OSB Tryout Packet 2012

8/2/2019 OSB Tryout Packet 2012

1/28

AHS OSB Tryout Packet 2012

BiologyMnemonic for taxonomyDomain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, SpeciesDumb King Phillip came over for good soup.

Flatworms (phylum platyhelminthes)Ribbon worms (phylum nemertean), has a proboscis to entangle preyRoundworms (phylum nematoda)Segmented worms (phylum annelid) most are polychaetes, each segment has parapodia or setae

Class Polychaete larva form is trochophore also larvae stage for other invertebratesBeard worms (former phyla pogonophores, more commonly known by the family Siboglinidae) lack a mouth andgut, have symbiotic bacteria to manufacture food, vestimentiferans (including the giant tubeworm) are longest beardworms

Subclass Oligochaetes are small worms that feed on organic matter in the sand lack parapodiaArrow Worms (phylum Chaetognatha)

One of most common and important plankton

Almost transparent, streamlined and fins.Voracious carnivores feeding mainly on small crustaceans, eggs and larvae of fish, other arrow worms andsmall animals). Usually motionless, move to get food.

Leeches (subclass hirudinea)Peanut worms (phylum spinicula or sipunculida)Spoon worms (class echiura) non retractable proboscisMollusks (phylum Mollusca)

Class Gastropoda largest, most common and varied of the mollusks. Includes snails, limpets, abalones andnudibranches (sea slugs, no shell)Class Bivalvia clams, mussels, oysters, scallops, shipworms, cockles. No head or radula. Gills use to absorboxygen and filter and sort food particles. Inner shell is secreted by mantle, body lies in mantle cavity. Buriedclams use siphons to draw water in and out of the cavity. Mussels use byssal threads to attach themselves to

surfaces. Pearl oysters (Pinctada). Clam is largest bivalve. Shipworms are fouling organisms - attachthemselves to the bottom of submerged structures (boats, pilings, etc)Class Cephalopoda - octopuses, squids, cuttlefishes, nautilus. Have a funnel where water enters and leaves,formed from leftover part of the foot. Octopuses (Octopus) 6 arms, 2 tentacles no shell. Squids (Loligo) 8arms, 2 tentacles, colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis), giant squid (Architeuthis), cuttle fishes (Sepia) 8 arms,2 tentacles, calcified internal shell called cuttlebone used as calcium and for caged birdsChitons (class Polyplacophora) eight overlapping shell plates, uncoiled internal organsScapholds (class Scaphopoda) tusk shells, elongated shell tapered on both sidesGastropods and bivalves have ganglia, cluserers of nerve cells, as part of the nervous systemVeliger planktonic larva with a tiny shell from the trocophore of a gastropod or bivalveFemale octopuses usually die protecting their eggs because they dont eat

Arthropods (phylum Arthropoda)Segmented body, bilateral, jointed appendages, tough exoskeleton.Giant spider crab (Macrocheira)Subphylum Crustacea dominant arthropods in the sea.Subclass Copepods important in plankton, some species amongst most common animals on earth. (naupilus

copepoditeadult copepod)(Infraclass Cirripedia) Barnacles fouling organism, filter feeder, have typical crustacean larvae, adult looks

like molluscs. (naupiluscyprisadult barnacle)Order Amphipods laterally compressed body, under 2cm in length.Isopods (Order Isopoda) like amphipods, dorsoventrally flattened.


2/28

Krill(order euphausiids) planktonic, carapace on anterior, filter feeders, common in polar waters,exhibit vertical migration

Decapods (order decapoda) ten legs, largest group of crustaceansFive appendages first and largest called cheliped. walking legs called pereopods, swimmerets calledpleopods (used by females to carry eggs). Carapace covers the cephalothorax. Rest of body is theabdomen.

Shrimps typically scavengers. Some have roles in cleaning other organisms. (zoea adult shrimp)American/Maine Lobster (Homarus). Clawless spiny lobster (Panulirus) are nocturnal and scavengers.

Maxillipeds used to sort out and push food towards the mouth (phyllosomaadult lobster)Hermit crabs not true crabs (Dardanus), coconut crab (Birgus latro)True crabs have small abdomens (V-shaped in males, U-shaped in females) tucked under

cephalothorax. Largest and most diverse decapods. (zoea megalopaadult crab)Horseshoe crabs (class Merostomata) only surviving member, living fossils, North American (Limulus),Southeast Asia (Carcinoscorpius)Sea spiders (class Pycnogonida) 4+ pairs of jointed legs to small body, large proboscisMarine water strider (Halobates)

Lophophore links bryozoans, phoronids and lamp shells, ciliated tentacles used in suspension feeding.Bryozoans (Ectoprocta) minute individuals called zooids, secrete skeletonsPhoronids (Phoronida) worm-like, build tubes made in part of sand grainsLamp shells (Brachiopoda) most known only as fossils, shells made of two valves, usually attached to rocksor burrowing in soft sediment

Echinodermata (phylum)The Basics: One of the most advanced phyla, but has radial symmetry as adults (if you remember,

bilateral symmetry is normally considered more advanced than radial) and bilateral as larvae. Morespecifically, they have pentamerous radial symmetry, which is five part symmetry. Ok...so they have no headsand no anterior, posterior, dorsal or ventral side so the side with the mouth as oral, and the other as aboral.They have complete digestive tracts well-developed coeloms, and endoskeletons. Also, they have watervascular systems, tube feet, ampullae (muscular sacs) and madreporite (a porous plate, also called a sieve plate,in which an echinoderm draws salt water into its water vascular system).

Approximately 7,000 species in 5 classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars),Echinoidea (sea urchins), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) and Crinoidea (crinoids). Also, more recently,

Concentricycloidea, sea daisiesClass Asteroidea (sea stars): Probably the most recognizable and well known of the echinoderms. It

usually has 5 arms, but it can have up to 100, but they all originate from a central disk (which contains all ofthe vital organs). The tube feet they have radiate from ambulacral grooves, and their sufaces are covered withpincer like protrusions called pedicellarie, which keep the sea star clean. They eat bivalves, snails, barnaclesand other slow moving animals. You could technically regenerate a whole new starfish from one arm, but itMUST have a part of the central disk.

Class Ophiuroidea(feather stars): They resemble sea stars in terms of number of arms, but the arms arelonger, thinner, and more flexible. Usually they eat particulate organic matter and small animals at the bottom

of the water. Foodtube feetfootmouth. With 2,000 members, they are the largest group.Class Echinoidea (sea urchins): To move, they use their movable spines and sucker-tipped tube. Their

mouth is on the bottom, anus on the top. The plates can be seen if the spines and tissues are removed. Forfeeding, they use a series of jaws and muscles called Aristotles lantern that they use to bite off algae and otherfood. Other members of this class are heart urchins and sand dollars, which do no have round tests.

Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): No radial symmetry and it lies on one side where it has fiverows of tube feet. Many are deposit feeders and have branched tentacles around their mouth that can either pickup or scoop sediment into its mouth. They can secrete toxins through their anus or their guts (evisceration) toward off predators. The organs grow back.

Class Crinoidea (sea fans): Suspension feeders that have feathery arms to obtain food and water.Related to feather stars and sea lilies. Sea lilies are attached to the bottom of deep water, and feather stars onhard bottoms from shallow to deep water. Can be described as upside-down brittle stars with ambulacralgrooves and mouth upward. Some have only five arms, but most have up to 200 because of branching. Thetube feet here secrete mucus.


3/28

Notable species:Pisaster giganteus (Sea star, found on west coast of North America)Linckia guildinigi (Sea star with remarkable regenerative abilities)Asterias (Sea star, North Atlantic to Gulf of Mexico)Opiothrix oerstedii (Brittle star, on sponges in the Caribbean)Mellita sexiesperforata (Sand dollar with six-holes)Thelenota rubralineta (Sea cucumber from Papua New Guinea)Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Purple sea urchin)

HemichordataLink between echinoderms and chordates, larva like echinoderms, like chordates have dorsal hollownerve cord and openings along the gut.Mostly acorn worms aka enteropneusts

Chordata (phylum)At some point in their life have all of the following: dorsal hollow nerve cord, gill/pharyngeal slits, notochord,tail.Protochordates collective group of invertebrate chordates

Tunicates (sybphylum Urochordata) largest group of protochordates.Sea squirts/ascidians (class Ascidiacea), fouling organisms, body sea squirt is protected bytunic. sea squirts are filter feeders, water enters though an incurrent siphon, filtered water exitsthe excurrent siphon. Adults lack notochord and dorsal hollow nerve cord. Water forced out of

both when disturbed or expelling debris. Larvae known as tadpole larvae. Shallow water seasquirt (Ciona intestinalis), colonial sea squirt (Botryllus schlosseri)Salps (class Thaliacea) transparent, barrel-shaped body, water enterios anterior, out posterior.Abundant in warm water.Larvaceans/appendicularians (class Larvacea) retain body of tadpole larvae, each secretes agelatinous house for protection and to filter food.

Lancelets (subphylum Cephalochordata) second group of invertebrate chordates, laterallycompressed body, has most chordate characteristics but the backbone, soft bottoms, filter feeders

Fish first appeared 500 million years ago, oldest, simplest and most abundant of all living vertebrates (50%)Jawless fishes (class Agnatha) most primitive, body is cylindrical and elongated like snakes, lack truevertebrae

Hagfishes/slime eels (genusMyxine, Eptatretus) feed mostly on dead or dying fishesLampreys (genusPeteromyzon) found in most temperate regions, primarily freshwater. Attachthemselves to other fishes and suck their blood.

Cartilaginous fish (class Chondrichthyes) placoid scales, paired lateral fins, developed jaws spiral valveincreases internal surface area of intestine

Sharks found at all depths and locations, sharks fished for fins and oils. Shark skin is made into aleather called shagreen. 25 species known to attack, at least 12 more. Average per year in 1990s was54. Great white (Carcharodon carcharias), tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier), whale (Rhiniodon typus),hammerhead shark (Sphyrna zygaena), nurse (Ginglymostoma cirratum), spined pygmy shark(Squaliolus laticaudus)Rays and skates dorsoventrally flattened, demersal (live on bottom), five pairs of gfill slits onunderside. Guitarfishes (Rhinobatos), Sawfishes (Pristis), electric rays (Torpedo) used by Greeks as

shock therapy, manta ray (Manta birostris), devil ray (Motuba), skates (Raja) look like rays but lackwhip-like tail and stinging spines and lay egg cases (rays give live birth)Chimaeras (order Chimaeriformes) sometimes informally known as ghost sharks, ratfish, spookfish,or rabbit fishes

Bony fish (class Osteichthyes) 23,000 sepcies (96% of all fish, half of all vertebrates), 75-100 newspecies/year

Have cycloid (smooth) scales, ctenoid (have tiny spines). Operculum gill cover. Homocercal caudalfin same size. Fins made of bony spines called fin rays, swim bladder for buoyancy.Mackerels (Scomber, Scomberomorous), marlins (Makaria), stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) mostpoisonous fish in the world, parrot fishes (Scarus, Sparisoma), flying fish (Cypselurus), remoras(Echeneis), anglerfishes (Gigantactis), clownfishes (Amphiprion), Sturgeons(Acipenser)


4/28

Colors come from chromatophores, crystals of color are trapped in chromatophores known asiridophores. Countershading is used in open water silver/white bellies that contrast againt dark backsMovement produced by contraction of myomeres along side of body in fish with a swim baldder, stiffpectoral fins help sharks remain buoyant as well as oil in liverFishes that feed primarily on seaweeds and plants called grazersPyloric caeca secrete digestive enzymes, cloaca = anusGill filaments made of lamellae, kidneys retainurea, special gland near anus that excess salts aresecreted by called rectal gland

Fish smell through nares, which are attached to the olfactory sacsFist have taste buds on barbells (whisker-like organism need the mouth f many bottom feeders)Nictitating membrane used by sharks to reduce brightness and protect the eye during feedingLateral line made of neuromastsFish detect movement through movement of calcareous ear stones, or otoliths like statocysts ofinvertebratesAnadromous live in salt water, breed in fresh water, catadromous live in fresh water, breed in saltwaterOviparous hatched from eggs, ovoviviparous eggs develop in parent and hatch (most bony fish arelike this)Viviparous live bearers

Reptilia (Class)

Dry skin with scales to stop water loss, pokilotherms, first appeared 350 million years agoSea turtles (order Chelonia)

Carapace fused to back bone, cannot retract their heads like land tortoises and turtles, only sevenspecies (all considered threatened. Six protected by the endangered species act three threatened, threeendangered (hawksbill, kemps ridley (most endangered), leatherback), return to land to reproduce (100160 eggs laid each time), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbticata ), green (Chelonia mydas), leatherback(Dermochelys coriacea), kemps ridley (Lepidochelys kempii)

Sea snakes, marine iguana (order Squamata)55 species sea snakes found in tropical Indian and pacific, ovoviviparous (egg develops inside motherand there is live birth)Marine iguana is on galapogos islands (Amblyrhynchus crisatus)

Saltwater crocodile (order Crocodilia), (Crocodylus porosus)Inhabits mangrove swamps and estuaries in Eastern Indian Ocean, Australia and western Pacificislands. Live on coast but do venture into open sea.

Aves (Class)Homeotherms, covered with waterproof feathers to conserve body heatPenguins (order Sphenisciformes)

Flightless, denser bones, clumsy on land, amazing swimmers, all but 1/18 penguins live inAntarctica/other cold regions in southern hemisphere. Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) isthe exception, eggs laid during winter so that they hatch in summer

Tubenoses (order Porcellariformes) albatrosses (widest wing spans), sheawaters, petrelsSeabirds with tube-like nostrils, have salt glands to rid themselves of excess salts

Ducks (order Anseriformes)

Gulls, other related shorebirds (order Charadriiformes), largest variety of seabirdsGulls (Larus) are both predators and scavengers and eat almost anythingTerns (Sterna) hover right over prey before catching it. Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) breeds inArctic during northern summer and travels 16,000km/10,000mi to Antarctica for southern summer, thelongest migrant of any known animal in the worldPuffins (Fratercula) have heavy beaks like parrotsGreak auks (Pinguinus impennis) are extinct ancestors of the razorbill and looked and acted like apenguin in the North Atlantic, extinct in 1844

Herons (order Ciconiiformes)Rails, coots (order Gruiformes)Pelicans, and related birds (order Pelecaniformes)


5/28

Have webbing between all four toesPelicans (Pelecanus) have unique pouch below their beaks and catch food by plunging in the waterwith the beakCormorants (Phalacrocorax) are black, long-necked seabirds that dive, fly low over the waterFrigate birds (Fregata) narrow wings and long, forked tail, seldom enter waterExcrement is called guano, and is mined for fertilizer

Loons (order Gaviiformes)Grebes (order Podicipediformes)

Mammalia (Class)Evolved 200 million years ago, has hairs instead of feathers, most are viviparousSeals, sea lions and walruses (order Pinnipedia) evolved from order Carnivora

Have flippers for swimming but breed on land and blubber as food storage and warmthSeals (19 species) are largest group of pinnipeds, distinguished by rear flippers that cannot moveforward. Elephant seals (Mirounga) are the largest pinnipeds (the southern elephant sea is the largest)in the world.Sea lions and fur seals have external ears, can move rear flippers forward, can sit on land with head andneck raised, female sea lions called cowsWalrus (Odobenus rosmarus) is a large pinniped with large tusks, not protected by EndangeredSpecies Act

Sea otters, polar bears (order Carnivora)

Sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is the smallest marine mammal, air trapped in fur aids in insulation,protection began in 1911. Requires 7-9kg (15-20lbs) of food a day, and live in or around kelp bedsfrom Siberia to central californiaPolar bears (Ursus maritimus) live on drifting ice in the arctic

Manatees and Dugongs (sea cow, order Sirenia)Front flippers but no rear limbs, named after mermaids and sirens from mythology Only strictvegetarians among marine mammals, only 4 species remain three manatees (Trichechus) and onedugong (Dugong dugon)

Whales, dolphins and porpoises (order Cetacea)Largest group of marine mammals, spend all of life in water, similar appearances of cetaceans is due toconvergent evolution. Front flippers, but rear limbs are only on embryos. End tail are horizontal flukes,

nostrils are on top as a blowhole (two in baleen, one in rest), approximately 90 species, all marineexcept for 5 freshwater dolphins. Cetaceans are categorized as toothless filter feeders or toothedcarnivorousToothless whales (~13 species) are also known as baleen whales that have baleen made of keratin.They are the largest whales and animals on earth. The blue whale (Balenoptera musculus) is the largestmammal. Blue whale, fin whale (Balenoptera physalus), minke whale (Balenoptera acutorostrata ) +five other species are known as rorquals, which feed by gulping up schools of fish and krill along withhumpback whale (Megaptera novangliae) which blows curtains of bubbles at fish to herd them. Rightwhales (Eubalena, Caperaea) and boehead whale (Balena mysticetus) have the largest and finestbaleen plates. Gray whales (Eschrichtiuss robustus) are primarily bottom feeders.Toothed whales (Odontoceti) and cetaceans use teeth to hold, not chew prey. Sperm whale (Physetercatadon) is the largest toothed whale. Sperm whale + baleen whales (Mysticeti)= great whales (13

total, one extinct(atlantic gray), 4 endangered (blue, fin, northern right, sei). Debris in sperm whales areglobs called ambergris, common in fine perfumes. Orcas (Orcinus orca) eat seals, sea lions, penguins,fishes, sea otters and other whales. Dolphins travel in pods, herds or schools. Bottlenose dolphin(Tursiops truncatus) is seen in marine parks. North Atlantic right whale (Eubalena glacialis) was thefirst seriously depleted species, favored for floating after being killed. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)Sperm whale is longest and deepest diver, at least 2,250 m(7,380 ft). Marine mammals haveadaptations that prevent nitrogen from dissolving and the bends, and lungs collapse. Foreheads ofsperm whales have a melon with a spermaceti organ, filled with spermaceti.

ChemistrySeawater - General Properties


6/28

High heat capacity and solvent powerWater molecules made up of covalent bonds (bond between nonmetals)Salinity measured in part per thousand (ppt)Average 35 pptMost dense at -2 C, freezes at -2 C (thats seawater, pure water is most dense at 4C and freezes at 0C)pH range between 7.5 and 8.4, so slightly basic, also acts as a kind of buffer solution (solution that resistschange in pH) ensuring ecological stabilityAverage ocean temperature around 4C and average ocean surface temp around 16C

PSU=Practical Salinity Units; because now salinity is measured with a conductivity ratio, the psu was created to be amore accurate, unitless way of describing salinity although people hardly use itdesalination methods of making water potable, types include distillation (boiling to separate, and condense waterback, most productive), reverse osmosis (forcing solution through membrane that eliminates solute), freezing &

thawing (freezing pushes out salt), electrodialysis (electric potential difference transfers salt ions through ion-exchangemembrane), salt adsorption (get all the salts to stick to something else and then separate the water)

Chemicals dissolved in seawatergenerally categorized into 5 categories: major constituents, nutrients, gases, trace elements, and organiccompoundsMajor Constituentsbecause of little variation over time in most places, also called conservative properties of oceanincludes (in order of decreasing concentration) chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), sulfate (SO4

2-), magnesium(Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+); these make up over 99% of all seawaters solutesNutrientsinclude nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), silicon (Si)

measured in parts per million (ppm)plants cannot use nitrogen and phosphorous in pure forms, instead adsorb phosphate (PO43-) and nitrate

(NO3-)

oceanographers refer to these (among other things) as nonconservative properties, solutes whoseconcentrations vary over time and locationGasesmost to least abundant: nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), Argon (Ar),Neon (Ne), and helium (He)levels of O2 and CO2 greatly influenced by photosynthesis and respiration, and so are also regarded asnonconservative propertiesTrace Elements

chemical ingredients occurring in minute quantities in oceanmost occur in less than 1 part per billion (ppb) and even 1 part per trilliondifficult, sometimes even impossible to detect in seawatercan be critically important for either helping and promoting or retarding and killing lifeinclude Lithium (Li), iodine (I), molybdenum (Mo), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al), copper (Cu),Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and Gold (Au)Organic Compoundslarge, complex molecules produced by organismsinclude lipids (fats), proteins, carbohydrates, hormones, and vitaminstypically occur in low concentrations, produced by metabolic and decay processes of organisms

Principal of Constant Proportion/ Constant Composition regardless of salinity, relative


7/28

proportions of conservative properties of seawater stays constant (example: amount of chlorine compared toamount of sodium stays the same in seawater of varying salinities)Chlorine (Cl-) is most abundant solute in seawaterFactors regulating salinityfreshwater input of rivers, which also transports a variety of dissolved substances in ppmevaporation, condensation, adsorption (sticking of ions to a surface)residence time- average length of time ion remains in solution in oceans which is equal to the concentration of thesubstance times the volume of the body of water divided by the rate of input of the substance, generally, the

longer the residence time, the higher concentration and more even distribution of the solutegradients: thermoclines (area of rapidly changing temperature), pycnoclines (density), and haloclines (salinity)freshwater vs. seawater seawater has a lower freezing point, is denser, evaporates at a slower rate, and containsmore dissolved ions -sea ice normally contains less salt than sea water because the salt is forced out beforefreezing occursCO2 combines with seawater to form carbonic acid, making the oceans more acidic which leads to coral bleaching.Osmoregulation:

The Redfield-Richardson Ratio for phytoplankton106 C : 16 O : 1 H

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DDT is used as a pesticide to control certain insects which carried diseases and kill pests.

Harmful Effects on Birds:

Birds lay eggs with extremely thin shells. Because theyre so thin, the adult bird can easily crush the eggs, resulting in a declining

population of a bird species

Changes in courtship behavior

Harmful Effects on Humans:

Damages the liver (may cause liver cancer)Affects the nervous system. People may experience tremors and seizures, and may slow down development

Damages reproductive system.

Probable human carcinogen (direct cause of cancer)

Death- at a concentration above 236 mg of DDT per kg of body weight

Harmful Effects on Fish

Affects microorganisms even in small amounts (micrograms) because the aquatic enviroment brings them in more contact with

DDT

Can slow down growth & photosynthesis in green algae


8/28

Microorganisms don't die from DDT; they keep it within themselves, & it affects other oraganisms because they eat them, thus

consuming DDT.

Related compounds

DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) DDE forms from the breakdown of DDT, and has no commercial use

DDD (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) was used to kill pests to a smaller extent, but no longer in use. It is also a breakdown

product of DDT; specifically, a metabolite, or a product of metabolic action

CCD (Carbonate Compensation Depth)

Basic Definition: The CCD is a depth below which all calcium carbonate dissolves.Factors Affecting the CCD:Supply rate of carbonate Increasing the supply of carbonate allows for more calcium carbonate to dissolve, asthere will be more to dissolve. The depth of the CCD is depressed if more calcium carbonate is present, andshallower if less calcium carbonate is present.Water acidity If the pH of the water is lower (acidic), then it will aid in dissolving the calcium carbonate, sincecalcium carbonate is a basic compound. In turn, this will serve to make the CCD shallower since more calciumcarbonate is dissolved.Water temperature Lowering the temperature increases the solubility of calcium carbonate. The CCD willbecome shallower if temperature decreases, since it will be able to dissolve more calcium carbonate.Water pressure Increasing the pressure increases the solubility of calcium carbonate. The CCD will become

shallower with increased pressure.Carbon dioxide concentration Higher carbon dioxide concentrations increase the solubility of calcium carbonate.As a result, the CCD will be shallower if carbon dioxide concentrations increase.Lysocline-depth at which the rate of dissolution of carbonate increases dramatically, so its not really a gradient it goes

from shallow to deeper (lysocline concentration gradient CCD)

DMS=DiMethylSulfideDMSP=DiMethylSulfonio PropionateDOM=Dissolved Organic Matter

Physics

Two types of currents: Surface: wind-driven, 10% of volume Deep-ocean: density-drivenSurfaceCauses: wind: Atmospheric Circulation -> zonal wind flow -> energy for ocean wavespressure gradient: waves & sea-surface topography create gradients Coriolis deflectionCirculation Gyre- easterlies @ low lat. + westerlies @ mid lat. = huge circling currents. direction = Coriolis (NorthernHemi:Clockwise,Southern Hemi:CounterClockwise) **see belowEkman Spiral- currents deviate from wind and slow with increasing depth [Scandinavian physicist V. Walfrid Ekman]45 degree from wind- surface current90 degree from wind- net water transport (Ekman transport)Upwelling

can extend 100-200 m in strong, persistent wind, surface water converges, bottom water moves up, carryingnutrients and allowing high biological productivity

downwellingsurface waters diverge and water moves down, carrying oxygen and nutrients down with it and make lowbiological productivity

upwelling and downwelling is critical for large-scale circulation (thermohaline)Water convergence -> downwelling (surface water moves down)Water divergence -> upwelling (bottom water moves up)Langmuir Circulation- winds of 3.5+ m/s. remember "corkscrew" [Irving Langmuir]


9/28

Convection cell 10-50 m broad, 5-6 m deep, 100s m-several km long)Langmuir : short-term response to wind :: Ekman : long-term response to windGeostrophic currents- dynamic balance between Coriolis Deflection (CD) & Pressure gradient (PG)wind + CD (up) = converging uphill mound => PGPG (down) + CD = alongslope geostrophic current (actually back to wind's original direction)winds indirectly cause circ. gyres. geostrophic currents deflected by landmasses create the actual gyres.western-boundary intensification- rotation of Earth pinches the West current so it's narrower, deeper and stronger thosein the East side

it's also necessary that Coriolis deflection varies with latitude.An alternative explanation includes vorticity ("curl" of fluid's velocity). Circulation gyres require vorticity to beconstant. In the northern hemisphere, winds create a negative vorticity input. Water going south adds positive vorticityin the eastern boundary, but water going north in the western boundary does not, requiring a tall, narrow current tocounteract the negative vorticity.

Width (km) Depth (km) Speed (m/s) Transport(Sv)

Eastern boundary > 1000 km < 0.5 km < 0.3 m/s (~10km/day)

10-15 Sv

Western boundary < 100 km 1-2 km < 1.5 m/s (~100km/day)

> 50 Sv

rings- Geostrophic curr. (like Gulf Stream) are snake-like and can loop to create ringsinside gyres : warm :: outside gyres : cold **not sure if this is Gulf Stream specific (other ring sites: Kuroshio Current& Brazil Current)warm-core rings- C rotation. warm corecold-core rings- CC rotation. cold coreDeep-OceanThermohaline Circulation- temperature gradient + salinity gradient = density gradient => motion [difficult & expensiveto study]Reminder: sun changes ocean's temperature, processes can add/subtract freshwater and change salinitySeawater at the bottom is generally stable and uniform 5deg C and 35 pptConservative properties are used to classify water massesSubsurface water comes from dense surface polar waters sinking as it moves equatorwardIt takes roughly 1000 years for the water to reach the surface once again.

Water masses: Central Waters (0-1 km)o SPCW- South Pacific Central Waters

o NPCW- North Pacific Central Waters

o NACW- North Atlantic Central Waters

o SACW- South Atlantic Central Waters

o SICW- South Indian Central Waters

o ECW- Equatorial Central Waters

Intermediate Waters (1-2)o NPIW- North Pacific Intermediate Water

o RSIW- Red Sea Intermediate Water

o

MIW- Mediterranean Intermediate Watero AIW- Arctic Intermediate Water

o AAIW- Antarctic Intermediate Water

Deep and Bottom Waters (>2)o CoW- Common Water (AABW + NADW)

o PSW- Pacific Subarctic Water

o NADW- North Atlantic Deep Water

o AADW- Antarctic Deep Water

o NABW- North Atlantic Bottom Water

o AABW- Antarctic Bottom Water


10/28

Large-scale Circulation- "conveyor belt" water flow. sinking at N. Atlantic and upwelling at Pacific/Indian Ocean.somewhat accurate but oversimplified

wave and crest of next wave-wave period: time for two consecutive crests to pass a fixed point-wave frequency: number of times one complete wave will occur per unit time (1 cycle per sec= 1 Hertz)-wave celerity: a.k.a. phase speed; speed the wave crest moves horizontally across the ocean surface (measured inmeters/second)Ocean surface made up of-component waves: have different periods & directions; combine to produce sea: very chaotic state of sea surfacewithout organization, no constant direction, wavelength, or period

-ocean swell: individual waves, crests are more peaked & troughs more cantileveredClassification by periods:-capillary wave: ripples; smallest, generated by small puffs of wind, restored by surface tension; period= less than0.1 of a second-chop: locally generated; period= 1 second-ocean swell: period=10 seconds-gravity waves: most common, generated by wind and storms, restored by gravity; period= between 1 second & 30seconds (most energy around 10 seconds)-seismic sea waves: tsunamis; caused by geological effects, not visible in deep water due to small height and longwavelength; period= minutes & tens of minutes-seiches: back & forth sloshing of water in harbors; period= minutes & tens of minutes-long waves: generated by storms & earthquakes, restored by gravity & coriolis force; period= greater than 5 minutes-tides: longest waves, generated by sun & moon, restored by bottom friction & coriolis force; period= 12 hour & 24hourClassification by method of generation:-wind waves: generated when momentum is transferred from wind to water when wind blows across water surface-impact waves: generated on water surface by earthquakes or other forms of impact (even a small one like a rockthrown into pond) ex: tsunamisClassification by water depth:Wave celerity (c) is directly proportional to wavelength (L) or period (T) & water depth (d)-deep water waves: d> or equal to L, waves unaffected by water longer wavelengths depth since wave base is above sea floor & periods will travel faster-intermediate water waves: 1/20 L> d >1/2 L


11/28

-shallow water waves: d< or equal to 1/20 L, water motion is only horizontal & moves back & as water depth forth near the bottom decreases, waves slow downFor intermediate and shallow water waves, the celerity is regulated by water depth since bottom friction comes intoplayClassification by generating force:-free waves: run independent of generating force (ex: impact waves)-forced waves: dependent upon generating force for continued existence (ex: tides)Dispersion of waves:

Wave dispersion= sorting of waves by wavelengthlongest waves outrun Longer waves travel faster than shorter waves shorter waves & order is created out of chaos (when rock thrown into pond, rings of circular waves propagate away from center & longest waves out in front of nextlongest wave, etc.)Reason why ocean swell leaves behind confused sea present in a storms active wave generation area & outrunsthe storm that first swell to arrive= longest; as storm gets closer, L creates it & T of arriving well will decreaseFactors that influence formation:-wind speed-length of fetch: area that wind has blown over; reason why waves are bigger in the ocean than in ponds- how long the wind has blown over an areaThe greater these variables, the larger the wavesFully developed sea: when waves cant go longer in size under the existing wind conditions since the energy from the

wind equals the energy lost by wakes breaking and leaving the fetchexcess energy must be dissipated Wind may still transfer momentum to ocean even after sea is fully developedWhite caps: foaming wave crests, created when waves break & energy is turbulently dissipated; not caused bydecreasing water depthWave interference:-interaction of several waves of different sizes, direction, & celerity-constructive wave interference: several wave crests or troughs coincide, results in a composite wave with crests ofdifferent waves building up on one another, & composite troughs building down wave much larger than individual wave components; can create rogue waves: unusually large breaking waves composed of several largewaves that have merged momentarily-destructive wave interference: crest of one wave coincides with trough of second wave & cancellation results,

producing composite wave that is smaller than individual component wavesWaves in fetch area continually merging & separating, producing seas: ever changing wave-interference patternsSignificant wave height: average of highest 1/3 of all waves present in an area; always more than the average waveheightWater particles move beneath waves:-motion of the passage of one wave= orbit: anything floating in the water & water particles rotate around a verticalcircle-bigger the wave, larger the orbit-with the passage of one wave, water particles & a float no forward motion disturbed by the wave return to same spotthey began wave energy, not water particles, travel across sea surface of mass-mass transport: slight forward movement of water with the passage of waves; moves water against the coast whenwaves arrive at a shoreline, causing nearshore currents in surf zone

-wave base: depth L , size of orbits not detectable since they drop rapidly with the depth below the water surfaceWaves in shallow water:alters wave form Near shorelines, sea bottom interferes with motion of water particles beneath the wave form & celerity-shallower the water, the slower the celerity which is regulated directly by water depth: C= 7.01rad d mph-waves travel at their slowest rates at the time that they break on the bench-waves bunch up as their wavelengths decrease since leading waves travel slower than those behind them which arein slightly deeper water- as approaching shoreline, height increases & asymmetric wave profile troughs flatten out-redistribution of wave energy s water depth decreases


12/28

-orbital motion of water particles changes from circular shape (deep-water waves) to elliptical shape (shallow-waterwaves)-period does not change (period of wave off a beach = to period at time of its generation in the storm area far out atsea)Wave refraction-bending of wave crest in response to drag along the bottom-different parts of the same crest (which lie at an angle to the shore & to the bottom contours) travel shoreward atvariable celerities

-inshore part of crest (in shallow water): moves more slowly causes wave to landward than offshore part of crest (in

deeper water) reorient itself by bending so that it becomes more parallel to shape of shorelineShore breakers:Wave steepness= H/L : helps predict when and where waves will become unstable and break-as waves enter shallow water, height (H) increases & steepness increases wavelength (L) decreases-wave gets bigger & steeper before collapsing as a breaker at the shorelineCritical wave steepness: H/L = 1/7 , crest is oversteepened & unstable; bottom friction retards the base of wave & topof wave breaking gets ahead-spilling breaker: most common breaker, upper part of crest becomes oversteepened & spills down the front side ofadvancing wave, continually breaking; loses energy across surf zone; forms along shores having great deal of sandspread out over sloping sea bottom-plunging breaker: entire wave front steepens, curls, & collapse, or plunges forward; releases much of its energy

instantaneously; creates narrow surf zone-surging breaker: flat, low waves dont become oversteepened or break, but move smoothly up & down the face ofbeach; reflects much of their energy seaward; occurs when crest does not attain critical wave steepness, fails to break,& reflects off the beach & back into sea; found off steep beaches & seawalls & sea cliffsCollapsing breakers produce waves of translation: water tumbles forward in a foamy, bubble-filled, turbulent masspropelled by its own momentumStanding waves:-do not move horizontally, but remain stationary as water moves beneath them-waves oscillate back & forth about a node: a fixed point-water level raised at one end, simultaneously causing water level to drop at other side-antinodes: maximum vertical displacement, opposite of nodes

-crest loses height & becomes a trough while at the other end, water builds up & becomes a crest-standing wave in a lake, harbor, or estuary=seiches-seiches have natural periods of oscillation proportional to basin length & water depth; can become dangerous underresonance: the period of the force (wind, tides) that stacks the water on one side equals the natural period of oscillationInternal wave- progressive, occurs underwater; moves along the pynoclines (surfaces that separate water masses havingdifferent densities)-travel at much slower speeds than surface waves since difference in density between two water masses is much lessthan it is between air & water-physical size can be larger than ocean swell-periods measured in minutes, wavelengths in hundreds-can attain and exceed 100 metersTsunamis:

-travel around 760 km/hr in open ocean-slows down in shallow water-not dangerous to vessels in open ocean since energy (not mass) is traveling: ocean swell would hide presence of flat,low seismic waves- can grow to height greater than 10 meters when they reach shallow shoreline-flood the shoreline causing catastrophic destruction+ Group wave speed = C/2Light attenuation:


13/28

ENSO=En Nio Southern Oscillation

NAO=North Atlantic OscillationITCZ=Inter-Tropical Convergence ZoneSG=Specific Gravity; ratio of the density of a substance to the density of distilled water

GeologyObvious need-to-knows: the greater the depth, the denser the layer (heavy, dense stuff sinks) the greater the depth, the greater the pressure (miles of rocks weighing on you) for reference: the earth's radius = 6360-70 km' these layers are assumptions, calculated through density, refraction and Snell's law.

Layers by Composition:Layer

Composition Size (km) Size (%)

Crust aluminum, silicon,oxygen

35-50 km .4%

Mantle magnesium, iron,silicon, oxygen

2900 km 68.1%

Core mostly iron alloys, alsonickel

3500 km 31.5%

Notes: note how the general composition of the crust is similar to continental granite's main components (Al, Si, O), whilethe mantle's composition is similar to those of oceanic basalt (Mg, Si, O).

radioactive decay heats the Earth's interior.

Layers by PhysicalState: Layer

State Description Relative positions

Lithosphere solid hard, rigid, brittle crust + upper mantle

Asthenosphere semi-liquid partially melted (weak,plastic)

mantle (ends at ~350km)

Mesosphere solid rigid lower mantle

Core (outer) liquid molten core (size = 2200 km)

Core (inner) solid dense, solid core core (size = 1300 km)

Notes:


14/28

melting temperature is directly proportional to pressure. The layer is liquid when temperature overrides pressure.This is why the inner core is solid, pressure is greater mesosphere is not used a lot anymore. Could be confused with the atmospheric mesosphere movements in the outer core is what creates Earth's magnetic field.

Further Breakdown of the Mantle:Layer

Depth (km) Other stuff

Upper mantle 10-400 km asthenosphere and part of thelithosphere

Transition region 400-650 km source of basaltic magmaLower mantle 650-2890 km the bulk of earth's mass, but little

activity

D'' layer 2700-2890 km really part of the lower mantle(see below)

Some Discontinuities: Mohorovii discontinuity (Moho)- boundary between crust and mantle. Core-mantle boundary (cmb)- self-explanatory

D'' layer- ~200 km above the cmb. Sandwiched between two discontinuities, suggesting a different layer Gutenberg discontinuity- below the D'' layer, core mantle boundary

Lehmann discontinuity- apparently refers two different discontinuities: one between inner/outer core, and the otherat depth of between 190 and 250 kmHydrosphere

Water = 70.8% of Earth's surface97% sea water, 3% fresh water90% of water on Earth is chemically bonded with minerals (not in liquid form)Atmosphere

Layers Altitude Description

Exosphere 500-10,000 km particles can move in/out ofatmosphere

Ionosphere ionized by solar radiationresponsible for radio propagation and auroras

Thermosphere 80-640 km thermo=heat, contains

ionosphere, where shuttlesoperate

Mesosphere 50-80 km meso=middle, where meteorsburn

Stratosphere 7/17-50 km stratus=spreading out; ozonelayer at lower portion

Troposphere Poles:7 km; Equator:17 km tropo=change, most active(weather stuff)

Boundaries Sandwiching Layers? Description

Exobase / Thermopause Thermosphere-Exosphere below:active on insolation

received; above:negligibleatomic collisions

Mesopause Thermosphere-Mesosphere minimum temperature

Stratopause Mesosphere-Stratosphere maximum temperature

Tropopause Stratosphere-Troposphere dry atmosphere above

Notes: As height increases, temperature decreases in troposphere and mesosphere, and increases in stratosphere andthermosphere. 99.9997% of the atmosphere is below 100 km. Main composition: 78% Nitrogen (N2), 21% Oxygen (O2), Argon (Ar), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Neon (Ne)...Biosphere


15/28

life: composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules.Earthquakes and Seismic Waves (wave list is fastest to slowest, least to most dangerous)

Body Waves (Earth's interior): P-waves (primary)- compressional/longitudinal wave (think slinky) S-waves (secondary)- shear/transverse waves. propagates through strike-slip motion, as a result, does not go throughliquid (it's how they found out the outer core is molten)Surface Waves (Earth's surface...): Love waves- transverse, but horizontal, so the wave moves left-right, not up-down.

Rayleigh waves- transverse and vertical, like ocean waves.Shadow zone- area where body waves aren't detected. S-waves' shadow zone is greater b/c of the liquid thingElastic-rebound theory- earthquakes occur due plates rebounding from strain.**** for waves less than 200 km away, dt (in secs.) b/w P/S waves * 8 km/s = distance of wave origin.Sediments

Produced by weathering (Breaking down) of rock into particles and then moved by air, water, or ice; also form byaccumulation of dead organisms shells Can be made out Earths surface, cut at high points (mountains), fill in low points (ocean basins)raise mountain etc. fill ocean basin deepen ocean basin level mountain Tectonic cycle: raise mountain Subdivided based on particle size and formation Colloids- particles smaller than clay formed from rock range break-down Organized from smallest to largest size: colloid, mud (formed from clay and silt), sand, and gravel

Oceans most common sedimentary deposits: mud and sand; gravel very rareFormation classification (5):Authigenic, Biogenic, Volcanogenic, Cosmogenous, Terrigenous, Lithogenic, Hydrogenic(Note Hydrogenic and Authigenic are sometimes interchangeable as are lithogenic and terragenous and the -ous and ic and often mixed up so dont try too hard knowing which goes to which)Descriptions Authigenic- formed when 2 liquids react in a chemical or biochemical reaction Biogenic- fine and coarse grains derived from organic decay (shells, skeletal debris), typically form lime (formed ofcalcium carbonate) and siliceous (composed of silica) muds Volcanogenic- particles formed from volcanic ejection. Cosmogenous- very tiny grains originating from outer space; tend to mix with terrigenous and biogenic sediment

Terrigenous- fine and coarse grains made by rocks on land weathering and eroding; typically produce sand and mud Terrigenous sediment- collection of rock and mineral fragments directly related to source rock Continents are principle suppliers of terrigenous debris 2 most important factors that determine sediments nature: deposition sites energy conditions and particle-sizedistribution Geologists can determine these two factors by examining rocks properties Sediment types vary with latitude and depend on climate Slow rate erosion and sedimentation- water sorts grains more thoroughly according to shape, size, and density; resultsin small grain size variety and uniform appearance Fast erosion and sedimentation- currents have little time to sort grains, poorly sorted (lots of size differences),heterogeneous (non uniform) appearance Average particle size of deposition is a good indicator of environments energy at deposition time

High-energy environment swift and turbulent water; keeps fine particles suspended and resuspends thosemomentarily settled; this disruption of ocean floor separates small grains from bigger ones and transports them intoquieter waters, which are typically deeper Coarse sand deposited under high-energy conditions Low-energy environment- weak currents and quiet water, muds typically accumulate here Larger particles need stronger currents to erode Tiny particles need faster currents to erode Small particles settle more slowly and are easily moved by weak currents Bulk emplacement- large quantities of sediment are transported to the deep-sea floor in a mass and not as individualparticles Pelagic sediment- fine-grained fall-out of terrigenous and biogenic material


16/28

Once buried, grains compacted, cemented and slowly transformed into sedimentary rock Sand becomes sandstone Mud becomes shale if it contains clay, or limestone if it contains carbonate ooze In shelf sedimentation, tides, wind-generated waves, and currents provide energy for eroding and transporting Grain size decreases as distance form shore increases (coarse sandy muddy sand ( sand with some mud) to medium sand and gravel mud mud (mud with some sand) Relict sediment-sediments present solely because of earlier accumulation and very different depositional conditions(under present circumstances, should not be there)

Major Sediment Input Sources in 109 tons/yr:Rivers: 18.3Glaciers and ice sheets: 2.0Wind blown dust: 0.6Coastal erosion: 0.25Volcanic debris: 0.15Groundwater:


17/28

Currents

Plates


18/28

Pacific Ocean

Largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions.Name is derived from the Latin nameMare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese explorerFerdinand Magellan. (not always peaceful though)Actually, Spanish explorer Vasco Nez de Balboa who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, was the first to seeit.169.2 million square kilometers in area, largest division of the World Ocean.Hydrosphere covers about 46% of the Earth's water surface and about 32% of its total surface area.The Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench in the northwestern Pacific is the deepest point in the Pacific and in theworld, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres (35,798 ft).Contains about 250 islands, majority of which found south of equator.The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking from plate tectonics, while the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.

Water temperatures in Ocean vary from freezing in the poleward areas to about 30 C (86 F) near the equator.Salinity also varies latitudinally; water near the equator is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes due toprecipitation.The surface circulation of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific Gyre)and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. Separates deeper, mafic igneous rock ofthe Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins.Within closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanicvolcanic islands that characterize the Pacific basin. Basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shapedvolcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters.Outside the Andesite Line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremostbelt of explosive volcanism. The Ring of Fire is named after the several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the

various subduction zones.Atlantic OceanCovers approximately 22% of Earth's surface; second largest ocean.Occupies an area of 82,400,000 square kilometersAverage depths of the Atlantic, is 3,926 metres.The greatest depth, 8,605 metres is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers(1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 4,000 mi (6,400 km) in the south.Principal feature of the bathymetry is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends fromIceland in the north to approximately 58 South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000mi).A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length.


19/28

The South Atlantic Ocean (Atlantic Ocean south of equator) has additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material.Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity onland and then washed to sea. Mostly concentrated on continental shelves and thickest off the mouths of large rivers oroff desert coasts.Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, cover most of the ocean floorand ranging in thickness from 60 to 3,300 metres.Atlantic averaged to be saltiest of the world's major oceans; salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges

from 33 to 37 parts per thousandMaximum salinity values occur at about 25 north and south of the equator, in subtropical regions with low rainfalland high evaporation.Because of the Coriolis effect, water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas watercirculation in the South Atlantic is counter-clockwise.The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal. Generally moves from south to north, but in latitudes above40 North some east-west oscillation occurs.Bermuda Triangle found in the ocean.Arctic OceanArctic Ocean located in the northern hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar regionSmallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions.Occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km

The coastline length is 45,390 kilometersConnected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea andLabrador Sea.Arctic Ocean is largely covered by sea ice throughout the year. Temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the icecover melts and freezes.Salinity is the lowest on average due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams, andlimited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities.Temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater, slightly belowzero degrees Celsius.In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is onereason why the Arctic does not experience the extremes of temperature seen on the Antarctic continent.

Considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of theocean is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April, about20 to 50 centimetersThe polar ice pack is thinning, and there is a seasonal hole in ozone layer in many years. Many scientists arepresently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter theNorth Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns.Indian OceanThird largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface.Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20 east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, andfrom the Pacific by the 147 east meridian.Ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres wide at the southern tips of Africa and AustraliaArea is 73,556,000 square kilometres if including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 cubic kilometersOcean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict.Because of its size, however, no nation had successfully dominated most of it until the early 1800s when the UnitedKingdom controlled much of the surrounding land. After the decline of the British Empire, the ocean has since beendominated by India and Australia.Climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon or tornado wind system. Strong north-east winds blow fromOctober until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail.The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world.Youngest of the major oceans. Has active spreading ridges: Carlsberg, Southwest Indian Ridge, Southeast IndianRidge and the Mid Indian RidgesSouthern Ocean:


20/28

Aka Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean and the South Polar OceanComprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean south of 60 S latitude.The International Hydrographic Organization has designated the Southern Ocean as the fourth largest oceanicdivision encircling Antarctica (most recently defined, 2000).Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 meters.Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths up to 800 meterscompared to a global mean of 133 meters (436 ft).Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates from an average

minimum of 2.6 million square kilometers in March to about 18.8 million square kilometers in September, more than asevenfold increase in area.The Southern Ocean's greatest depth of 7,235 meters occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at6000'S, 024W.Sea-temperatures vary from about 2 to 10 C.Cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently become intense because of the temperature-contrast between ice and open ocean.

Social SciencesVoyages

1000-600 B.C. Phoenicians explore the Mediterranean Sea, sail to Cornwall, England325 B.C. Pytheas becomes the first to circumnavigate England and estimate the length of its shoreline. Possiblyreached Norway and Iceland.982 Eric the Red becomes the first to cross the Atlantic, and discovered the Baffin Island in Canada.1487-1488 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope1492 Christopher Columbus discovers North America, but believed it was India (note: he was not the first to discoverit, the Vikings were, but he is given credit)1498 Vasco de Gama Sails around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India1499-1502 Amerigo Vespucci makes trips to South America and discovers that it extends further than originallybelieve. The Americas are named after him, and is the first to demonstrate that Colubmus had discovered a newcontinent, and not a part of Asia1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered and explored Brazil

1519 Ferdinand Magellan attempts to circumnavigate the globe, but dies in the Phillipines, and Sebastian del Canocompletes the voyage in 1522. The only remaining ship was the HMS Victoria1768 James Cook makes his first major voyage on the HMS Endeavour, and charted the coast of New Zealand. Healso reached as far as Australia.1772-1775 James Cook, this time aboard the HMS Adventure and the HMS Resolution, sails around the Cape ofGood Hope and circumnavigates the globe, staying around 60 degrees south latitude.1778-1779 James Cooks final voyage, he discovers many islands, including the Hawaiian Islands, and then north tothe Bering Sea. In doing so, be became the first man to sail the polar seas of both hemispheres.1817-1818 Sir John Ross goes into the Arctic Ocean to explore the Baffin Islands and sounds the bottom at a depth of1.8km, digging up starfish and mud worms.1831-1836 The HMS Beagle, captained by Robert Fitzroy, with Charles Darwin aboard as a naturalist, made a five

year voyage, where Darwin developed his idea of natural selection through the study of the Galapagos Islands andother life around South America.1838-1842 United States Exploring Expedition (aka Ex. Ex., the Wilkes Expedition) an expedition by the UnitedStates Navy, was led by Lt. Charles Wilkes to explore the Southern Seas. The ships included the commandingVincennes, the Peacock, the Porpoise, the Relief, the Seagull, and the Flying Fish. This was significant in that theydiscovered a part of Antarctica west of the Balleny Islands, later named Wilkes Land. The expedition helped spurscientific experimentation in the ninth century.1872-1876 C. Wyville Thomson, on the HMS Challenger, refuted Edward Forbes claim that life could not exist atdepths below 550m. After 360+ soundings and twenty-three years of research, their findings were published into fiftyvolumes.


21/28

1893 Fridjof Nansen on the Fram attempted to be the first to reach the North Pole. They were trapped in Siberia,400km from the pole. Frederick Johansen left with Nansen to reach the pole, but failed. The Fram is now on display inOslo, Norway.1925-1927 The German Meteor Expedition, using three ships, sounded the ocean floor. Their efforts were the mostcomplete examination of the sea floor of their day, and their pattern is still copied today.1958 The submarine, the USS Nautilus, reaches the North Pole, from under the ice.1959-1965 International Indian Ocean Expedition by the UN1960 The submersible Trieste becomes the first craft to reach Challenger Deep (10,900m)

1970s International Decade of Ocean Exploration supported by the UN and NSF.1968-1975 The Deep Sea Drilling Project aimed to confirm sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics by drilling intosediments. The Glomar Challenger had the latest equipment and performed much of the drilling.1985 Joides Resolution replaces the Glomar Challenger1986 Alvin, a submersible, discovers the wreck of the RMS Titanic. It also discovered the USS Scorpion, a Skipjackclass submarine.2008 China launches the largest expedition to date, with 145 scientists for a 250 expedition to explore the deep-seabottom and diversity in the Indian Ocean.Explorers

Robert Ballard (1942 present day) Best known for discovering Titanic, pioneer in early use of deep-divingsubmarines

Polynesians (1800 BC 700 AD) used navigation to routinely make long voyages of thousands of miles of openocean, journeying to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed down through oraltradition from navigator to apprentice.

Vikings (late 8 to early 11th century) used longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and Volga River inRussia and as far west as Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland.

Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500) Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488 andthe first European known to have done so.

Vasco de Gama (1460-1524) Portuguese explorer that made a journey in 1497 that lasted for over 3 months andsailed over 6,000 miles of open ocean, making it the longest journey out of sight of land made by the time. After thisfirst trip, only 1/3 of his men returned to Portugal in 1499, since the rest died on the trip. He was the first to sail toIndia.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) Portuguese maritime explorer who tried to find a westward route to the Spice

Islands of Indonesia. He became the first person to lead an expedition across the Pacific Ocean and this was also thefirst successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth. Even though Ferdinand Magellan was the one who named thePacific Ocean, he technically wasnt the first person to see the Pacific. That would be Vasco Nunez de Balboa, so justkeep that in mind.

Sebastian del Cano (1476-1526) Accompanied Magellan in 1519 and led the expedition after Magellans death. Hecompleted the first world circumnavigation which had been led by Ferdinand Magellan after Magellan died.Scientists

Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) Norwegian explorer, led first crossing of Greenland by ski. In 1893, sailed to Arcticin the Fram; Fram designed to deliberately drift north through the sea ice and this journey took more than 3 years.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) known for natural selection or survival of the fittest and making a 5-year voyage onHMS Beagle along with Robert Fitzroy. In 1859, wrote a book called On the Origin of Species about evolution theory

through natural selection. Formed theory about atoll formation.James Cook (1728-1779) an English explorer, navigator, and cartographer. He was the first to map Newfoundlandand achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian islands as well asbeing the first to circumnavigate New Zealand. Ultimately rose to the rank of captain of the British Royal Navy and in1766 became commander of HMS Endeavour.

Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806-1873) His nicknames included Pathfinder of the Seas, Father of modernOceanography and Naval Meteorology, and Scientist of the Seas. He wrote the first extensive and comprehensivebook on oceanography to be published, titled Physical Geography of the Sea in 1855.

Charles Wyville Thompson (1830-1882) He persuaded the Royal Navy to let him use HMS Lightning and HMSPorcupine for deep sea dredging in the summers of 1868 and 1869. He became chief scientist of the HMS Challenger


22/28

in 1872, and collected a vast amount of data on this particular voyage, which was compiled to fill a 50-volumeChallenger Report.

Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) Known for his continental drift and plate tectonics theory. He proposed that thecontinents had drifted or rifted apart gradually from the supercontinent of Pangea over time, and his first edition of TheOrigins of Continents and Oceans outlined this theory and was published in 1915Other

Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) He was commonly known as le Commandant Cousteau or CaptainCousteau. He and Emile Gagnan developed the aqualung in 1943; the aqualung was the original name for the first

open-circuit scuba diving equipment.Shale Niskin inventor of the Niskin bottle, which was the successor to the Nansen bottle. The Niskin bottle waspatented in 1966.Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) a hydrographer and officer in Britains Royal Navy; he is the creator of theBeaufort scale for indicating wind force.Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt (1892-1973) Considered the inventor of radar; though radar development wasstarted elsewhere, he worked on some of the first workable radar systems.Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) He became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns and he learnedenough to chart the Gulf Stream; it got published in 1770.Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) Joined Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the New World as agentleman volunteer. He is widely credited with discovering Florida, but he may not have been the first European toreach the peninsula. He is also known for searching for the Fountain of Youth. He was also the first one to describe the

powerful Florida current.Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519) He is best known for crossing the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, becoming thefirst European to see the Pacific Ocean.Otto Neumann Sverdrup (1854-1930) He joined Fridtjof Nansens 1888 expedition of crossing Greenland. In 1893,he was put in charge of the Fram while Nansen tried to reach the North Pole.Robert Fitzroy (1805-1865) He was the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins voyage.Sylvia Alice Earle (1935-present day) From 1990-1992, she was the chief scientist of NOAA. She is sometimescalled Her Deepness or The Sturgeon General. She set a womens depth record of 1250 feet (381 meters), as wellas holding the womens record for a solo dive in a deep submersible of 3,280 feet (1000 meters).Ed Ricketts (1897-1948) an American marine biologist, friend of author John Steinbeck.Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) a British scientist, he is noted for discovering hydrogen, which he called inflammable

air.James Clark Ross (1800-1862) a British naval officer and explorer. In 1812, he entered the navy under his uncle SirJohn Ross and went with Sir John and William Parry on Sir John Rosss first Arctic Journey searching for theNorthwest Passage in 1818. On 1831 of this trip, Sir John Ross located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on theBoothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada.Harald Sverdrup (1888-1957) a Norwegian oceanographer and meteorologist who made many important theoreticaldiscoveries in these fields. The sverdrup, a unit of volume flux, was named after him.Sir John Ross (1777-1856) a Scottish rear admiral and Arctic explorer. In 1818 he received command of an Arcticexpedition organized by the Admiralty, the first of a new series to solve the question of a Northwest Passage leadingfrom Europe to West America. In 1850 he journeyed to the Arctic regions searching for Sir John Franklin and hisexpedition, but he didnt find them.Edmond Halley (1656-1742) an English astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist and physicist. In

1686 he published the second part of his results from his St. Helena expedition, which consisted of a paper and chart ontrade winds and monsoons. In this, he identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. He also establishedthe relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level.George Hadley (1685-1786) English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism bywhich Trade Winds are sustained.Jacques Piccard (1922-2008) Swish oceanographer and engineer known for developing underwater vehicles forstudying ocean currents. He is the only other person besides Don Walsh (and now James Cameron Mar 25 2012, in theDeepsea Challenger with 3D cameras) to have explored Challenger Deep.Robert Boyle (1627-1691) British scientist. He is probably most famous for Boyles Law, which states that aspressure increases, volume increases; pressure and volume are inversely related.


23/28

Rachel Carson (1906-1964) an American marine biologist. She is most famous for her book Silent Spring, publishedin 1962 that documented the horrors caused by pollution in the living world.Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) He is the most famous in ocean management for popularizing the term freedom of theseas through his treatise Mare Liberum.Also Some more Dates1903=Scripps Institution of Biological Research, later Scripps Institution of Oceanography, founded at UC San Diego.First Oceanographic Institute established.1912=Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift and the Titanic sank.

1985=JOIDES Resolution replaced the Glomar Challenger.1998= International Year of the OceanIDOE=International Decade of Ocean Exploration; 1970s, improve our scientific knowledge of allaspects of the oceans.IGY=International Geophysical Year; 1957-1958; international effort to coordinate the geophysicalinvestigation of Earth.EPA=Environmental Protection Agency; 1988; to preserve the Gulf of MexicoFAO=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsNASA=National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNOAA=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; a federal agency focused on the condition of the oceans

and the atmosphere

GEOSECS=Geochemical Ocean Sections project, begun in 1972. Studies chemical make-up andproperties of water. Analyzes water for 23 chemicals, 15 isotopes, and particulates. In order to explain the nature ofocean circulation, mixing, and the biogeochemical recycling of chemical substances.GLOBEC=Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics-will increase our understanding of the causes ofvariations in the populations of marine organisms resulting from global climate change.

Marine PolicyCurrents in Ocean Politics: Oceans in Context

Ocean provides about 97% water supply, 99% of worlds habitat, almost 75% of worlds oxygenHave only explored about 5% of the ocean1609 Hugo Grotius wrote Mare Liberum, the freedom of the seas, which said that the ocean could not be owned

by any person or nation, became limited in 1958Territorial seas waters that extended from low tide for a distance of 3 nautical milesUNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea first one in 1956-58 in Geneva, Switzerland (four

treaties made, many problems remained), the second in 1960 in Geneva again (only six weeks, nothing decided, andthe third took place from 1973-82 in New York (actually decided many things)

Common-pool resource controlled by a community that imposes limits on the use of itOpen-pool resource no limits placed on the resourceEEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) area that extends 200 miles from a coast

Making Waves: Problems, Controversies, and SolutionsIntegrated Coastal Management (ICM) must be organized at an ecological and governmental level

Sustainable development can be achieved by insulating the system and its part from disruptions by human

activitiesCZMA Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 places first 3 miles of ocean within the jurisdiction of the stateOceans Act of 2000 intended to create a unified ocean and coastal policy

FishingFish account for ~16% of all animal protein intake, almost 40% in developing nationsWorld fish catch nearly doubled from 50M tons in 1975 to 95M tons in 1995UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) reported in 2000 that 60% of the worlds fisheries (and of the top

200 fish species) are becoming depleted due to overfishingBlack sea increase in jellyfish due to removal of predators has reduced their major fisheries from 26 to 5By-catch wastes about 27 million tons of fish annually (about 1/3 of total catch)Overfishing mostly due to: overcapitalization, open-access fishing regimes, and poor knowledge about fisheries


24/28

U.S. domestic fishing policy in the Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996 and the Oceans Act of 2000Maximum (sustainable) yield an idealistic goal to regulate fishing so the greatest amount of fish are taken without

impairing a fisherys ability to produce more fishComponents that remain the same demands for maximum yield, regional control, and indirect regulation of the

fishery industry47-50% of the worlds fisheries are fully exploited, another 15-18% are overexploited, and 9-10% are either

depleted or recovering from depletionStarting 1950s world fish catch increased about 6% every year until 1970s

Approx. 90% of global fish catches are under the control of coastal nations

FAO (UN Food and Agriculture Organization) establishes a framework in which regional fisheries can work together to manage fishing and insure fisheries will remain plentiful

FSA (Fishery Stock Agreement in 2002) allows one state to interfere with the fishing vessels of another state, onlyapplies to migratory and straddling fishWhaling

International Whaling Commission (IWC) created in 1946 by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

In 1946 20 whaling nations formed the International Whaling Commission to regulate whale hunting. United StatesCongress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. IWC declared moratorium on commercial whaling in1985, Norway, japan and Iceland continued in 1988 as scientific research.

TAC total allowable catch

Japan kills over 500 (Norway 700) minke whales per year, which is used for sashimiNorth Atlantic Marine Mammals Commission (NAMMCO) est. in 1992, want to reclaim commercial whaling

under scientific wildlife management modelsSea-Level Rise

Has been rising 2 mm per year since the mid1800sOver past century, global temperature has risen over .5 C and expected to increase by another 1.4-5.8 C in the next

100 yearsGreenland ice sheet is losing ~51 CUBIC KM per year2.997% of freshwater is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps2002 piece of Antarctic ice sheet the size of CT broke offw/ ice sheet collapse sea levels could rise 20 or 200 ft (west or east ice sheets); w/o ice sheet collapse, could rise 1

meter in 100 yearsTuvalu, Maldives, coastal-dwellers would all be in danger70% of the worlds beaches are eroding, partly due to rising sea levels1992 United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate Change nations had to come up with a plan to reduce

global emissions, later introduced the Kyoto Protocol in 1997Antarctica increasing 2.7 C, Alaska 3.8 C


25/28

IPCC=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

TechnologyInstrumentationacoustic oceanography: sound transmitts more efficiently in waterAcoustic Recording Packages (ARPs) - long-term, autonomous devices which record marine mammal callsASIMET - Air-Sea Interaction METeorology, set of seven very precise sensors that measure how energy and watermove between the ocean and atmosphereBIOMAPER I/II - set of sensors on a long aluminum frame that resembles the tail of a World War II airplane, towed,used to study phytoplankton and zooplankton over areas that are too large to study with the traditional net-and-

microscope method(bongo paired) zooplankton net - one of the simplest biological samplers, advantages = lightweight/easy to operate,disadvantages = nets do not open/closeecho sounding - measuring depth by timing reflection of sound wave from seabedtriangulation - locating craft measuring time to reach 2 other craftsSound Surveillance System (SOSUS) antisubmarine warfare system established by U. S. Navy consists of network ofhydrophones in Northern Hemisphere (so sensitive can detect # of propellers), geophysical applications include seismicreflection / refractionswallow floats - instruments that sink to predefined depth then follow current sending signals with pingeracoustic Doppler current profiler - does what it saysacoustic tomography - uses acoustic travel time to determine physical character of oceanic region of propagation


26/28

bathythermograph (BT) - torpedo-shaped instrument used to record temperature changes of seawater with depth whileship is underway; expendable BT (XBT) in greater use todaybox corer - heavy boxes with cylinders on the bottom which collect sediment samples up 100 cm deep (when leadweights are added); little perturbationchronometer - mechanical clock engineered to high precision and used to keep time over sea; John Harrison famouslybuilt 4 modelsCoastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) - satellite remote sensing instrument flown aboard U. S. satelliteNimbus 7between 1978-86. Detected absorption of wavelengths by chlorophyll, apped suspended sediments, and measured

changing surface temperaturescompass - origins unknown, used in China / europe by 12th century, magnetized needles point north, magnetic northpole not lined up perfectly with true north; early 12th century saw gyrocompass, 2 gyroscopes detect motion, orienting3rd to true northCrittercam: NatGeo, used on whales, emperor penguins, etc.CTD profiler - measures conductivity (by induction), temperature (by resistance thermometers or thermosistors), anddepth (strain gauge) as it descends towards seabedcurrent meter - records speed / direction of ocean currents, numerous designs; modern developments include vector-averaging current meters (VACMs) and Aanderaa current metersDeep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) - first program to conduct worldwide sampling of sediments & rocks deep beneaththe seafloor; ran from 1968-83 then replaced by ODPODP=Ocean Drilling Program. Involves 20 countries and spends more than $50 million/year. Drills

holes using JOIDES Resolution. Goal: to discover the geological histories of the ocean basins and their margins. Ranfrom 1985 to 2003 Replaced by IODPIODP=Integrated Ocean Drilling Program;JOIDES=Joint Oceanographic Institution for Deep Earth Samplingdredge - device for scraping or sucking the seabeddrift net - allowed to drift free in a sea or lake; controversial, up to 50 km; when lost become 'ghost nets'.Earth Observing System - program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientificinstruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations; inludes Jason 1 (TOPEX/Posiedon follow-up),ICESat (Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite), Aquarius (global sea surface salinity)energy from the sea - tidal power (good for Britain, only 20 sites in world identified as possible sites), waves, OTEC(ocean thermal energy conversion), hydro-electric...

flow cytometer - measures amount of microscopic particles in flowfluorometer - device which measures parameters of fluoresence in turn giving presence and the amount of specificmolecules in a medium.GPS - 'constellation' of satellites and stands for Global Positioning Systemgrab sampler - double-shovel mawhydrophone - underwater microphone to record / listen to soundsLBL - long base line sonar. acoustic positioning system. USBL (Ultra-Short) more accurate.light-dark bottle method - measuring photosynthesis of e.g. phytoplankton by placing 2 samples in light/dark bottleslong-lining: thousands of hooks single line for fishing.LVP = Large Volume Water Transfer Systemsmagnetometer - instrument used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in the vicinityMOCNESS - Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System, much-improved, high-tech version of

the humble sampling netmoored profiler - makes repeated measurements of ocean currents and water properties up and down through almostthe entire water column, attached to cableNansen bottle - device for obtaining samples of seawater at a specific depth; superceded by Niskin bottleNootka buoy - offers scientists the equivalent of a wireless hotspot in the middle of the deep oceanOcean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) - measure movement in the Earth's crust, since about 90 percent of all naturalearthquakes occur underwater, use inertiaOcean Drilling Program - 1985 successor to DSDP. 2004 + "Integrated"piston corer - along with gravity corer (shallowest) and platform drilling (deepest)quadrat: measured and marked rectangle, often 100 squares, used in ecology to isolate a sample.radar altimeter - measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft


27/28

radiometric dating - isotopes, long-term (uranium-lead) to short-term (carbon-14)|RAFOS - SOFAR spelled backwards, floats which use acoustic tracking to map mean currents; also called DeepLagrangian Drifters, or DLDs.reversing thermometer - as long as it's upside down, keeps current temperature until flipped uprightRosette sampler - probably the most commonly used water samplersalinometer - measures salinity using: electrical conductivity (ec meter), specific gravity (hydrometer)SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) - Jacques-Yves Cousteau & Emile Gagnan made Aqualung,40 min casual, rebreather & stuff -> 7.5 hrs if soda lime scrubber (which prevents CO2 poisoning) lasts

SEASAT - first satellite designed for remote sensing of oceans and had onboard the first spaceborne synthetic apertureradar (SAR) - form of radar in which the large, highly-directional rotating antenna used by conventional radar isreplaced with many low-directivity small stationary antennas scattered over some area near or around the target areaSecchi disk - measures water clarity, drop it down and wait until its not visible (Secchi depth), pattern alternatingshaded quadrants, nephelometer - light beam / particle measurer more accuratesediment traps - containers that scientists place in the water to collect marine snow falling toward the sea floor.seine - large net that hangs vertically in the water by attaching weights along the bottom edge and floats along the topsextant - instrument generally used to measure the altitude of a celestial object above the horizonside-scan sonar - create efficiently an image of large areas of the sea floorSOFAR (sound fixing and ranging) - sofar bomb is a long-range position-fixing system which uses explosive sound;sofar channel is where sound speed is minimum and sound carries thousands of milesSONAR (sound navigation and ranging): technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater) to navigate,

communicate or to detect other vesselsspray glider - robotic submarines used to take vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and turbidityTED: Turtle Exclusion Device, really effectivetransmissiometer - measures beam attenuation coefficienttrawl: large net dragged behind fishingtrolling (angling): multiple lines fishing for pelagic fishtrepanging - collection / harvesting of sea cucumberslonglining - single line many hooksdredging - scraping bottom sedimentsEulerian measurement: fixed place. finds current direction w/ wind vanes, velocity w/ impeller (rotating propeller)Lagrangian measurement: tracking buoys to measure water flow and velocity. makes spaghetti diagrams

otter board: means for opening net mouthsTowed Camera System "TowCam" - provides very high quality digital imagery of seafloor terrains to 6,000 metersdepth with the capability to collect rock/lava samples and water samples concurrently.Video Plankton Recorder (VPR) - underwater video microscope system.SOFAR=SOund Fixing and RangingSONAR=SOund Navigation and RangingSOSUS=Sound SUrveillance SystemSCUBA=Self-Contained Underwater Breathing ApparatusROV=Remotely Operated VehicleFLIP=FLoating Instrument Platform; 100 meter hollow tube with a research station at one end; it istowed out to a research site, its ballast tanks are filled with water, and then it flips from horizontal to perpendicular,allowing scientists to conduct underwater tests. Created in 1963 by Scripps, Woods

Hole, and Columbia University.GCM=Global Circulation ModelGLORIA=Geological LOng Range Inclined Asdic; towed at a shallow depthJAMSTEC=JApan Marine Science and TEchnology CenterSatellites

AVHRR - advanced very high resolution radiometer. sense sea-surface temperatures using infrared radiationJERS- Japanese Earth Resource Satellites. environmental and resource observation programERS - European Environmental Remote Sensing. all-weather radar and microwave systesms that can see even whensatellite's view is obscured by clouds and darknessSEASTAR - carries a color scanner known as SeaWiFS or sea-viewing wide-field-of-view sensor (works like CZCS)ADEOS - Advanced Earth Observing Satellite


28/28

TOMS - Total Ozone Mapping SpectrometerSEASAT (1978) - first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth's oceans and had onboard thefirst spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR)TOPEX/Poseidon (1992) - joint satellite mission between to map sea surface topography, Walter Munk described it asmost successful ocean experiment ever, radar altimeter provided the first continuous global coverage of the surfacetopography of the oceansHiSeasNet - new satellite communications network designed specifically to provide continuous Internet connectivityfor oceanographic research ships and platforms

Jason-1 (2001) - satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation, study the ties between the oceanand the atmosphere, improve global climate forecasts and predictions, and monitor events such as El Nio and oceaneddies. Successor to TOPEX/PoseidonAqua (2002) - multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth, studying the precipitation,evaporation, and cycling of waterAquarius - planned NASA satellite mission to measure global sea surface salinity to better predict future climateconditions; scheduled for launch on September 5, 2009National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) - US next-generation satellite systemthat will monitor the Earth's weather, atmosphere, oceans, land and near-space environmentTerra: NASA scientific research satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth, flagship of the Earth ObservingSystem (EOS); holds ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer), CERES (Cloudsand the Earth's Radiant Energy System), MISR (Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer), MODIS (Moderate-

resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), and MOPITT (Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere)GEOSAT- Geodetic Satellite. US. Navy. 1985. geoid info. more closely repeated path than Seasat. pretty goodresolution.sarStations & Underwater Habitats

Martha's Vineyard Coastal Observatory (MVCO) - place that keeps careful track of the North Atlantic, day andnight, every day of the year Aquarius - underwater habitat located in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, one of the only underwaterresearch facilities in the world SEALAB I, II, and III - experimental underwater habita

OSB Tryout Packet 2012

Documents

Transcript of OSB Tryout Packet 2012