ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
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Transcript of ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
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ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
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Planetesimals are objects of some Km of diameters that are thought to have formed during the solar system's formation.The origin of the Solar System has been tracked by Safronov's theory about 5 billion years ago, when an initial primordial nebula made of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium) and very diffuse dust grains (carbon and silicate) started to collapse gravitationally leading to the formation of a central protostar and of a surrounding, rotating disk structure, made from the material that was not incorporated in the protostar. During this disk phase (that can last up to 100 millions years), the grains of dust grow in size very rapidly (this phenomenon being called accretion) until, after a relatively short period, they form planetesimals. These planetseimals have a composition that depends on the region where they have formed (we find rocky planetesimals in the inner parts and ices in the outer parts) and are the "bricks" of the following formation of the planets. In fact in the last phase, the accretion of planets is possible, due to the impacts between planetesimals that can glue together, forming growing objects with a composition that is still respected by the actual structure of the solar system (where, in the inner parts, wet find rocky planets, while in the outer parts, planets are gaseous). Asteroids and comets are leftover planetesimals that have not been incorporated into a planet during this period.
http://www.ecology.com/archived-links/planetesimals/
THE BIRTH OF THE EARTH: ACCRETION OF PLANETESIMALS
5·109 years
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Inner core
Solid, radius 1200 km
External core
Líquid, radius 3470 km
Mantle
Radius 3470 km
Crust
Thickness 8 - 70 km
Adapted from:http://zebu.uoregon.edu/internet/images/earthstruc.gif
Structural diferentiation according to the density of different materials
THE INNER STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
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Main component: Iron
Main component: Iron
Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon and oxigen
Sodium and aluminium silicate minerals
http://www.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/100/interior.html
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Originally formed by volatile compounds from volcanism at the earlier period of the Earth’s story. The gasses were kept back by gravity force. Since then, its composition undergone important variations because several physical, geological and biological processes.
THE ORIGIN OF OUR ATMOSPHERE
Actual volcanic eruptions have a mean composition of 85% H2O, 10% CO2 and SO2 and
nitrogen compounds (the rest).
Low percentage of H2O in the actual atmosphere
Low percentage of CO2 in the actual atmosphere
Predominance of nitrogen
Presence of other components of low concentration
Presence of an important fraction of O2
We have to explain…
http://www.xtec.es/~rmolins1/solar/es/planeta02.htm
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Dry air (majority components)
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Water steam: Until 4% (volum)
Adaptad from John M. Wallace y Peter V. Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: an introductory survey. Academic Press
Dry air (majority component)(% mass)
Composition below 100 km (percentages)
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(parts per million)
Ozone: 0-12 ppm
Minority components
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE (CONTINUED)
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WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Low contents of water in the actual atmosphere
T
P
P3
T3
T3= 0.01 C = 273.16 K
TC
PC
1 atm
100 C
P3= 0.006112 bar
TC = 374.15 C = 647.30 K
PC = 221.20 bar
Both axis have not the same
scale
10 20 30º C10
20
30
40
mb
Room conditions
23 mb
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Low atmospheric contents in water
Limited ability to keep water steam in the air
Saturation and condensation
Precipitation and formation of the oceansHydrosphere
http://matap.dmae.upm.es/Astrobiologia/Curso_online_UPC/capitulo11/3.htmlInterdependence of the system
atmosphere / hydrosphere
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE (CONTINUED)
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Océano 97%
Hielo 2.4%
Otros 0.6%
Subsuelo 97%
Ríos y lagos 3,3%
Atmósfera 1,7%
Mass 1.36·1021 kg
The actual water content of the hydrosphere istwo magnitude orders LOWER than that have been injected into from the origin ot the Earth
* Filtration at subduction points* UV fotodisociation
How to explain this shortfall?
HYDROSPHERE
OceansIce
97 %2,4 %
Subsoil 0,6 %
Rivers & lakes 0,02 %Atmosphere 0,001 %
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The earth's surface is broken into seven large and many small moving plates. These plates, each about 50 miles thick, move relative to one another an average of a few inches a year.
At convergent boundaries, plates move toward each other and collide. Where an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic plate tips down and slides beneath the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench (long, narrow, deep basin.) An example of this type of movement, called subduction, occurs at the boundary between the oceanic Nazca Plate and the continental South American Plate. Where continental plates collide, they form major mountain systems such as the Himalayas.
http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eastern/plates.html
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Upper mantle
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Ocean
Subduction (oceanic trench)
HYDROSPHERE. SUBDUCTION
Filtrations towards the mantle
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Fotodisociation
HYDROSPHERE. WATER FOTODISOCIATION
OOHH
HH104º
HH
HH
Molecule of water
OO
OOHH
HHOO
HH
HH
High atmosphere, low pressure conditions
High energy photons arise highly reactive free radicals, which recombinate as new chemical species. Specially hidrogen tends to run away because its low molecular mass.
UV high energy photons
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Low rate of carbon dioxide
Storing of carbon: * Rocks, salts, fossil oils* Atmosphere (free CO2) and ocean (solved CO2 * Biosphere
Oxigen presence in the crust:* Iron salts, carbonates y bicarbonates
Carbonates: arising by ionic exchange reactions (living beings)
H2CO3 + Ca++ CaCO3 + 2H +H2O + CO2 H2CO3
Estimation of carbon content in the Earth crust
(relative units)
Source: John M. Wallace y Peter V. Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: an introductory survey.
Academic Press. From P K Weyl, Oceanography.
John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1970
Marine biosphere 1
Continental biosphere 1
Atmosphere (CO2) 70
Ocean (solved CO2) 4000
Fossil oils 800
Salts 800000
Carbonates 2000000
CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Geological and biological porcesses
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335
330
325
320
315
ConcentrationCO2 (ppm)
1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974Año
Data from Mauna Loa observatory (Hawaii). Adapted from John M. Wallace y Peter V. Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: an introductory survey.
HUMAN ACTIVITY AND CO2 ATMOSFERIC CONTENT
Concentration increasing from 1750
Based on http://zebu.uoregon.edu/1998/es202/l13.html
1750
Actual
280 ppm
360 ppm
29%
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Atmospheric predominance of N2
The nitrogen content has been only slightly changed because its low reactivity
Around 20% fixed as nitrates (biological activity)
Other components of the atmosphere
SULPHUR: injected by volcanoes Acid rain
Sulphates in crust
NOBLE GASES: He, Ar From radiactive desintegrations
NITROGEN AND MINORITARY COMPONENTS
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OXIGEN
LIFE IN THE OCEANS
Water disociation (UV) 2H2O 2H2 + O2
Photosynthesis (visible light) H2O + CO2 {CH2O} + O2
Earlier living beings
(reducing environment) * 4109 años
Unicelular seaweedreleasing O2
2-3109 años
Formation O3 Decreasing UV
radiation in surface
LIFE ON THE SURFACE
Increased O2 releasing 4108 years
* See Miller’s experiment in http://matap.dmae.upm.es/Astrobiologia/Curso_online_UPC/capitulo9/4.html
SOURCES OF THE ATMOSPHERIC OXIGEN
O2 PRESENCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Below 100 km, for every height from the ground, pressure lies within an interval of 30% of a standard value.
Fluids equation: gdzdp
Vertical variation >> horizontal variationz
The air density decreases as height increses
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BP
BPgdzdP
z
Density and pressure are proportional
gdzdP Air is a compressible fluid
dzBgP
dP zP
P
dzBgP
dP
00
H
zzBgPPLn
0Bg
H 1 )/exp(0
HzPP
kmH 7It depends on the molecular mass of the gas
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (CONTINUED)
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (EXAMPLE)
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the Earth (8848 m). Explain which calculations may be performed to obtain the pressure on its top.Compare this pressure with the pressure in the seabed at 8848 m depth.Assume conditions of constant temperature. Data: Air density: 1.225 kg/m3; marine water density: 1030 kg/m3.
Ground level: 00 BP
Hence we estimate a value for B:0
0
PB
Pressure and density are proportional
Pa 1001325.1
kg/m 225.15
3
25 (s/m) 10209.1
Remember that...
BgH 1)/exp(
0HzPP m 8432
81.910209.1
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Ground level standard pressure
mb 8.354Pa 35481)8432/8848exp(51001325.1 P
From standard atmosphere calculator: P = 314.4 mbhttp://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (EXAMPLE CONTINUED)
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the Earth (8848 m). Explain which calculations may be performed to obtain the pressure on its top.Compare this pressure with the pressure in the seabed at 8848 m depth.Assume conditions of constant temperature. Data: Air density: 1.225 kg/m3; marine water density: 1030 kg/m3.
zT 5.615.288 z given in km, T given in K
256.515.288
25.1013
TP
T (K)288,2284,9281,7278,4275,2271,9268,7265,4262,2258,9255,7252,4249,2245,9242,7239,4236,2232,9230,6229,7226,4223,2219,9216,7
P (mb)St. Atm.1013,3954,6898,7845,6794,9746,8701,1657,6616,4577,3540,2505,1471,8440,3410,6382,5356,0331,0314,4307,4285,2264,4244,7226,3
P (mb)Ours
1013,3954,9899,9848,1799,3753,3709,9669,0630,5594,2560,0527,8497,4468,7441,8416,3392,3369,8354,8348,5328,4309,5291,7274,9
Calculus from standard atmosphere
Our calculus:
)/exp(0
HzPP
)8432/exp(25.1013 zP
z (m)0
5001000150020002500300035004000450050005500600065007000750080008500884890009500100001050011000
z (km)0,00,51,01,52,02,53,03,54,04,55,05,56,06,57,07,58,08,58,89,09,510,010,511,0
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (EXAMPLE CONTINUED)
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the Earth (8848 m). Explain which calculations may be performed to obtain the pressure on its top.Compare this pressure with the pressure in the seabed at 8848 m depth.Assume conditions of constant temperature. Data: Air density: 1.225 kg/m3; marine water density: 1030 kg/m3.
0,0
200,0
400,0
600,0
800,0
1000,0
1200,0
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0
z (km)
P (
mb
)
Standard atmosphere
Exponential dropping
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (EXAMPLE CONTINUED)
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the Earth (8848 m). Explain which calculations may be performed to obtain the pressure on its top.Compare this pressure with the pressure in the seabed at 8848 m depth.Assume conditions of constant temperature. Data: Air density: 1.225 kg/m3; marine water density: 1030 kg/m3.
Comparison: pressure on the Everest top and pressure on the bottom of the sea
Oceanic trench
8848 m
-8848 m
Everest top
Pressure on the top
P = 314.4 mb(from standard atmosphere)
P = 354.8 mb(from our calculus)
The pressure exerted by a water column of height z is
gzP w 88488.91030
Pressure on the bottom
bar 893Pa 1093.8 7 P
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Troposphere
grad T -7 K·km-1
80% mass, 100% water steam Short times of permanence of particles
Estratosphere Very dry, O3 main concentration zoneHigh times of permanence of particles
Vertical mixture is scarce
99.9% mass
Mesosphere 99% rest
1% rest Termosphere
Charged particles (ionosphere)
Charged and non-charged particlesScarce collisions
TROPOPAUSE
ESTRATOPAUSE
MESOPAUSE
ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
10 - 12 km
50 km
80 km
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Graphics obtained using yearly mean data from http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Altu
ra (
km)
Latitud (grados)
TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT
Troposphere
Estratosphere
Additional information:Map of tropopause pressures (mean values 1983-1998) http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/~tjr/TROPO/TROPO.html
* Latitude
Over the equator the tropopause lies higher than upon the poles
* The season of the year
Factors affecting the height of the tropopause
* Temperature in troposphere
When temperature is low, the tropopause goes down because the convection decreases.
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STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
• Air temperatura at height 0 (sea level) is 15 ºC (288.15 K)
• Air pressure at height 0 is 1013.25 hPa
• Atmospheric air is considered as dry air and it behaves as an ideal gas
• Gravity acceleration is constant and its value is 980.665 cm/s2
• From sea level until 11 km the temperature decreases as height increases at a rate of 6.5 ºC/km: T = 288.15 K -( 6.5 K/km)· H (H: height in km)
• Throughout this layer pressure is calculated by P = 1013.25 hPa ·(288.15 K/T)^-5.256
• From 11 to 20 km the temperature remains constant: 216.65 K• Throughout this layer pressure is calculated by P = 226.32 hPa · exp(-0,1577·(H-
11km))
• From 20 to 32 km the temperature increases: T = 216.65 K + (H-20 km) (H: height in km)
• Throughout this layer pressure is calculated by • P = 54.75 hPa·(216.65K/T)^34.16319
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• From 32 to 47 km the temperature increases as height increases:
• T = 228.65 K + (2.8 K/km)·(H-32 km) (H: height in km)
• Throughout this layer pressure is calculated by
• P = 8.68 hPa · (228.65 K/T)^12.2011
• From 47 to 51 km the temperature remains constant at 270.65 K
• Throughout this layer pressure is calculated by
• P = 1.109 hPa · exp(-0,1262·(H-47km))
• The rest of upper levels can be obtained from the following references: A. Naya (Meteorología Superior en Espasa-Calpe); y, R.B.Stull (Meteorology for Scientists and Engineers)).
Standard atmosphere calculator:
Source: J. Almorox, http://www.eda.etsia.upm.es/climatologia/Presion/atmosferaestandar.htm
(until 86 km): http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (CONTINUED)
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20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 102 103101
Pressure (mb)
Density (g/m3)
Mean free path (m)
Height(km)
John M. Wallace y Peter V. Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: an introductory survey. Academic PressAdapted from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th Edition. CRC Press (1973)
Graphic according with data from
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE. PRESSURE PROFILE
Mean path a molecule goes over before colliding another
Liquid water at room
conditions 106 g/m3
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Height
(km)
500/1500 Temperature (ºC)-50 0 50 100 150 200-100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
490
500
510
520 Exosphere
Termosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE. TEMPERATURE PROFILE
TROPOPAUSE
STRATOPAUSE
MESOPAUSE
Graphics from data in http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/images/profile_jpg_image.html
Temperature of termosphere is highly
dependent on sun activity. It may vary
from 500 ºC to 1500 ºC.
We live here!
TERMOPAUSE
TERMOPAUSE
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Diffusion tends to yield an atmosphere in which the mean molecular mass of the mixture components decreases as height increases. Each gas behaves in the same way as whether it were the only component in the mixture (ideal behaviour), and the density of each decreases exponentially as height increases. However the reference height H is different for each gas, and so the gasses having lower molecular mass are most abundant at the upper levels, because the density of the lighter gasses drops slower than that of the heavier gasses.
ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT
1. Diffusion by aleatory molecular movements
Height
Higher M, Higher B Lower M, lower B
The atmosphere composition varies as the height increases because the following reasons:
)/exp(0
HzPP Bg
H 1
Lower H Higher HP
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Could you demonstrate that really higher M implies higher B?
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2. Mixture for convection
Convection tends to homogenize the composition of the atmosphere. At low levels the mean free path is very small, so the time required for pulling apart different components is much larger than the time the turbulences take for arising a homogeneous mixture.
As a consequence, at low levels the atmosphere is a system well stirred whose components are very well mixed.
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 102 103101
m
km
Mean free path vs height
Above 100 km the mixture by convection is no longer as efficient as it was below, and it appears a difference in composition depending on the height.
The limit is about 100 km
ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT (CONTINUED)
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Most probable velocity:mM
kTv
2
Escape velocity: that velocity in what the kinetic energy of a particle is big enough to run away towards the infinitum. ( At a height of 500 km, the escape velocity from the Earth is about 11 kms-1)
Most probable velocity Hidrogen 3 kms-1
Oxigen 0.8 kms-1
Fraction of molecules with velocity equal to escape velocity
10 -6
10 -84
LOSE OF GASSES FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
Temperature at 500 km is 600 ºC Most probable velocity 3 kms-1
The lighter gasses did escape along the geological eras, so its actual abundance is low
http://www.iitap.iastate.edu/gccourse/chem/evol/evol_lecture.html
T: Absolute temperatureBoltzmann constant
k = 1.38·10-23 J K-1
m: Mass of the hidrogen atom
M: Molecular weight of a particular gas species
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Wind is the moving air from one place to another over the Earth surface. The air flux is related (among other causes) with pressure differences.
NO!
rur
PPgrad
Pressure gradient +
ru
The air tends to move
against the pressure gradient
WIND
1024
10201016
Pressure is a scalar
magnitude
-grad P
GRADIENT DIRECTION: THAT OF FASTER VARIATION OF THE SCALAR MAGNITUDE
…we need also consider the rotation of the Earth!
Blue arrows indicate the sense opposite to that of the gradient pressure
Do we conclude that wind moves as the blue arrows show?
GRADIENT SENSE: TOWARDS HIGHER VALUES OF THE MAGNITUDE
The change in pressure measured across a given distance is called a pressure gradient.
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rvaa RR 2
Centripetal force
Coriolis
Acceleration measured in a rotating reference frame
Acceleration measured in an inertial reference frame
rvaa RR 2
Rv
Rv2
Rv 2
North Pole
RvRv 2
Trajectory within an inertial reference frame
Trajectory within an accelerating reference frame
EARTH ROTATION EFFECTS
Within an rotating reference frame a Coriolis force proportional to appears, beeing responsible for the observed deviation
Rv 2
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Rv 2
Rv2
Deviation on the right-hand side respect the sense of the movement
Rv2
Rv 2
Deviation on the left-hand side respect the sense of the movement
N
S
Rv
Rv
CORIOLIS DEVIATIONSeen from a point over the surface
Sense of the movement
Coriolis deviation
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
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SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Coriolis deviation
Sense of the movement
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GEOSTROPHIC WINDS
A
B
Geostrophic winds: winds balanced by the Coriolis and Pressure Gradient forces
Remember: if the Earth would not spin around its polar axis, the movement of the air masses will occur in the opposite sense to that the pressure gradient.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/geos.rxml
Pressure gradientNorthern hemisphere
Gradient force
-grad P
Rv 2Coriolis force, proportional to
… and so on, up to the situation is…
A
B
…geostrophic winds blowing parallel to isobars
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Northern hemisphere: The Coriolis force arises deviation to the right
H
Within an anticyclone (H) the winds turn clockwise
L
Within a storm (L) the winds turn anticlockwise
ANTICYCLONES AND STORMS
Southern hemisphere: The Coriolis force arises deviation to the left
HWithin an anticyclone (H) the winds turn anticlockwise
L Within a storm (L) the winds turn clockwise
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11 Polar cell 22 Ferrell cell 33 Hadley cell
http://www.newmediastudio.org/DataDiscovery/Hurr_ED_Center/Easterly_Waves/Trade_Winds/Trade_Winds.html
ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL FLOW
Simple model
Air going down on the poles (cold areas) and air ascending on the equator (warm areas)
THIS SIMPLE MODEL HAVEN’T IN MIND THE EARTH’S ROTATION
Intertropical convergence zone
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ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL FLOW (CONTINUED)
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Polar Antarctic Circle
Polar Arctic Circle
WESTERN WINDS NEAR POLAR ZONES
ARCTIC ANTARCTIC
Relationship with the ozone hole over Antarctica
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Troposphere
The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is the atmospheric region, nearest the Earth surface (300-3000 m thickness), where it occurs the most of exchanges of energy
and matter. It is the zone where the interaction surface-atmosphere occurs.
PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER
Transport phenomena within PBL are related with turbulence
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1
10
100
1000
10000
Hei
ght (
mag
nitu
de o
rder
, m
)
RO
UG
HN
ES
S L
AY
ER
SU
RF
AC
E L
AY
ER
EX
TE
RN
L
AY
ER
TROPOPAUSE
LIM
IT L
AY
ER
(P
BL
)
TR
OP
OS
PH
ER
E
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Turbulence: whirlpools arising from several causes
BASE OF THE CLOUDS
The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposhpere directly influenced by the Earth surface. It is able to answer to the stimulation by surface forces wihin a temporal scale of 1 hour or less.
The forces associated with the Earth’s surface include drag friction, heat transfer, evaporation and transpiration, contaminant releasing and ground features able to modify the air flux.
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PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER (CONTINUED)
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SunriseSurface
warmingPBL stirring PBL increasing
thicknessPuesta de Sol
DAILY VARIATION OF THE PBL
Typical values at the end of the evening 1 km (0.2 km -
5 km)
SunsetNight begins
Surface cooling
Turbulence drops or
disappears
PBL thickness dropping
Typical values 100 m (20 m - 500 m)
1 km
(0.
2 km
-5 k
m)
100 m (20 m - 500 m)
Wind, temperature and other properties of the PBL undergo fewer daily variations over vast water surfaces as oceans and
great lakes than those over lands. This is because the greater specific heat of water.
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TEMPERATURE DAILY CYCLE
30 35 40 45 50T (ºC)
08:00
10:00
05:00
12:00
15:00
18:00
Height
15 cm
30 cm
60 cm
1.20 m
10.0 m
2.40 m
-2 cm
-5 cm
-15 cm
Typical summer profiles (land)(data: July and August mean, based on A. H. Strahler, Geografía Física)
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WATER CYCLE
Oceans
Atmosphere
1350·1015 m3
13·1012 m3
Eva
pora
tion
361·
1012
m3 /
yea
r
Prec
ipit
atio
n
324·
1012
m3 /
yea
r
Land
33.6·1015 m3
37·1
012 m
3 / y
ear
Und
ergr
aoun
d an
d su
rfac
e w
ater
Evaporation & transpiration
62·1012 m3/ year
99·1012 m3/ year
Precipitation
361·1012 m3/year
62·1012 m3/year
423·1012 m3/year
324·1012 m3/ year
99·1012 m3/ year
423·1012 m3/ year
ATMOSPHERIC BUDGET
Based onhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/bdgt.rxml
Ambiental
Física
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Coriolis accelerationhttp://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/coriolis_effect.htmlhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/crls.rxml
Anticyclonshttp://vppx134.vp.ehu.es/met/html/diccio/anticicl.htm
Stormshttp://vppx134.vp.ehu.es/met/html/diccio/borrasca.htm
S. Pal Arya, Introduction to Micrometeorology, 2th Edition. University Press.
http://www.rc-soar.com/tech/thermals.htm
http://f4bscale.worldonline.co.uk/Thermals.htm
Roland B. Stull, An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Kluwer Academic Publishers