Origins of Plate Tectonic TheORY
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Origins of Plate Tectonic TheoryBY ANNE E. EGGER, PH.D.
Reading
Quiz
Resources
10!"
Table of contents
Terms you should know Boo#$ar#
Glossary Ter$s
The Hi$alayas are often referre% to as the &roof of the 'orl%& (eca)se they
host the highest *ea#s on Earth, $ost fa$o)sly +t. Eerest at -,-- $eters
a(oe sea leel. B)t the roc# that ca*s +t. Eerest isli$estone, a ty*e of
roc# that for$s at the (otto$ of 'ar$, shallo' seas an% is co$*ose%
*ri$arily of fossili/e% $arine creat)res, eerything fro$ *lan#ton to cla$s
an% sh. or years, geologists str)ggle% to e2*lain ho' the re$ains of tiny
sea organis$sco)l% e2ist at the to* of a $o)ntain range.
3nto the 1400s, $any scientists (eliee% that as Earth coole% after its
for$ation, the *lanet5s s)rfacecontracte% an% 'rin#le% li#e the s#in of an
a**le, s)(6ecte% to the s)n an% %rying o)t oer ti$e. The contraction theory,
in%e*en%ently *ro*ose% (y t'o *ro$inent scientists in the late 1-00s an%
early 1400s, i$*lie% that $o)ntain ranges li#e the Hi$alayas 'ere force% )*
(y the 'rin#ling *rocess. This theory ass)$e% that all of the feat)res on
Earth ha% for$e% %)ring one cooling eent an% that the *lanet 'as relatiely
static, changing little as the cooling 7an% 'rin#ling8 slo'e% to a halt oer$illions of years.
Wegener proposes "continental drift"
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Alfre% 9egener, a Ger$an geo*hysicist an% $eteorologist, 'as not satise%
(y this e2*lanation. His i%eas %re' on the 'i%ely recogni/e% fact that Africa
an% :o)th A$erica a**eare% to t together li#e 6igsa' *)//le *ieces. He
collecte% *aleocli$ate %ata, or infor$ation a(o)t 'hat the cli$ate'as li#e
in the geologic *ast as recor%e% in roc#s, fro$ the continents on (oth si%es
of the Atlantic 7ig)re 18. He recogni/e% that (elts of coal, 'hich for$s in
tro*ical regions, crosse% fro$ North A$erica in E)ro*e an% Asia, far north of
the $o%ern tro*ics. He also fo)n% ei%encethat an ice sheet ha% once
a%ance% fro$ so)thern Africa an% 3n%ia 7see ig)re 18, a *heno$enon that
'as i$*ossi(le to e2*lain in the $o%ern arrange$ent of the continents.
Fi
gure 1:9egener;s $a* of *aleocli$ate %ata fro$ his 141< *)(lication,sho'ing the continents 6oine% together an% the (an%s of si$ilar roc# ty*esthat crosse% the oceans 79egener, 14"8.
To e2*lain these %ata, 9egener *ro*ose% the theoryof continental %riftin his
(oo# The Origins of the =ontinents an% the Oceans, *)(lishe% in Ger$an in
141< an% in English in 14" 79egener, 14"8. His theory state% that all of
the continents ha% originally (een 6oine% together %)ring the ti$e *erio%
calle% the =ar(onifero)s 7no' #no'n to (e a(o)t !00>!?0 $illion years ago8
in a s)*ercontinent calle% Pangaea7see ig)re " for his %e*iction8. By the
Eocene 7a(o)t
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ha% (ro#en a*art an% 'ere far eno)gh a*art that s*ecies co)l% not easily
$igrate fro$ one to the other 7see ig)re ! for his %e*iction8.
Fi
gure :9egener;s %e*iction of Pangaea 79egener, 14"8. The %otte% areas'o)l% hae (een 'ar$, shallo' seas. 9egener *roi%e% the *resent>%ayo)tlines an% the riers for the *)r*ose of i%entication only.
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Fi
gure !:A%%itional i$ages fro$ 9egener;s *)(lication, sho'ing ho' thecontinents @%rifte% thro)gh ti$e 79egener, 14"8.
ri#ing the drift
9hen 9egener5s (oo# 'as translate% into English, rench, :*anish, an%
R)ssian in 14", he 'as 'i%ely ri%ic)le% for his s)ggestion that the
continents ha% $oe%. One of the $ain *ro(le$s 'ith histheory'as that he
%i% not *ro*ose a %riing $echanis$ for the $otion of the continents. 9hat
'as the forcethat $oe% the continents 9here %i% it co$e fro$ Ho'
$)ch force 'as nee%e% to $oe a continent
The %riing $echanis$, an i$*ortant #ey to the continental %rifttheory, lay
o)t of reach )ntil the 14?0s. 9egener ha% $a%e his clai$s (ase%
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on %atafro$ the continents, ()t the oceans coer C0 *ercent of
Earth5s s)rface a ast area hi%%en fro$ his ie' )n%er #ilo$eters of 'ater.
B)t the rst an% secon% 9orl% 9ars (ro)ght $a6or technical an% scientic
%eelo*$ents that allo'e% scientists to 718 $a* the ocean oor an% 7"8
$eas)re the $agnetis$of seaoorroc#s in %etail. These t'o sets of %ata
*roi%e% geologists 'ith a%%itional ei%encefor the *rocessof continental
%rift.
Comprehension Checkpoint
Why wasn$t Wegener$s theory of continental drift widely accepted at
%rst&
9egener %i% not *ro*ose a %riing force (ehin% continental %rift.
The continents of the 'orl% %i% not loo# as if they co)l% hae ttogether.
'apping the ocean (oor
Before the 14"0s, the cr)st(elo' the seas 'as tho)ght to (e at an%
feat)reless. D)ring 9orl% 9ar 3, ho'eer, shi*s eF)i**e% 'ith sonar (egan
to *ro%)ce %ataa(o)t the to*ogra*hy of the seaoor. These sonar $a*s
sho'e% the seaoor to (e anything ()t feat)reless instea%, the ocean oor
hoste% alleys %ee*er than the Gran% =anyon, $o)ntain chains rialing the
An%es (oth in length an% height, as 'ell as ast, at *lains.
+ost s)r*rising to scientists, a long ri%ge 'as fo)n% to r)n %o'n the $i%%le
of the Atlantic Ocean, rising 1 to " #$ a(oe the s)rro)n%ing ocean oor an%
*aralleling the continental coasts on (oth si%es. :i$ilar feat)res, calle%
@$i%>ocean ri%ges (y their %iscoerers, 'ere $a**e% in the eastern Pacic
Ocean an% the 'estern 3n%ian Ocean. Base% on the fact that they 'ere
*arallel to the e%ges of the continents, the ri%ges ha% so$ething to %o
'ith continental %rift, ()t 'hat
3n a 14?" *a*er entitle% &History of Ocean Basins,& Harry Hess, a geologist atPrinceton niersity, *ro*ose% that the $i%>ocean ri%ges$ar#e% regions
'here hot $ag$arose close to the s)rface7Hess, 14?"8. )rther, he
s)ggeste% that the e2tr)sionof $ag$a at the ri%ges *)she% the ocean oor
a'ay fro$ the ri%ges li#e a coneyor (elt. 3n %ee* trenches li#e those fo)n%
o the coast of :o)th A$erica an% Ia*an, the s*rea%ing ocean oor 'as
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force% %o'n (elo' the thic# continents in regions he
calle% s)(%)ction/ones. Hess5s theoryof &seaoor s*rea%ing& oere% a
co$*elling %riing $echanis$ for 9egener5s continental %rift, ()t it nee%e%
$ore *roof.
Comprehension Checkpoint
)cean (oors around the world
are $ostly at 'ith so$e ran%o$ ri%ges an% alleys.
hae %ee* alleys an% ri%ges that *arallel continental coasts.
*ea(oor magnetism
The sa$e year that Hess *ro*ose% his theory, the : Nay *)(lishe% a
re*ort that s)$$ari/e% its n%ings concerning seaoor$agnetis$. D)ring9orl% 9ar 33, shi*s %ragge% $agneto$eters, 'hich are %eices to $eas)re
$agnetis$, in or%er to locate s)($arines. The $agneto$eters 'ere on an%
$eas)ring at all ti$es 'hile the shi*s traele% (ac# an% forth across the
Atlantic an% Pacic, an% they fo)n% a lot $ore than s)($arines. 9hen Nay
scientists e2a$ine% the %ata, they fo)n% (an%s of alternating strong an%
'ea# $agnetis$ in the roc#s of the seaoor 7see ig)re 8.
Figure +:An e2a$*le of$agnetic %ata collecte% (y shi* across the I)an %e )ca ri%ge o the coast of9ashington state. Ga$$as are a )nit of $agnetic force.
The $agnetis$'as ca)se% (y the *resence of $agnetic $ineralsin the
roc#s, *ri$arily one calle% $agnetite, 'hich is co$$on in the (asaltthat
$a#es )* the roc#s of the ocean oor. 9hen $ag$acools an% crystalli/es,
the $agnetite crystalsare loc#e% into align$ent 'ith Earth5s $agnetic el%
li#e the nee%le of a co$*ass 7see o)r Earth :tr)ct)re$o%)le8.
The e2istence of Earth5s $agnetic el% ha% (een #no'n since ancient ti$es,
()t only after 9orl% 9ar 33 %i% scientists reali/e that the $agnetic el% is
not constant> it )ct)ates in intensity an% freF)ently reerses itself. To%ay
'e consi%er the el% to hae &nor$al& *olarity, an% o)r co$*ass nee%les
*oint to the north. B)t at ario)s ti$es in the *ast, the *olarity has (een
reerse% > any co$*ass nee%les 'o)l% hae instea% *ointe% to the :o)th
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Pole. This *heno$enon of $agnetic reersals ha% *reio)sly (een o(sere%
in continental roc#s, an% 'as clearly the case for oceanic roc#s as 'ell.
The (asalton the ocean oor *resere% *aleo$agnetic
reersals ei%encethat Earth;s $agnetic el% ha% i**e% fro$ nor$al to
reerse% $any ti$es thro)gho)t geologic history.
,roof of sea(oor spreading
3n 14?!, re% Jine an% Dr)$$on% +atthe's, t'o British geologists, 6oine%
the to*ogra*hic $a* of the +i%>Atlantic Ri%ge 'ith the sy$$etric (an%s
of $agnetis$on the seaoor7Jine an% +atthe's, 14?!8. 9here the nay
shi*s $a**e% strong $agnetis$, roc#s sho'e% nor$al *olarityK 'here they
$a**e% (an%s of 'ea# $agnetis$, the roc#s sho'e% reerse% *olarity. The
(an%s not only *arallele% the $i%>ocean ri%ges, ()t 'ere *atterne%
sy$$etrically a(o)t the crest of those ri%ges 7see ig)re < for an e2a$*le8.
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Figur
e -:The $agnetic *role sho'n in ig)re co$(ine% 'ith to*ogra*hy an%the location of the s*rea%ing ri%ge.
At the crests, the $agnetis$'as strongK therefore, the *olarity'as nor$al.
B)t $oing in either %irection a'ay fro$ the ri%ge, the $agnetis$ 'o)l%
%ro* s)%%enly at a(o)t the sa$e %istance fro$ the crest the *olarity 'as
reerse%. =ontin)e a'ay fro$ the ri%ge in (oth %irections, an% $agnetis$
'o)l% s)%%enly (e strong again (ac# into roc#s 'ith nor$al *olarity. The
sy$$etry s)ggeste% that$ag$a'as rising at the ri%ges an% cooling to loc#
in the $agnetic el% at the ti$e, then (eing *)she% a'ay fro$ the ri%ge in
(oth %irections, *resering a recor%of *aleo$agnetic reersalsan%
the generationof ne' cr)stoer ti$e 7see +i%>Ocean Ri%gesconce*t
si$)lation8.
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Interactive Animation:'id.ocean ridges
These strongly *atterne% *aleo$agnetic reersalsrecor%e% on
the seaoor*roi%e% the necessary *roof of Hess5s seaoor s*rea%ing.
:*ecically, they *roe% that ne' cr)st'as contin)o)sly (eing generate% at
the $i%>ocean ri%ges, 'here $ag$acoole% an% $agnetite crystals&loc#e%
in& accor%ing to the orientation of Earth5s $agnetic el% at that ti$e. The
continents no longer ha% to &%rift& to their *resent locations they co)l% (e
%rien (y slo' an% stea%y $ag$a &coneyor (elts& that originate% at the
$i%>ocean ri%ges.
The 'or# of Hess, Jine, an% +atthe's res)lte% in a ne' $a* of Earth thathighlighte% the feat)res of the ocean oor, one that incl)%e% *late
(o)n%aries in a%%ition to coastlines. Plate (o)n%aries co)l% (e %ra'n at $i%>
oceanic ri%ges an% s)(%)ction/ones 7see ig)re ?8.
Fi
gure /:Re% lines in%icate s*rea%ing ri%gesK yello' lines in%icate s)(%)ction/ones. Light (l)e lines %on;t t either category.
Comprehension Checkpoint
'agnetic stripes on the sea(oor are e#idence for
constant a%%ition of $ag$a to the cr)st at $i%>ocean ri%ges.
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%rifting of continents thro)gh the cr)st.
)ngoing 0#idencefor ,late TectonicsTo%ay, $)ch of the ei%enceconcerning *late tectonics is acF)ire% 'ith
satellite technology. Thro)gh )se of the glo(al *ositioning syste$7GP:8 an%
other satellite>(ase% %atacollection techniF)es, scientists can %irectly
$eas)re the elocity7or s*ee% an% %irection of $oe$ent8 of *lates on
Earth;ss)rface. :*ee%s range fro$ 10 to 100 $$ *er year, conr$ing the
long>hel% (elief that *lates $oe at a slo' ()t constantrate 7see o)r $o%)le
on Linear EF)ationsfor $ore %etail on ho' to calc)late rates of *late
$oe$ent8.
The Hi$alayas, as it t)rns o)t, starte% for$ing a(o)t 0 $illion years ago
'hen the 3n%ian Plate colli%e% hea%>on 'ith the E)rasian Plate, shoing an%
fol%ing roc#s that ha% for$e% (elo' sea leel into lofty *ea#s. Beca)se the3n%ian Plate is still $oing north'ar%, the Hi$alayas are still rising at a rate
of a(o)t 1 c$ *er year. 9e no longer nee% to ino#e a shrin#ing, 'rin#le%
Earth to e2*lain the $arine fossilsat the to* of these tall $o)ntainsK it is
the *rocessof *late tectonics that contin)es to lift seaoorroc#s to the s#y.
Earth is incre%i(ly %yna$ic $o)ntain chains ()il% an% ero%e a'ay,
olcanoes er)*t an% go e2tinct, seas a%ance an% rece%e an% these
changes are all a res)lt of the *rocesses of *late tectonics. Before 9egener,
fe' ha% conceie% of s)ch a 'orl%. His continental %rifttheory'as the rst
ste* in the %eelo*$ent of *late tectonic theory, the fo)n%ation )*on 'hich
$o%ern geology is ()ilt.
*ummary
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