Origins of Kitchen Gardening in the Near East

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On the Origins of Kitchen Gardening in the Ancient Near EastAuthor(s): Helen M. LeachSource: Garden History, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp. 1-16Published by: The Garden History SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1586849 .

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HELEN M. LEACH

ON THE ORIGINS OF KITCHEN GARDENING

IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

THE ECONOMIC BASE of culturesbelongingto the 'western' radition,which hadtheir

originsin Europeand the Near East, is generallyconsidered o be agricultural.By thisterm,we implycultivationof fieldcrops,both cerealsandlegumes,andmanagementofcertainanimalspeciesfor theirmeat,milk and skins. Yet the ruralcountrysideoccupiedby westerncultures s not onlymadeup of fields andfarmyards,butplantationsof treesfortimber,orchards orfruit,and various ypesof gardens.Historically,gardenswhich

producedvegetablesandflavouringplantsfor humanconsumptionhave been known askitchen gardens, and they have often included small fruitingtrees and shrubs which

requireregularattention. Thesegardensareusuallysituatedclose to thekitchen,andareenclosedby walls, fences andhedgeswhich serve to keep browsinganimalsawayfromsucculentfruits andvegetables,giveshelter o tenderplants,andareavisualreminder o

outsiders that the contents are the propertyof the homesteadand do not fall into thecategoryof wild vegetables,fruits and herbs free for the taking.

Managinga kitchengardendemandsa ratherdifferentset of skillsandtechniquesfromcultivatingfield crops. In I965 JacquesBarrau1drew attention to the distinctivetools usedin horticulture,and thecloseassociationof gardener ndplantsbroughtabout

by techniqueslike vegetativepropagation, ransplanting,handweeding, and selective

harvestingover a long period. This association favours innovation and a continuedinterest n plant diversity.Thus thegardener anreadilyspotasuperiorplant(causedbyhybridizationor bud mutation)andrapidly ncrease t, whereas he agriculturalist ealswith his plants en masseand his harvestingmethodsencourageuniformity n his seed

stock. WhileBarraumaintained hat horticultural raditionswere of greatantiquityandmight pre-dateagriculture n some partsof the world, therewas little responseto hisarticlefrom the palaeoethnobotanistswho continued to concentrate heir effortson the

historyof cereal andpulse agriculture,and who havepublishedquitedetailedaccountsof the processesandchronologyof their domestication.2Oneof the obvious reasonswasthe relativelyhigh recoveryrate of the large-seededcereals and legumes in the earlyNeolithicvillages,andthe fact that the processof domestication ould be 'read' romthe

appearanceof the variouspartsof the seed heads.Finds of large-sizepips, kernelsandstones of fruit also allowed the documentationof the originsof the firstorchard rees,

Universityof Otago,Dunedin,New Zealand



KITCHEN GARDENING IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

especiallyolives, grapes, dates and figs.3 In addition, since the seeds of cereals and

legumeswerethe utilizedcomponentsof theplants,domesticationand the accompany-ing improvement n cultivationtechniques ed to measurable ncreases n size. A leafy

vegetablelike

purslane, gatheredwhile

youngand tender from the banks of a

watercourse,would leave no seeds in the settlement.Even if takeninto cultivation n

plots adjacent o thehouses, its seedswould seldomappearn thecharreddebrisof house

floors,becausethe amountof seed storedforreplantingat the appropriateeasonwouldbeminute. If we consider he volume of carrot eedin a modernpacketwe canappreciatehow slim its chancesof recoverywould be after a house fire and the passageof several

millennia. Furthermore,the selection for qualities such as greaterleaf area and less

bitterness,which characterize hedomestication fmany eafyvegetablesmaynot leadto

any significant change in seed size or morphology. Thus if seed did survive, the

palaeoethnobotanistwouldhave no wayof knowing f it were from a domesticatedgreen

vegetable,a wildpotherb,or a weed of no culinary nterestto the site'soccupants.Since themostacceptable ormofevidence,the remainsorimpressionsof theplants

themselves,is so scarceforgreenand rootvegetables,assessmentof theirimportancenBronze and Iron Age economies of the Near East and Mediterraneanrelies on

documentary vidence and artisticrepresentationsrom the first three millenniaB.C.

KITCHEN GARDENS AND VEGETABLES

IN CLASSICAL ROME AND GREECE

Thereis now archaeologicalnformationon Romanvegetablegardensat Pompeii,4andin thewritingsof Plinythe ElderandColumellaappeardetailedaccountsof horticulturallore and techniques togetherwith discussionsof vegetableand fruit varieties.5These

giveusa clear mpressionofsurprisinglymodernkitchengardenswithnearlya fullrangeof Old Worldvegetables n cultivation.

Leafyvegetablesgrownat the time of Pliny includeleaf beet (Betavulgaris),blite

(?Amaranthuslitum), abbagesandkale of atleast12 different ypes(Brassica leracea),endive (Cichoriumndivia), ettuce of some I differenttypes (Lactuca ativa),mallow

(Malva spp.), orach(Atriplexhortensis), urslane(Portulacaoleracea),rocket (?Erucasativa),sorrel and/orpatience(Rumexacetosaand R. ?patientia), nd a groupof plantswhich included alexanders(Smyrnium lusatrum)nd the progenitorsof our modern

parsleyand celery (Petroselinumrispum nd Apiumgraveolens).Their root vegetableswere the black beet (Beta vulgaris), elecampane(Inula helenium), adish (Raphanus

sativus), several types of turnip (Brassicacampestris),a pungent kind of parsnip(Pastinacasativa),and possibly the skirret(Siumspp.). Of the onion familythey grewleeks, includingthe kurrat eekof Egypt(bothAlliumampeloprasum),t least six typesofbulb onion (Alliumcepa),two or three types of garlic(Alliumsativum),chives (Alliumschoenoprasum),nd some other Alliumspecieswhich may have included shallotsand

bunchingonions. A numberof cucurbits were grown, especiallycucumbers(Cucumissativus)and the bottle gourd (Lagenaria iceraria).The Latin termpepones, ometimes

incorrectly ranslatedaspumpkins(aNew Worldvegetable),probably efers oa typeofmelon(Cucumismelo).They grewalargerangeof flavouringplants,someoverlappingntheiruse with the leafy vegetables.These include basil(Ocimumpp.), caraway Carum

carvi), chervil (Anthriscuserefolium),oriander Coriandrumativum),cress (Lepidum

2



HELEN M. LEACH

sativum), cumin (Cuminumcyminum), ennel (Foeniculumofficinale),dill (Anethum

graveolens), nise (Pimpinellaanisum), ovage(Levisticum fficinale),marjoram Origa-num spp.), mint (Menthaspp.), white and black mustard(Sinapisalba and Brassica

nigra),poppy (Papaverspp.), rue (Rutagraveolens),avory(Satureia pp.), and thyme(Thymus pp.). More unusualgardenvegetableswereasparagusAsparagus fficinalis),Colocasiaesculenta, ardoon(Cynarasp.), golden thistle (speciesuncertain),an edible

squill (?Urgineasp.), rock samphire(Crithmummaritimum), type of Muscari,and

Eryngiumcampestre.A modern gardener might comment on the absence of carrots.

AlthoughAndre6 maintainsthat it was grown by the Romans, the Latin term daucus

might be better translated as the pungent wild carrot, used medicinally.7 The

developmentof our modern carotene carrotfrom the anthocyanine purple) form is

thoughtto have occurredmanycenturies aterin the Middle East.8Spinachandglobeartichokeswere also post-Classicalcultigens. It should be noted that peas and horsebeans (a small type of broad bean), while not described as garden crops, were

neverthelessimportantRomanfield crops, alongwith chickpeas,lentils, lupines andsomevetches.

Roman vegetable gardens at Pompeii have been studied extensively byW. Jashemski.9A gardenbehind the House of Pansameasured26.5 x 30.5 m and hadbeen'systematicallyaid outin rectangular lots separatedby pathsthatwerealsoused as

irrigationchannels'.10As Jashemskinotes, this agreeswith Pliny's directionsin hisNaturalHistory,1 to mark the gardenout in plots, 'border hesewith slopingrounded

banks, and surroundeach plot with a furrowedpath to affordaccess for a man and achannel for irrigation'.The smaller ornamentalperistylegardens commonlyrevealedevidencefor fruit trees such asfigs,olives,citrusfruits(lemonsandcitrons),andpossibly

cherries,pearsorapples.The last threearedepicted n wallpaintings,buttheirroot castsaredifficultto distinguish,one fromanother. 2 Behind the House of the Ship Europa,a

largeenclosed areawasinterpretedasacombinedmarketgardenand orchard.A slightlyraisedpath runningdownthe centreof thegardengaveaccessto twovegetableplots, onewithninenarrowbedsseparatedbyirrigation/pathurrows,and the otherwith fivebeds.The surroundingarearevealed he root cavitiesof youngvinesplantedabout41/2Romanfeet apart,and other trees such as oliveandfilbert. Brokenplant potswere recovered none area of the garden, at the base of tree planting holes. This suggests that

container-grownrees were sometimesbroughtinto the gardenforplantingout. Plantremains included pieces of filbert shells, a carbonizedfig, grape seeds, an almond

fragment,and numerous carbonized horse beans. Jashemskiarguesthat the modernpracticeof intercroppingvineyardswith horse beanswas also in operation n Roman

Pompeii.13Whilethere is no setpattern o the gardensof Pompeii,in so far as fruit trees

might be found in small ornamentalgardens,in mixed fruit and vegetableareas,or in

orchards,three importantfeatures of kitchen gardensare evident: they are enclosed,

they areassociatedwith houses, andprovisionhas been made forwateringthem, withcisternsand channels.

Romankitchengardensand the cultigensdescribedby Pliny, Columellaand otherauthors can hardly be describedas being in a formativestage. The large number ofBrassicaand Alliumtypes, and themanyvarietiesof lettucein cultivation ndicatea long

period of collection and subsequent selection before this time. Their horticultural

3




techniqueswhich involvedtransplanting, he takingof cuttingsandoffshoots,graftingandlayeringof fruits,deepdigging,the use of raisedbeds, manuringwithdifferent ypesof dungforparticularpurposesand even cucumberboxeswhich couldbewheeledunder

mica-glazedrames,alsogivetheimpression

ofbeing part

ofanalready

mature radition.The Roman authors make frequent reference to Greek writers on kitchen

gardening,especially Theophrastus(c. 370-278 B.C.).While drawingmuch materialfrom them, it is still evident that the Romans made importantcontributionsboth tocultivars uch ascabbagesandkale,andto cultivation echniques.FromTheophrastus'sEnquiry nto Plants14 and a contribution to the HippocraticCorpus, RegimenII15

composedabout400 B.C.,we canassembleyet another ist of kitchengardenvegetablesfor the period some four centuries before Pliny and Columella.As in Rome, leafyvegetablesincluded beet, blite, cabbagesand kales, lettuce, orach, purslane,rocket,

patience/sorrel, ndtheparsley/celery roup.Endivedoesnotseem tobepresent,butitswild form, chicory,wasused as a pot herb. The mallowappearsas a wild plantsuitable

for cooking. Garden root vegetablesseem to have been fewer than in Roman times,chieflyradish,turnipand beet. The latterhad along straightrootdescribedasfleshyandsweet. Leeks, garlicandmanydifferent kinds of onionsweredescribed,in addition toseveraltypes of cucumber,bottlegourdandpossiblythe melon. A similarandequallyextensiverangeof flavouringplantsweregrownas in Roman kitchengardens,with an

emphasison basil, coriander,cress, cumin, dill, marjoram,mustardandsavory.Manyherbs and aromaticplants were gatheredwild. Techniques of propagation nvolved

striking cuttings, sowing seed at various seasons, root division, and separationofoffshoots. Theophrastushad a detailedknowledgeof seed germination imes16whichwascopiedwith veryfew modificationsby Pliny.17 As in Pompeii,terracottaplant pots

havebeenrecovered, n this case fromthreefoot square reeplantingholes cut into barerockat theTempleof Hephaistos n Athens. 8 Onceagainwegainastrong mpressionofa well establishedhorticultural radition.

The obviousquestionwhich arisesfrom this impression s, when did this classicaltraditionbegin?We mightalso ask whichcultureswereresponsible orthedevelopmentof the tradition rom its shadowybeginningsto its fully fledgedclassical orm(whichinturnprofoundly nfluencedthe kitchengardensof laterwesterncultures).There can belittleprospectof preparingas coherentan accountof the riseof kitchengardensand thedomesticationof vegetablesasis available orcerealsorlegumes, owingto thescarcityof

plant remains and garden excavations. Archaeologistshave been understandably

preoccupiedwith houses, templesandcitywallsrather han the oftenambiguous racesof buried cultivatedsoils nearby, which may representthe sole evidence for ancientkitchengardensand orchards.Nevertheless,whatevidence there s, is worthsynthesiz-ing andleadsto someinterestinghypotheses.

PRE-CLASSICAL KITCHEN GARDENS AND PLANTS OF THE FIRST, SECOND

AND THIRD MILLENNIA B.C.

Homer'sevocativedescriptionof the GardensofAlkinoos19 eserves o bequotedin fullsinceit representsanidealizedfruit andvegetablecomplexof theearly irstmillennium,andstressesonceagainthe threeimportantcharacteristics f enclosure,proximity o the

houseandcontinuityof watersupply.

4



HELEN M. LEACH

Outside hecourtyardutstretchingloseupto thegates,andwithahedge unning owneither ide, iesalargeorchard f fouracres,where reeshang heirgreenerynhigh,thepearand hepomegranate,heapplewith tsglossyburden,hesweet igand he uxuriantolive. Theirfruit never ails nor runsshort,winterandsummer like.It comesat all

seasons f theyear,and here s never timewhen heWestWind's reathsnotassisting,here he budandhere heripeningruit; o thatpearafterpear,apple fterapple, lusteron clusterof grapes,andfig uponfig arealwayscoming o perfection. n the sameenclosurehere s a fruitful ineyard,nonepartof which s a warm atch f levelground,where omeof thegrapes redryingn thesun,whileothers regatheredrbeing rodden,andonthe foremost owshangunripebunches hathave ustcast heirblossom r showthe first aint ingeofpurple.Vegetable edsof various indsareneatlyaidoutbeyondthefurthest owandmakeasmiling atchofnever-failingreen.Thegardens served ytwosprings,one led in rillsto allpartsof theenclosure,while ts fellowopposite, fterproviding watering lace or thetownsfolk,unsunder hecourtyardate owardshegreathouse tself.

It is unfortunate hat Homer did not specify the types of vegetablesas he did of fruit.

Indeed Forster20noted that in both the Iliad and Odysseyonly fifty plant names arementioned.Manyof these areof treesand shrubs.Onlythe onioncan be assumed o be a

gardenvegetable.The term forparsley/celerys applied o aplantused asfood forhorses,and as crowns of victory n the Isthmiangames.21 t maywell havebeengatheredwild.

The tabletsfrom whichMycenaean conomicactivitieshave beenreconstructed orthe period around the thirteenth century B.C. are, as Chadwick22has stressed,administrative ecordsof royalpalaces, dealingwithproduceof particularnterestto the

king. Actualplantfinds arerelativelyrareand artisticrepresentationshow flowersandtrees not vegetables.However the tablets indicate that extensive use was made of herbsand aromaticplants for cookingand perfumery.While some wereprobably mported,those listed in large quantities are assumed to have been grown locally and includecoriander,cress, cumin, fennel,mint, parsley/celery, nd safflower.23 incefigs, grapes,andolives were important reecrops, we can assume that orchardsandvineyardswere

present.Chadwickdrewattentionto the practicestill seen in Greeceof growingcerealson the land between olive trees.24Whetheror not the herbs and aromaticplants grewincloseassociationwith vine andfigs,or in separateplotsorfields,cannotbe determined.IfHomer's notion of a mixed orchard, vineyardand vegetable garden reflects a longestablishedpattern,then we can take thebeginningsof orchardhusbandryn thisregiontowards the end of the Neolithic period(c. 3000 B.C.)25 s a possiblestartingpoint forkitchengardensas well.

The best evidencefor kitchengardening n the Mesopotamian ultures of the firstmillennium s a tabletdatingto the lateeighthcenturyB.C.describing he contentsof the

gardenof KingMerodachBaladan.26A totalof sixty-sevenplantswere listed in fourteen

groups, with from three to seven members in each group. Whether each group was

equivalent o the contentsof asingle'bed' isuncertain.Thoughsomeplantsseemto havebeengroupedby similarity n appearance ruse, thisis not invariablyhe case. A criticalassessment of the names, accepting only those with reliableAramaic and/or Syriaccognates,allows us to identifywith reasonablecertaintyonly twenty-sixof the plants.The same criteriawere applied to the names of vegetablesand 'hot' plants listed byR. CampbellThompson in his Dictionary f AssyrianBotany27which cover the period

from I400 to 600 B.C.A furthersourceof vegetablenames s the list of ingredients or a

5




consecratoryeastgiven by theAssyrianKingAshur-Nasir-Apli who lived in theninth

centuryB.C.28 Togetherthese sources allowus to assembleyet another ist of culinaryvegetablesand herbs. Leafy vegetables ncluded sea-blite Suaeda p. andpossiblyothersalt-tolerant

pecies),lettuce,

purslaneand rocket.Their root

vegetableswerea

typeof

beet, the radish and the turnip, the same as for the Greeks.The Alliumcultigenswere

leek, garlic, and several types of onion, possibly including the shallot. Cucumbers,

gourdsand the bitter colocynthwere grown. Flavouringherbs were the ammi (Ammi

visnaga),cardamom Elettariacardamomum),oriander,cress, white and black cumin

(Cuminumyminum ndNigella sativa),dill, fennel and/oranise, fenugreek(Trigonellafoenum-graecum), arjoram-origanum,mint and/orpennyroyal,rue and thyme. Theblackor greengrambean of Indianoriginwas an interestingentryin the garden ist of

King Merodach Baladan. Nearly a thousand years before, about I750 B.C., Mari and

Karanapalaceprovisionsfrequently ncluded severaltypes of onion and garlic,ammi,black and white cumin, fenugreek,mustard,saffron(?Crocusativus),and quite largequantitiesof coriander.29

Whenwe acknowledge usthowmany plantnamescannotbe securely dentified nthe Merodach Baladangardenlist, but by their context were obviouslya mixture of

culinaryand medicinalplants,we cannotcategorizeAssyriangardensasbeing anymore'formative' than those of Classical Greece. Nor can we weave argumentsabout theabsenceof such classes ascabbagesandkales,while somanyplantsremainunidentified,both in the garden ists and feastprovisions.As an example,at the feastgiven by KingAshur-Nasir-Apli I, a thousand boxes of 'greens'were consumed, along with threehundredcontainersof mixedraqqatu-plants,ne hundredcontainersof karkartu-plants,and a similarquantityof tiatu-plants, ll unidentifiable.30n numbersof cultigensalone,

the Mesopotamiangardensof the early first millenniummay have rivalled those ofClassicalGreece and Rome. Technologically they must have been part of elaborate

irrigation ystems, such as that constructedby King Ashur-Nasir-ApliI, leadingto the

palaceandtemplesof ninth-centuryKalach. He wrote:

I dug out a canal from the Upper Zab, cutting througha mountain at its peak ... I

irrigatedhemeadows f theTigris and)planted rchards ithall(kinds f)fruit rees nits environs . . . The canalcrashes romabove into the gardens. Fragrancepervadeshe

walkways. treams f water asnumerous)s the starsof heaven low n thepleasuregarden.31

Amongtheplants n thepleasuregardenwerepomegranates ndvines,so we canassume

that there was no strictsegregationof ornamental ndproductive ruitingplants.It is importantto recognizethe discrepancybetween plants identified from the

ninth-centurytablets and those recoveredarchaeologicallyrom the seventh/eighth-centurysites of Nimrud and Fort Shalmaneser.The large quantitiesof plant remainsidentified by Helbaek were chiefly from grain storage jars and wells, and are

predominantlycereals,legumes, and what arepresumedto be weeds of the fields.32Afew date and olive stones, hazelnutshells, fig andpomegranate eeds, anda somewhat

largerquantityof grapepips andprosopisseeds indicateconsumptionof 'fruit',but the

only indication that vegetableswere also part of the diet was the discoveryof twocucumber eedsin a well. Weknowindependently hat kitchengardensexisted,and that

a wide range of culinaryplants were grown in them, yet a host of culturalpractices

6



HELEN M. LEACH

relating o storage, stageof growthatthetimeofconsumption,and seedsize, rule out the

recoveryand identificationof vegetables romarchaeologicalites. We should not forgetthatthis situationmayapplyequallyto prehistoricperiodswhen thereare no tablets toredress hebias nthe

archaeologicalecord owards ereals,egumes nd

arge-seededruits.

Our knowledge of Egyptian kitchen gardens, their contents and horticultural

techniques, is considerablygreaterbecauseof excellent conditions of preservationofactualplantremains,and becausesomanyaspectsofEgyptian ife were recorded n tomb

models, wallpaintings,reliefcarvings,papyri,andinscriptionscut into rock. Since the

key cereal crops of barley and emmer wheat figure prominently, there has been a

tendencyto assumethat otherplantfoodsoccupiedaveryminor role in the agriculturalsystem,or weregatheredwild. For the wealthyoccupantsof third and secondmillennia

tombs, however, varietyin funeralofferingsalmostcertainlyreflecteda wide-rangingdiet in their life times. Amongthe shrivelledremainsof fish andmeat,cakesof datesand

barley, loaves of barley and wheaten bread, dried fruits, legumes and beverages,archaeologistshave identified onions, garlic, radishes, corianderand cumin seeds.33Eventhe leaves of a typeof celery (probablywild)have been foundwoven intoagarlanddated to about 1200 B.C.34

Naturally sugary,fibrous,or firmplant partssuch as dried fruitsand seeds, havesurvived entombmentmuch better than soft, wateryfruits or fleshy leaves;so we are

dependenton thepaintingsand reliefsforevidenceofgreenvegetablesandwatery ruits.

Althoughthere is disagreementover the antiquityof plantssuch as the beet, Colocasia,

artichokes,asparagus, urnip,andcabbage,there is little doubtthatthe upright ettuce

(likethe moderncos)andthekurrat eek weregrownasearlyas2400B.C.35andtypesof

melon, gourd and cucumber at about the same time. During the second millennium,

garlic,onionsand radishesare alsopresent.Since both fruits and vegetableswere of great mportance o the wealthy,we must

consider ustwheretheyweregrownand howtheyfitted nto the economicsystem.Figs,grape-vines and other fruiting trees would naturally require separate plots fromcultivatedcereals,and these mayhave been enclosedby walls or earthenbanksto keepoutbrowsinganimalsandthieves.Representations f enclosedornamental ardenswithfruit trees plantedrounda centralpond are knownfrom a Thebantomb of the period1420-1375 B.C.36These practicalreasonssuggestthat somekind of orchard hould havebeen presentin Egypt as earlyas grapesandfigs were taken into cultivation.Breastedcited a recordof a fourthdynastynoble'swalled estate in the Delta in which 'fine trees

wereset out, a verylargelake wasmade ... figsand vines were set out'.37Raisins andgrapepips have been recovered romtombsas earlyas the firstdynasty.38 t is possiblethat thevegetablesweregrownbeneath he treesor betweenrows,apracticedescribed nthe third centuryB.C.39 Estatevineyards n the Fayumat this time were plantedwith

melons, onionsandgarlic,andthe vine-dressersgainedadditional ncomeby sellingthe

surplusvegetables. But we should note that these gardenerswere mostly Greeks andwereprobablyperpetuating he practicesof their homeland.At muchearlierperiodsin

Egypt, there is good evidence that lettuce and leek plants were grown in separatevegetableplots.40

The plots are depicted as a rectanglecontaining many small squareslaid out in

chequerboardfashion. The grid probably representsshallow, intersectingchannels

7



IO KITCHEN GARDENING IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

kurrat eek remains n EarlyBronzeAge Jericho,63hereare no unequivocalrecordsofcultivated vegetables'before3000B.C. The discoveryofgarlic n such anearlycontext s

particularly mportant or it couldonly be grownfromcloves or inflorescencebulbils64and this would mean that it would be

subjectto the

very operationswhich characterize

horticulture.The kurrat eek find is also significant or its greenleaves arecustomarilycroppedover aperiodof fifteen to seventeenmonths,the numberof cuttings dependingon the amount of water and manuresupplied to the plot.65Thus, neithergarlicnorkurrat eek could be treatedas agricultural rops, since one is vegetativelyreproduced,and the otherrequireswaterthroughout he yearto maintainproductivity.Since theyoccur in fourth millenniumsites, we must acceptthe existenceof horticulturalplots,possiblykitchengardensattached o houses, or mixedvegetablegardensand orchards.Given the typical patternof close-packedroomcomplexes n earlyNear Eastern ownsandvillages,andthenecessityforirrigation,weexpectthatvegetableswouldbegrown n

garden-orchardnclosuresaround hemarginsof the settlements.

The rise of orchardhusbandrymayin fact be closelyconnectedwith the originsofkitchengardening.According o ZoharyandSpiegel-Roy,66 lives were n cultivationatTeleilatGhassul,northof the Dead Sea,in the period3700-3500 B.C., whileearlysignsof grapecultivationareevident in finds fromEarlyBronzeAge Jericho.The cultivateddate was alsopresentatTeleilatGhassul,with an even earlier ind in anUbaidianhorizonatEridu(c. 4000 B.C.). Fig cultivation s thoughtto havegonehand-in-handwith that oftheolive andgrape.The pomegranatemayhavebeen a componentof fourthmillenniumorchards upplyingJericho,since its wild form does not occuranywhere n the Levant.

Zoharyand Spiegel-Roy67tress the fact that domesticationof these fruitsrepresentsashiftfromsexualreproductionovegetativepropagation,bycuttings n the case ofgrape,figandpomegranate,byknobsgrowing rom theolivetrunk,andbyoffshootsof thedate

palm.The typeof caregivento thesecuttings,suchasregularwatering, ransplanting t

particulargrowth stages, provision of shelter and supports, preparationof plantingholes, and manuring,was directlytransferable o kitchen garden vegetables.Thus if

vegetableplots supplying leafy greens, the forerunnersof root vegetables,cucurbits,Allium varieties, and flavouring plants, were not already in existence when fruitcultivationbegan earlyin the fourthmillennium,they would have been a predictabledevelopment ollowingsoon after the creationof orchards.

The reverse situation may have applied, however: that the techniques whichenabled the first domesticationof fruit trees were learnt in vegetable gardens.A third

possibility s thatorchardsandkitchengardensevolvedtogether.Atthispointwe shouldask whatwere the likely incentives for the creationof kitchengardens? ncreasing helocations n which theplantis available,and at the sametimeincreasingts numbers,areobvious benefitsto be obtainedby cultivation,applicable o vegetablesas well as field

crops. Morespecificreasonscan be advanced orcultivating he leafy vegetables.Sincethe majorityarederived fromwild annualswitha shortgrowingseason n springbefore

theyrun to seed, the advantagesof cultivationwould be to havethemavailableclose tothe settlement,and therefore resh,or to extendthelengthof time over whichtheycouldbe harvestedby makingseveralsowings.To achievesuccesswith an extendedgrowingperiod the gardenerswould need to supply water regularlyto the plots, especially

through the summer. Provision of animal manure, either deliberatelyor through



HELEN M. LEACH

accidentalassociationwith dung in the vicinityof settlements,would rapidly mprovethe qualityof the leavesby decreasingbitternessandenhancing enderness,thus givingfurtherbenefits. As for the rootvegetables,radish,turnipandbeet,early ormsmayhavebeen grown as annuals, and for their leaves and seeds as much as for their roots.

Transportationo areaswith coolertemperatures,n additionto attempts o growthemoverextended seasonsmighthave enhanced heir biennialcharacter nd thusledto their

increasingroot size. The possiblewild progenitorof beet(Betavulgaris ubsp.maritima)

grows in the Levant as a leafy perennialweed of fields and roadsides.68Raphanusraphanistrumhich is considered the likely wild progenitorof the radishis an annualweed of fallow and cultivated fields,69 while Brassica campestris,he wild turnip,normally grows as a thin-rooted annual, but can be encouragedin as few as ten

generations o become a bulbous biennial.70McNaughton71believes that true turnips

originatedn the coolerpartsof Europe rom biennial ormsgrown n warmer egions ortheiroilyseeds. If he is correct,theearly urnipof Near Easternculturesmayhavebeen a

leafvegetableora source of apungentoil-seed.The benefitsof cultivatingcucumbers,melons andgourds,would be anincrease n

fruit size fromextrawateringand 'feeding',anda greaterharvestresultingfrombetter

protection rompredatorsas the fruitripens.Maturegourdswerereadilyconverted nto

containers,but in cultureswith adequatesuppliesof pottery,the gourd'smainfunction

mayhave been as food while immature.Cultivationandselection of seed from the most

palatablecucurbitfruitswould lead to a gradualreduction n bitterness. As for the firstcultivated membersof the Alliumgroup, the value of garlic,kurrat eek and onion in

adding'savour' o manytypesof dishes, would be a strong ncentiveto ensureplentifulstocksby cultivationandprotection.In the caseof theflavouringherbsandspices,while

plentifulsupplies could be gatheredfrom wild aromaticplantslike thymeand savory,which arereadilydried and transported, here would be little reason to cultivate themunlessgrazingpressurehad made them scarce.But culinary nterest n the youngleavesas well as the seedsof plants ike dill, aniseandcress,mighthaveencouraged ultivationsincethe leavesquicklywilt whengathered.Forthoseflavouringplants ikemint, ammi,balm, and the parsley/celerygroup, which requiremoist ground, the irrigatedgardenrepresented he best meansof extendingtheirrangecloserto the kitchen. Otherherbs,such as corianderand cumin, might continue as field weeds until increasingdemandmade them into specialistfield crops. In the Levant today, the coriandergrowsas anannualamongwintercrops,alongwith fenugreek.72

In short,the benefitsgainedby cultivatingvegetablesclose to thesettlement,ratherthan gatheringthem from the wild, are immediate accessto a greatervariety, greatercontrolof thequantitiesand, to anincreasingextent, their seasonof availability,and theconvenienceof havingcloseat hand certainplantsneededdailyor usedasfreshlypicked'greens'.To achieve these benefitsthe kitchengardenermust supply amplewaterand

provideprotection romstrongwinds and animals.Watershortage or much of the yearwas the factorwhich mayhavedelayedthe developmentof kitchengardening n manypartsof the Near East, and allowed cereal and legumeculture to becomeeconomicallydominant. Evidenceforirrigationdoes not appearuntil the sixthmillenniumB.C. ,73 andthis is not perennial irrigationbut simply control and distributionof winter rainfall.

Under such conditionsvegetablescould be grown only in the winter season and little

II




would be gained by bringingthem togetherin a separateenclosurenear the village.Nevertheless the era in which early dry-farmingand simple irrigation techniques

prevailedwould also have seen animportant tagein the transition rom wild to kitchen

gardenvegetables.At this

time,a numberof

leafyvegetablesseem to have becomefield

weeds, or inhabitantsof disturbedgroundbeside pathsand close to settlements. Theevidenceforthis can be foundin listsof seedidentificationswherethepalaeoethnobotan-ist has included the weedswhichaccompany he cerealsandlegumes.

In the Mesolithicand earlyNeolithic levels at Tell Abu Hureyra,74quantitiesof

Polygonum,Rumex,Atriplex ndChenopodiumpecieswere dentified,as well asSpinaciatetrandaawild spinach,probablynot the ancestorof the cultivated ormS. oleracea).75Severalspecies of Polygonumhave edible leaves, especiallythe old-fashionedgarden

vegetable,bistort(P. bistorta). eeds of P. lapathifolium, . persicariandP. convolvuluswereimportantcomponentsof the last mealsof the Tollund, Grauballe,and Borremosemen.76Nearly two thousand seeds of P. avicularewere deliberatelycollectedby the

Neolithic occupantsof Sitagroi n eastMacedonia,77 nd this specieswasalso found atHacilar.78Polygonumseedspossessa high starchcontent,and this coupledwith edibleleaves(insomespecies)maybe the reasonwhythegenusis commonlyencountered.TheRumexseeds at Tell Abu Hureyraare not identifiedas to species. The only speciescultivated as a vegetablein western Europeis the sorrel(R. acetosaand R. scutatus).HoweverZohary79 escribessomesix species n the Levantof which theleavesare eatenin salads or cooked as potherbs:R. vesicarius,R. cyprius,R. crispus,R. conglomeratus,R. pulcher, nd R. bucephalophorus.umexacetosellandR. crispuswere dentified n thestomachs of the Tollund and Grauballecorpses.80The cultivated orach (Atriplexhortensis) as several wild relativeswith edible leaves, includingA. hastata,A. patula,A. portulacoidesnd A. halimus.81One species of Chenopodium, . bonus-henricusasgrownin Englishkitchengardens or its spinach-like eaves. Its abundantwild relative,fat-hen(whitegoosefoot C. album)was usedthroughoutEuropeasasourceof'greens'and seeds. Zohary82 otes that it was 'formerlycultivatedasa breadplantbecauseof its

highlynutritiousseeds;hasahighvitaminC contentand is usedasa3aladplant'.He alsocites C. opulifolium nd C. murale s beingedible, the firstas a potherb,the second as a

salad herb. These chenopodsare annualplantsto be found todayas weeds in irrigatedcrops, in gardens,roadsides,and refuseheaps.

The eighth/ninthmillenniumsite of Mureybit n SyriacontainssomeChenopodiumalbumamongits chenopodseeds, but is notablefor the largequantitiesof Polygonum

?venantianum.83 t (ayoni in south-eastTurkey, a site dated to the seventh/eighthmillennium,bothPolygonum nd Rumexspecieswerepresent.84The Aceramicand lateNeolithiclevels atHacilar85ncludedChenopodiumlbum, wospeciesofPolygonum, ndthe mallow(Malva nicaeensis).This speciesof mallow,togetherwith M. parviflora, redescribedas potherbs by Zohary.86In the mid seventh millenniumdeposits of CanHasan III, chenopods were again identified (includingthe fathen), in addition to a

Polygonumspecies, a member of the Labiateae,and an Atriplex species similar toA. lasiantha.87At (atal Huyiik largenumbersof cruciferseeds were recovered rom a

deposit dated to about 5950 B.C. They were from the shepherd'spurse (Capsellabursa-pastoris)nd the salt-lovingErysimumisymbrioides. elbaek88believed that the

seeds had been collected as a source of oil. An alternativeuse might have been as a

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HELEN M. LEACH

pungent flavouring picesimilar o mustardwhichis also acrucifer.The youngleaves of

shepherd'spurse can be used as a potherbin spring.89Seeds of shepherd'spurse andthose of Erysimumheiranthoideserecomponentsof the last meals of both Tollund andGrauballemen.90

In the Khuzistan sites of Ali Kosh andTepe Sabzwhich spanthe fourth to eighthmillennia,the edible mallows(Malvanicaeensis ndM. parviflora) ecomenumericallyimportant n the MohammadJaffarPhase(6000-5600B.C.).Thesea-blite Suaeda p.), amemberof theChenopodiaceae,s present n onlysmallquantities.Helbaek91 omments

on the appearanceof a large-seededcruciferousplant, possiblya type of cress, at the

beginningof the Tepe SabzPhase(5500-5000 B.C.). He refersto it as an introductionbynew people, but does not speculateas to whether it is a crop weed, unintentionallyintroduced,or a possible vegetable.It may be significant hat its appearance oincideswiththe first evidence ofirrigationn thisarea.IntheMesopotamianowlands,the sixthmillennium site of Umm Dabaghiyah producedthousandsof seeds of the Chenopo-diaceae.92Helbaek was able to identifyamongthemthesea-blite Suaedamaritima), nda type of saltwort (Salsola sp.), but the majoritywere unidentifiable.Although he

initiallybelieved thattheyhad beenbrought o the siteattached oplants or useasthatchor fuel, his footnote that sea-blite s collectedand sold as a saladplantin Kuwaittodayshowed that he now favoured he explanation hattheyhad beenbrought n as food. In

supportof this is the noteby Zohary93hattheyoungshootsof Salsola kali are eaten as a

potherb.Sea-blitewas also identified n the NorthMesopotamianite of ChogaMami,94whereearly rrigation s believed to be present(c. 5000 B.C.).

This brief surveyof earlyfarmingvillagesand townsof the sixth millennium and

earlier,should alert us to the possibilitythat some of the seeds commonlyconsidered

fieldweedsaccidentallyncluded with thegrainandlegumes,were of 'wild'vegetablesoftilled fields and disturbedgroundwhich were gatheredas young plantsto be eatenas

saladgreensorpotherbs.Othersmayhave beenutilized n smallquantitiesasflavouring

plants, either as leaves or seeds. By habit, many of these plants became plentifulwherever man disturbed the soil, and those that invaded refuse heaps would have

become noticeablylargerand more succulent. In this way, close familiaritywith the

needs, responsesand characteristics f a rangeof leafyvegetablesandflavouringplantswould have been built up in readiness or the time when someof themwould be taken

into cultivationaskitchengardenplants.On nutritionalgrounds, the consumptionof vegetablesand fleshy fruits was a

necessityat all periods. Earlyfarmersmayhave derivedthe bulk of theirfats, proteinsand carbohydrates, rom meat and seeds of legumes and cereals,but without regular

consumptionof leafy vegetables they could developscurvy,a diseasebroughton by a

deficiencyof vitaminC. Few prehistorianshave commentedon this need, andin those

publicationswhere diet is discussed t is oftenimpliedthatfruitssuch ascaperswouldbesufficient. Sincethe recommendeddailyallowanceof vitaminC fora moderatelyactiveman is 30 mg,95it would be verydifficult to reach this amount outside the caperfruit

season,on a diet of cereals,dried egumesandanimalproducts.Eachadultwould have todrinknearlythreepints of milk perday, which is obviouslynot a feasiblewayto obtainvitaminCin anyculture.A five ounce(I40 g)portionof cookedcabbageorturnipgreens

would be rathermore realistic.

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The developmentof kitchen gardensseems to have followed a prolonged periodwhenleafy vegetablesgrewin associationwithcerealsandlegumes,in thefields,aroundtheirmargins,and in wastegroundcloseto the settlements.Whilethis mayhavebeen a

satisfactorymethod of

producingpotherbsand salad

greens,some

vegetables,such as

garlicand onions, were not widespreadwild plantsor cropweeds. The samemayhavebeen trueof certainflavouringherbs and aromatic pices. Oncedisseminatedby trade,andaneagermarketcreated orthem, theirhighvaluemayhavegiventhe firstimpetusto the formation of kitchen gardens, protected, cared-forenclosures, supplied with

amplewater.More commonvegetablesof the fields could then havebeenincludedforconvenienceandto be grownoverextendedperiods.If atthesametime thisprocesswas

occurringto superiorvarieties of olives, grapesand figs, a vegetablegarden-orchardcomplex may have begun to evolve, possible as early as the fifth/sixthmillennium.However full development of the complex in the drier regions would have been

dependent on the provision of perennialirrigation.Since it is customaryto classifygardens under categories like 'market', 'kitchen' or 'pleasure'gardens, the most

appropriateterm for this first garden enclosure might well be 'treasuregarden', areminderof the high value of the cultivarscollectedtogetherand protectedwithin itswalls. I shall leave it to othersto explorethe implicationsof a Gardenof Eden which

grows,amongst ts figs, largequantitiesof garlic.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I should like to thank Dr StephanieDalleyandProfessorJohnBaines of the FacultyofOrientalStudies,Oxford,for theirgenerousassistancen mysearch orthe rawmaterialof thispaper,and theirsubsequenthelpfulcriticismsof whatI didwith it.

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923-24',Journal ofEgyptian Archaeology10 (I924),pp. 289-98.55. Ibid.,p. 290.56. Ibid., p. 297.57. Ibid., p. 295.58. J.J. Janssen,Commodityricesrom heRamessidPeriod (Leiden, 1975).

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Jericho'n The

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66. ZoharyandSpiegel-Roy,op. cit.

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77. Ibid., p. 23.78. H. Helbaek nJ.Mellaart,ExcavationstHactlar (Edinburgh, I970), pp. 197-98 and 233-34.

79. Zohary,op. cit. (1966),pp. 61-66.80. Renfrew,op. cit. (I973b), p. i8.81. M. Grieve,AModernHerbal980), pp. 56and

66I; Zohary, op. cit. (I966), p. I45.

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82. Ibid., p. 142.

83. W. vanZeist, 'TheOriental nstituteExcavations tMureybit,Syria:PreliminaryReportof theI965 Campaign.PartIII:ThePaleobotany',JournalofNearEasternStudies 9 (I970), p. 75.84. W. vanZeist, 'Palaeobotanical esultsofthe1979SeasonatQaynii, Turkey',Helinium12

(1972), pp. 3-I9.

85. Helbaek nMellaart,op. cit. (1970),pp. 197-98,and 233-34.86. Zohary, op. cit. (1972), pp. 3I6-I7.

87. D. H. French,'Excavationst CanHasanI II,1969-1970'inPapers nEconomic rehistory,d.E. S. Higgs (Cambridge, I972), p. 187.

88. Helbaek,op. cit. (I964),p. I22.

89. Grieve,op. cit., p. 738.90. Renfrew, op. cit. (I973b), p. 18.9I. HelbaekinHoleetal., op. cit., p. 408.92. H. Helbaek, Tracesof Plants n theEarlyCeramicSiteofUmmDabaghiyah', raq34 (I972b),pp. 8-I9.

93. Zohary,op. cit. (1966), p. 170.94. Helbaek, op. cit. (I972a), pp. 38-39.

95. J.Yudkin,NutritionI977).

Origins of Kitchen Gardening in the Near East

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