and comic

elements in a play. According to him, a tragicomedy world be a farce and a violation of

the basic principle of propriety.

Roger Ascham- He was a Cambridge scholar whose dramatic theories were based on the

classical domestic principles of Aristotle and Horace. He considered comedies (written by

the Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence) inferior because they dealt with the

frivolous themes of ordinary life. he raised tragedy to a higher pedestal than comedy as it

dealt with issues of greater import. Tragedy raises fundamental questions about the

universe and the fate of human kind. The tragedies written by (Sophocles and Euripides)

were treated by as Greek Models to be emulated which the Roma tragedies written by

Seneca were considered inferior.

Elizabethan Age

Though some scholars argue that the Elizabethan Age was more creative than critical

one, a closer scrutiny reveals that literary criticism was an integral element of the intellectual

life and integral element of the intellectual life and literary development of the tome. The best

English literary critics of the period were Sir Philip Sidney, Ben Johnson and Francis

Bacon.

Sir Philip Sidney- In his Apology for Poetry (1595) he defended against poetry against

the hostile arguments of Plato in his Republic. He wrote this treatise to demonstrate that

poetry is a valuable source of instruction with a moral purpose. Poetry, according to him,

is the product of inspiration and something more than mere copying and imitation as Plato

pined. As per Sidney, the poet does not mechanically reproduce Nature or reality, he

employs creativity to make the new form better than the natural form. Sidney considers

poetry superior to philosophy and history. Philosophy is abstract while history is concrete

and poetry combines the merits of both. The world of poetry is an ideal world. Only

poetry has the dynamic power through its delightful teaching to inspire and elevate the

conduct of human kind.

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Ben Jonson- As a dramatist and drama critic did not follow the classical tradition. he theorized on the difficulties of observing the Aristotelian “Unities of Time, place and

action.” And the use of a proper chorus throughout the play. Johson‟s contribution to

dramatic theory are twofold-

He gave a new conception of tragedy distinct from the Aristotelian concept.

His theory of comedy made a case for the comedy of Humors.

Theory of Tragedy For Jonson, the essential qualities of a tragedy are : Dignity of persons, lofty style,

verisimilititude (likeness to reality) and sententious observations (oratorical language). For

him, tragic plots portray a catastrophe, a fall from prosperity to adversity but he does not deal

with the concept of tragic flaw or pity.

Theory of Comedy( theory of comedy of humors) Jonson insisted on the need for greater realism in comedy to bring it closer to life. For

him, the purpose of comedy was to portray human follies not crimes. On this front, he made

an innovation by identifying human follies with Humors.

Johnson used medieval physiology to explain in human beings were determined. By a

mixture of certain fluids (called Humours) in the body. The temperament of an individual is

determined by a combination of these fluids. The four cardinal humors are:

Blood

Phlegm

Yellow Bile (choler)

Black Bile (melancholy)

A normal personality has a natural balance of these fluids. An abnormal mixture

disturbed this balance leading to follies or foibles.

Shakespearean Criticism With his critical insight into the artistic merits of Shakespeare‟s plays, he laid the

foundation of Shakespearean criticism. Jonson commented Shakespeare for his originality,

universality and permanence of appeal and said, „He was not of an age but of all ages’.

Neoclassical Literary Theory The neoclassical Age was an age of enlightenment. The pseudo-classicists of the age

took inspiration from the classical masters and let out to define the rules of writing literature.

Three prominent figures came in this category to take criticism to a different level by

providing their theories. John Dryden, Alexander pope and Dr. Johnson.

John Dryden- He was called „the father of English Criticism’. He gave us „An Essay of Dramatic Poesy’ which is his major treatise on criticism. The essay is

a dialogue between four speakers: Eugenius, Crites, Lisideius, and Neander. The four

speakers represented, respectively Charles Sackville ( Lord Buchhurst and later sixth Earl

of Dorset), Sir Robert Howard [playwright and Dryden's brother-in-law], Sir Charles

Sedley ( Edward Malone identified him as Lisideius) and Dryden himself (neander means

"new man") He also wrote critical prefaces on famous poems and plays of other literary

masters like Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare and Fletcher.

Dryden theorized mostly on the nature of poetry and dramatic poetry.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialoguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Howard_(playwright)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryden

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Dryden’s Theory of Poetry

Dryden‟s view of poetry is in line with Aristotle‟s view of poetry as an Imitation. Such imitation presents an idealized picture of life without its deformities and faults. Imitation

inspires and illuminates and elevates our thoughts.

The chief purpose of poetry, according to Dryden, is to delight and transport the reader Instruction can also be provided but it is a subordinate function and not the primary

function.

For Dryden, the poet is more a creator than an imitator as he employs the faculty of imagination to breathe life into the formless raw material from nature. Using imagination,

he builds, modifies and rebuilds new worlds.

Dryden’s Theory of Dramatic Poesy In An essay of Dramatic Poesy, Dryden makes a comparative study of English and

French dramatists and proves that English dramatist were in no way inferior to the French

ones.

The French dramatist carefully observed the classical rules of Drama which the

Elizabethan dramatists consciously ignores them. Dryden finds the three Classical unities

irrelevant to drama and if they are strictly observed, the scope of imagination and length

of the plot is considerable reduced.

By doing this comparative study, Dryden gave a new dimension to criticism by

introducing comparative analysis.

Dryden, like Aristotle saw Comedy as a representation of human life in inferior persons and low subjects. Its purpose is to teach through laughter.

But unlike Aristotle, for Dryden, the chief aim of Tragedy was not emotional purgation by means of Catharsis but to administer a moral cure. Tragedy served as a correction of

vices.

Alexander Pope Pope‟s greatest critical work is his Essay on Criticism. He focused exclusively on

devising a proper methodology and standards of criticism. He vehemently attacked faulty

critical practices. The essay has three main sections-

The first section deals with the study of classics to set benchmarks for great literature. The second deals with the causes of erroneous critical practices. The third section prescribes rules for critics derived from the great Greek and Roman

masters of literary theory.

For Pope, the function of criticism is judging correctly. A critic needs proper training

to make right judgments. According to him, one must be a great author in order to be a great

critic. Strict adherence to classical rules does not constitute great literary merit according to

Pope.

Essay on criticism is a storehouse of critical maxims that have found a way into our

common speech.

Dr. Samuel Johnson Johnson was of the view that the literary merit of a work rests on the foundations of

classical criticism. Rules governing the writing of literature should be based on nature or

reason. He defined nature as the practice of the classicists and reason. As the historical sense

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of a learned critic to interpret the practices of the ancient literary masters in the light of

existing conditions. As a critic, his objective was to amend the neo-classical laws.

Johnson wrote three important works in this area:

Lives of the Poets: it is a work by Samuel Johnson comprising shortbiographies and critical appraisals of 52 poets, most of whome lived during the eighteenth century. As

criticism, the work is often misleading, giving praise to artificial poets like Cowley and

Pope, and doing scant justice to nobler poets like gray and Milton. As Biography, it is an

excellent work as it paints the best pictures of some of the early English poets.

In his Life Of Milton, he defines poetry as an art that unites pleasure with truth and imagination and is employed along with reason to write good poetry.

In his Preface to Shakespeare, Johnson asserts that a writer‟s milieu (surroundings, environments) influences the literary works he produces. The right way to assert literary

excellence of a work is not to see it against the historical backdrop but in the context of

the age. A work considered great in the present age may not have any intrinsic merit for

the succeeding centuries. Great literature, according to Johnson, represents the Universal

through the particular aspects contained in it.

Dr. Johnson deserves the credit for turning literary criticism into a rigorous

intellectual discipline that offers brilliant insights and true appraisal of literature.

ROMANTIC CRITICISM Wordsworth is mostly remembered more as one of the greatest English Romantic

poets than as a critic. He theorized on the nature of poetry and poetic diction to defend his

poems and those published by his friend Coleridge in 1798 entitled Preface to Lyrical

Ballads. It became the manifesto of Romanticism. He defends his poems against two serious

charges. His critics had accused him of choosing subjects unworthy for great poetry like mad

mothers and idiot boys and using low language to depict them. Wordsworth attacked neo-

classical poetry as highly artificial in the Preface. Love and rustic life became the preferred

choice of subjects for him.

S.T Coleridge is highly acclaimed today as a philosopher and critic. His greatest

critical work is the Biographia Literaria. His theory of Imagination is still crucial and

relevant. He defines two kinds of Imagination:

1) Primary imagination

2) Secondary imagination

The Primary Imagination is the faculty that enables the mind to perceive clearly the

objects of sense or sensory data. It is an ordering principle of the mind that is an automatic

act. The secondary imagination is a conscious act that employs the various mental faculties

of the intellect, emotions and will to recreate what it perceives.

His Theory of Fancy also depicts a slight difference between „fancy‟ and

„Imagination‟. Imagination provides the modifying and unifying function in the act of poetic

creation whereas Fancy has no such creative power bat all.

Victorian Criticism It can be considered as a social-cultural documentary of Victorian life and society.

This was during this period a new group of critics emerged named Mathew Arnold and

Walter Pater.

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His three books of criticism entitled Translating Homer, the Study of Celtic

Literature and Essays in Criticism. It deals with the writings of poetry and the problems of

criticism.

In the essay “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time”, he defined criticism

as “a disintegrated that is known and thought in the world”.

Arnold adopted a balance between art for art‟s sake and art for life‟s sake. He ignored

the didactic approach in poetry but he also emphasized the fact that poetry ought to be a

„powerful and beautiful application of ideas to life -- to the question: How to Live?‟

Arnold wrote in The Study of Poetry (18810):

Without poetry, our science will appear incomplete, and most of what now passes

with us for religion and philosophy will be replaced by poetry.

According to him THE FUNCTION OF POETRY is to interpret life for us, to console

us, to sustain us. He says if SCIENCE IS APPEARANCE then the poetry is expression and

there is no appearance without expression.

Arnold tells about THREE KINDS OF ESTIMATES and these estimates are related

to poetry and its reading. These estimates are:

Historic Estimate

Personal Estimate

Real Estimate

HISTORIC ESTIMATE: It is fallacious estimate that deals with the poets of past. When we

are effected by a poet's historical background, we may easily consider his poetry of more

importance than in reality it is. We must over-rate it. So, this type of fallacy is caused in

judgement by Historic Estimate.

PERSONAL ESTIMATE: It is also fallacious estimate that deals with the contemporary

(modern) poets. Our personal affinities, likings and circumstances have great power to sway

our estimate. Due to our personal likings we give more importance to that poetry which does

not deserve that much importance. So second fallacy in our poetic judgement is caused by

personal estimate.

REAL ESTIMATE: Real Estimate is the only TRUE ESTIMATE which is not effected by

any kind of estimate. A sense for the best, the real excellence, strength and joy can be drawn

from it. It is present in our minds and governs our estimate of what we read. We are sure of

frequent temptation to adopt the Historic estimate and Personal estimate which are fallacious

but forget the Real Estimate.

Arnold gives a method to identify the real classic and he gives the name

TOUCHSTONE METHOD to this method. It is a method TO JUDGE THE QUALITY OF

POETRY. A goldsmith hit the gold against stone to know the quality or purity of gold, he

uses this method to know about the purities and impurities of gold. In the same way, Arnold

uses this method to know about the qualities of poetry. It is a COMPARATIVE METHOD

OF CRITICISM. According to this method, in order to judge a poet's work properly, a critic

should compare it to the passages taken from the works of great masters of poetry. Even a

single line or selected quotation can serve the purpose. If the other work moves us in the

same way as these lines and expressions do only then it is a real classic otherwise not.

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To apply this method on various poets and ages, Arnold takes passages from the

works of the great classics like Homer and Dante. The passages that Arnold takes, have these

qualities in common:

The possession of the very highest poetical quality.

Characters of high quality.

Both substance and matter on one hand, style and manner on other hand, have a mark,

accent of HIGH BEAUTY, WORTH and POWER.

High Truth and HIGH SERIOUSNESS.

By keeping these qualities in center, Arnold applies Touchstone Method on

CHAUCER first. According to Arnold, Chaucer is genuine source of joy and strength. There

is an excellence of style and subject in his poetry. He has divine fluidity of movement and

diction. But he CAN NOT BE CALLED A CLASSIC because his poetry lacks high

seriousness which according to Aristotle is very important.

After Chaucer, he applies the method on ELIZABETHAN AGE. Arnold says that all

of us recognize it as great poetry. He says this because according to him Shakespeare from

Elizabethan and Milton from PURITAN AGE are CLASSIC POETS. They have all the

qualities including high truth and high seriousness.

Then he applies the method on THE AGE OF DRYDEN. This age is regarded as

superior to that of the others for 'sweetness of poetry'. Dryden and Pope are the famous poets

of this age. But this age was full of rules and regulations. The restrictions that were imposed

on the poets were uniformity, regularity, precision and balance. This age is famous as AGE

OF PROSE and Arnold also says that Pope and Dryden are not poet classics but 'prose

classics'.

Then Arnold applies the method on GRAY. He is our CLASSIC POET according to

Arnold. He lived with the great poets, with the Greeks, studying and enjoying them and

caught their poetic point of view and poetic manner. He is scantiest and frailest of classics in

our poetry but he is a classic.

Then he applies the method on BURNS. His poems deal with Scottish dress, Scottish

manner and Scottish religion. The Scottish World is not beautiful one according to Arnold.

Burns moralizes in some of his poems and disregarded morality in actual life. So it seems

insincere. His pathos is intolerable. Like Chaucer, he lacks high poetic seriousness. So he is

NOT A CLASSIC.

In this way Arnold applies Touchstone Method on various poets and finds out that

poets like SHAKESPEARE, MILTON and GRAY are CLASSIC POETS while Chaucer,

Dryden, Pope and Burns are not classics.

Through this essay, Arnold wants to convey that we should not be effected by

Historical and Personal Estimate rather we should enjoy the REAL CLASSIC that belongs to

the class of VERY BEST. We can clearly feel and deeply enjoy the best by effecting

ourselves only by REAL ESTIMATE. The best way to identify the real classic is to apply

TOUCHSTONE METHOD by which we can clearly identify the wide difference between the

real classics and the others as Arnold identifies the difference between classics (Shakespeare,

Milton, Gray) and others (Chaucer, Dryden, Pope, Burns).