Organization Behavior chapter 2

CHAPTER 2 Foundations of Individual Behavior

CHAPTER 2Foundationsof IndividualBehavior

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Contrast the two types of ability.2. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB.3. Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB.4. Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning.5. Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB.6. Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics,

and learning.

Instructor Resources

Instructors may wish to use the following resources when presenting this chapter: Text Exercises

o INTERNATIONAL OB The Benefits of Cultural Intelligence (p. 46)o MYTH OR SCIENCE? “You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks” (p. 58)o POINT/COUNTERPOINT All Human Behavior Is Learned (p. 65)o Experiential Exercise Positive Reinforcement Versus Punishment (p. 67)o Ethical Dilemma You Must Have Sex (p. 67)

Text Caseso Case Incident 1 The Flynn Effect (p. 68)o Case Incident 2 Professional Sports: Rewarding and Punishing the Same Behavior? (p. 69)

Instructor’s Choice - Personality and Innovation at Apple This section presents an exercise that is NOT found in the student's textbook.

Instructor's Choice reinforces the text's emphasis through various activities. Some Instructor's Choice activities are centered around debates, group exercises, Internet research, and student experiences. Some can be used in-class in their entirety, while others require some additional work on the student's part. The course instructor may choose to use these at anytime throughout the class—some may be more effective as icebreakers, while some may be used to pull together various concepts covered in the chapter.

Copyright ©2009 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

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32 PART TWO The Individual

WEB EXERCISESAt the end of each chapter of this instructor’s manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching the WWW on OB topics. The exercises “Exploring OB Topics on the Web” are set up so that you can simply photocopy the pages, distribute them to your class, and make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class.

Summary and Implications for Managers

This chapter looked at three individual variables—ability, biographical characteristics, and learning. Let’s now try to summarize what we found and consider their importance for a manager who is trying to understand organizational behavior.

A b i l i t y Ability directly influences an employee’s level of performance. Given management’s desire to get high-performing employees, what can be done?

First, an effective selection process will improve the fit. A job analysis will provide information about jobs currently being done and the abilities that individuals need to perform the jobs adequately. Applicants can then be tested, interviewed, and evaluated on the degree to which they possess the necessary abilities.

Second, promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals already in the organization’s employ should reflect the abilities of candidates. As with new employees, care should be taken to assess critical abilities that incumbents will need in the job and to match those requirements with the organization’s human resources.

Third, the fit can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match an incumbent’s abilities. Often, modifications can be made in the job that, while not having a significant impact on the job’s basic activities, better adapt it to the specific talents of a given employee. Examples would be changing some of the equipment used or reorganizing tasks within a group of employees.

B i o g r a p h i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Biographical characteristics are readily observable to managers. However, just because they’re observable doesn’t mean they should be explicitly used in management decisions. We also need to be aware of implicit biases we or other managers may have.

L e a r n i n g Any observable change in behavior is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place. Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying behavior. By identifying and rewarding performance-enhancing behaviors, management increases the likelihood that those behaviors will be repeated. Our knowledge about learning further suggests that reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment. Although punishment eliminates undesired behavior more quickly than negative reinforcement does, punished behavior tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed. And punishment may produce unpleasant side effects, such as lower morale and higher absenteeism or turnover. In addition, the recipients of punishment tend to become resentful of the punisher. Managers, therefore, are advised to use reinforcement rather than punishment.



The chapter opens by introducing Alexandra Hai, the first woman gondolier in Venice. In 2007, Hai won her right to operate a gondola in a court fight since this fabled city historically had only allowed men to operate the boats. Continuing to meet with resistance, this traditional city is not receptive to women in work roles that have only been held by men. This Italian city is holding fast to gender roles and many men feel that she does not belong in the industry.

Brief Chapter Outline

I. INTRODUCTION Intelligence is but one characteristic that people bring with them to organizations. The chapter looks at how biographical characteristics and ability affect employee

performance and satisfaction.

II. ABILITY (PPTs 2–2 to 2–4)A. Intellectual Abilities

Needed to perform mental abilities—thinking, reasoning, problem solving Jobs differ in the demands placed on intellectual abilities. Dimensions of intellectual ability (Exhibit 2–1) Recent research in the area of multiple intelligences

B. Physical Abilities Less skilled and more standardized jobs Nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks (Exhibit 2–2)

C. The Ability-Job Fit Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit. When the fit is poor, employees are likely to fail.

III. BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS (PPT 2–5 – 2 -6)A. Introduction

Start with factors that are readily available in an employee’s personnel file. There is a sizable amount of research on these factors (age, gender, length of service).

B. Age It is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism.

o There is a widespread belief that productivity declines with age and that individual skills decay over time.

o The relationship between age and job satisfaction is mixed. C. Gender

There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job performance, including the areas of: o There is no significant difference in job productivity between men and

women. o Women are more willing to conform to authority. o There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for

work schedules. o Absence and turnover rates. o Women’s quit rates are similar to men’s. o The research on absence consistently indicates that women have higher

rates of absenteeism.


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D. Race Race is considered biological heritage. Workers generally favor peers of their own race.

E. Tenure There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity. There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.

F. Religion Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11 world.

G. Sexual Orientation Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may). Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.

H. Gender Identity Relatively new issue – transgender employees.

IV. LEARNING (PPT 2–7)A. Introduction

Learning occurs all the time. If we want to explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how people

learn. B. A Definition of Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Definition has several components: o It involves change.o Change must be relatively permanent. o It is concerned with behaviors.o Some form of experience is necessary.

C. Theories of Learning: (PPTs 2–8 to 2–11)1. Classical Conditioning

It is passive—something happens, and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event.

It is voluntary rather than reflexive. 2. Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.

3. Social Learning Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by

being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. Four processes determine the influence that a model will have on an

individual: o Attentional processeso Retention processeso Motor reproduction processeso Reinforcement processes

D. Shaping: A Managerial Tool (PPT 2–12) 1. Introduction

Attempting to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps

2. Methods of Shaping Behavior Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction



Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. Reinforcement, whether it is positive or negative, has an impressive

record as a shaping tool. A review of research findings:

o Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.

o Some types of rewards are more effective than others. o Timing of reinforcement is critical.

3. Schedules of Reinforcement (PPTs 2–13 to 2–14) Two major types of reinforcement schedules are:

o Continuous o Intermittent.

Evidence indicates that the intermittent or varied form of reinforcement tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form.

An intermittent reinforcement can be of a ratio or interval type. A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable. Intermittent techniques can be placed into four categories, as shown in

Exhibit 2–5. 4. Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior (PPTs 2–15)

Continuous reinforcement schedules can lead to early satiation. Under this schedule, behavior tends to weaken rapidly when reinforcers are withheld.

Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency responses.

Intermittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not follow every response.

They are appropriate for stable or high-frequency responses. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than

fixed schedules. (Exhibit 2–4) Variable-interval schedules generate high rates of response and more

stable and consistent behavior because of a high correlation between performance and reward. The employee tends to be more alert since there is a surprise factor.

5. Behavior Modification (PPT 2–16 - 2-17) A classic study was conducted at Emery Air Freight (now part of Federal

Express): o This simple program of feedback and positive reinforcements

saved the company $2 million over a three-year period. The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model:

o Identifying critical behaviorso Developing baseline datao Identifying behavior consequenceso Developing and implementing an intervention strategyo Evaluating performance improvement

OB Mod has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward customers.

6. Problems with OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory OB Mod does not take into consideration people’s thoughts and feelings All stimuli may not be motivated by a particular behavioral response


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V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS (PPT 2–18 - 2-19)A. AbilityB. Biographical CharacteristicsC. Learning

Expanded Chapter Outline

I. INTRODUCTION Intelligence is but one characteristic that people bring with them to organizations. The chapter looks at how biographical characteristics and ability affect employee

performance and satisfaction.

II. ABILITYA. Intellectual Abilities

Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities. IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities. Examples of

such tests are popular college admission tests such as the SAT, GMAT, and LSAT.

The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. (See Exhibit 2–1).

Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. For example, the more information-processing demands that exist in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to perform the job successfully.

A careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs.

New research in this area focuses on “multiple intelligences,” which breaks down intelligence into its four sub-parts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

B. Physical Abilities Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less skilled and more

standardized jobs. Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of

physical tasks. (See Exhibit 2–2). Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management matches

the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and the employees’ abilities.

Teaching Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the International OB box feature “The Benefits of Cultural Intelligence” found in the text and at the end of this chapter. The focus is that cultural intelligence may be a key strength in dealing with individuals and organizational members from different cultures. ■

C. The Ability-Job Fit Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit. The specific intellectual or physical abilities required depend on the ability

requirements of the job. For example, pilots need strong spatial-visualization abilities.



Directing attention at only the employee’s abilities or only the ability requirements of the job ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the interaction of the two.

When the fit is poor, employees are likely to fail. When the ability-job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far

exceed the requirements of the job, performance is likely to be adequate but there will be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction.

III. BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICSA. Introduction

Finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated.

Many of the concepts—motivation, or power, politics or organizational culture—are hard to assess.

Other factors are more easily definable and readily available—data that can be obtained from an employee’s personnel file and would include characteristics such as: o Ageo Gendero Length of service, etc.

B. Age The relationship between age and job performance is increasing in importance.

o First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age.

o Second, the workforce is aging. o Third, U.S. legislation largely outlaws mandatory retirement.

Employers’ perceptions are mixed. o They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring to their

jobs, specifically experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.

o Older workers, however, are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to new technology.

o Some believe that the older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. That conclusion is based on studies of the age-turnover relationship.

o It is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism. Most studies do show an inverse relationship, but close

examination finds that the age-absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or unavoidable.

In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence. However, they have higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to their poorer health associated with aging and longer recovery periods when injured.

There is a widespread belief that productivity declines with age and that individual skills decay over time.

Reviews of the research find that age and job performance are unrelated. o This seems to be true for almost all types of jobs, professional and

nonprofessional. o The relationship between age and job satisfaction is mixed.

Most studies indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age 60.

Other studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship. When professional and nonprofessional employees are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase among


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professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years.

C. Gender There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will

affect their job performance, including the areas of: o Problem-solvingo Analytical skillso Competitive driveo Motivationo Sociabilityo Learning ability

There is no significant difference in job productivity between men and women. Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive

and more likely than women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor.

There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules. o Mothers of preschool children are more likely to prefer part-time work,

flexible work schedules, and telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.

Absence and turnover rateso Women’s quit rates are similar to men’s. o The research on absence consistently indicates that women have higher

rates of absenteeism. The logical explanation: cultural expectation that has historically placed home and family responsibilities on the woman.

D. Race Race is the biological heritage people use to identify themselves. Individuals tend to favor colleagues of their own race. There are strong differences in attitudes toward affirmative action. African-Americans fare worse than whites in employment decisions. The major dilemma faced by employers who use mental ability tests is that they

may have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups. E. Tenure

The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to misconceptions and speculations.

Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted: o There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity. o There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence.

Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover. Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to

turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.

The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.

F. Religion Religion is a touchy subject and often results in conflicts especially between

employees’ belief systems. Although employees are protected by U.S. federal law regarding their religion, it

is still an issue in the workplace. Accommodation of religious beliefs and non-discriminatory practices are two

areas that need to be addressed by companies. .



G. Sexual Orientation Federal law does not protect employees against discrimination based on sexual

orientation. Employers differ regarding their policies on this issue

H. Gender Identity Often referred to as transgender employees, this topic encompasses those

individuals who change genders.

IV. LEARNINGA. Introduction

Learning occurs all the time. If we want to explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how people

learn. B. A Definition of Learning

What is learning? A generally accepted definition is “any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.”

The definition suggests that we shall never see someone “learning.” We can see changes taking place but not the learning itself.

The definition has several components that deserve clarification: o First, learning involves change. o Second, the change must be relatively permanent. o Third, our definition is concerned with behavior. o Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning.

C. Theories of Learning1. Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning grew out of experiments conducted at the turn of the century by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell.

Key concepts in classical conditioning [Pavlov’s experiment] o The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; it invariably caused

the dog to react in a specific way. o The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the

conditioned stimulus. o The conditioned response: This describes the behavior of the

dog; it salivated in reaction to the bell alone. Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association

between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. When the stimuli, one compelling and the other one neutral, are paired,

the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning is passive—something happens, and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event. It is voluntary rather than reflexive.

2. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.

The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by reinforcement or lack of reinforcement.

Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner’s research on operant conditioning expanded our knowledge.

Tenets of Operant Conditioning are: o Behavior is learned. o People are likely to engage in desired behaviors if they are

positively reinforced for doing so.


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Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.

Any situation in which it is either explicitly stated or implicitly suggested that reinforcements are contingent on some action on your part involves the use of operant learning.

3. Social Learning Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by

being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. Learning by observing is an extension of operant conditioning; it also

acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning.

The influence of models is central to social learning. Four processes determine the influence that a model will have on an

individual. o Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they

recognize and pay attention to its critical features. o Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend on how

well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.

o Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing.

o Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

Teaching Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise found in the MYTH OR SCIENCE? “You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks!” box found in the text and at the end of this chapter. The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. ■

D. Shaping: A Managerial Tool1. Introduction

When we attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, we are shaping behavior.

It is done by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired response.

2. Methods of Shaping Behavior Positive reinforcement—following a response with something pleasant. Negative reinforcement—following a response by the termination or

withdrawal of something unpleasant.o Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They

strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Punishment—causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate

an undesirable behavior. Extinction—eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior.

When the behavior is not reinforced, it tends to gradually be extinguished. o Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to

decrease its subsequent frequency. Reinforcement, whether it is positive or negative, has an impressive

record as a shaping tool. A review of research findings:



o Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.

o Some types of rewards are more effective for use in organizations than others.

o The speed with which learning takes place and the permanence of its effects will be determined by the timing of reinforcement. This point is extremely important and deserves considerable elaboration.

Teaching Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the OB IN THE NEWS: Are You More Biased Than You Think? box found in the text and at the end of this chapter. The purpose of the exercise is to help students better understand how biases may be implicit and people may not even recognize them.. ■

3. Schedules of Reinforcement The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: (1) continuous and

(2) intermittent. o A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired

behavior each and every time it is demonstrated. o In an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable

behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to make the behavior worth repeating. It can be compared to the workings of a slot machine. The intermittent payoffs occur just often enough to

reinforce behavior. Evidence indicates that the intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement

tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form.

An intermittent reinforcement can be of a ratio or interval type. o Ratio schedules depend upon how many responses the subject

makes; the individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behavior. Interval schedules depend upon how much time has passed since the last reinforcement; the individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed.

A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable. Intermittent techniques can be placed into four categories, as shown

in Exhibit 2–3. Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule—rewards are spaced at uniform

time intervals; the critical variable is time, and it is held constant. An example: o This is the predominant schedule for most salaried workers in

North America—the paycheck. Variable-interval reinforcements—rewards are distributed in time so that

reinforcements are unpredictable. o Pop quizzeso A series of randomly timed unannounced visits to a company

office by the corporate audit staff In a fixed-ratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses

are given, a reward is initiated. o A piece-rate incentive plan is a fixed-ratio schedule.


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When the reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual, he or she is said to be reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule. o Salespeople on commission

Teaching Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Positive Reinforcement vs. Punishment found in the text and at the end of this chapter. (Allow 20-25 minutes for the exercise). ■

4. Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior Continuous reinforcement schedules can lead to early satiation. Under

this schedule, behavior tends to weaken rapidly when reinforcers are withheld.

Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency responses.

Intermittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not follow every response.

They are appropriate for stable or high-frequency responses. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than

fixed schedules. (Exhibit 2–4) Variable-interval schedules generate high rates of response and more

stable and consistent behavior because of a high correlation between performance and reward. The employee tends to be more alert since there is a surprise factor.

5. Behavior Modification A classic study was conducted at Emery Air Freight (now part of Federal

Express): o Emery’s management wanted packers to use freight containers

for shipments whenever possible. Packers intuitively felt that 90 percent of shipments were containerized. An analysis showed that it was only 45 percent. Management established a program of feedback and positive reinforcements by asking each packer to keep a checklist of his or her daily packings, both containerized and non-containerized. At the end of each day, the packer computed his or her container utilization rate. Container utilization jumped to more than 90 percent on the first day of the program and held. This simple program of feedback and positive reinforcements saved the company $2 million over a three-year period.

o This program at Emery Air Freight illustrates OB Modification. The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model:

o Identifying critical behaviors Critical behaviors make a significant impact on the

employee’s job performance. Critical behaviors are those 5–10 percent of behaviors that may account for up to 70 or 80 percent of each employee’s performance.

o Developing baseline data Developing baseline data determines the number of

times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions.

o Identifying behavior consequences Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager

the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it.



o Developing and implementing an intervention strategy Developing and implementing an intervention strategy

will entail changing some elements of the performance-reward linkage-structure, processes, technology, groups, or the task—with the goal of making high-level performance more rewarding.

o Evaluating performance improvement Evaluating performance improvement is important to

demonstrate that a change took place as a result of the intervention strategy.

OB Mod has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward customers.

Teaching Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the ETHICAL DILEMMA: You Must Have Sex as a class discussion. ■

6. Problems with OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory Thoughts and feelings are disregarded by Reinforcement Theory Often stimuli may present be presented without a particular behavioral

response considered Reinforcement Theory does not include elements of cognition

V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. AbilityB. Biographical CharacteristicsC. Learning

Text Exercises

International The Benefits of Cultural Intelligence

Have you ever noticed that some individuals seem to have a knack for relating well to people from different cultures? Some researchers have labeled this skill cultural intelligence, which is an outsider’s natural ability to interpret an individual’s unfamiliar gestures and behaviors in the same way that others from the individual’s culture would. Cultural intelligence is important because when conducting business with people from different cultures, misunderstandings can often occur, and as a result, cooperation and productivity may suffer.

Consider the following example. An American manager was meeting with his fellow design team engineers, two of whom were German. As ideas floated around the table, his German colleagues quickly rejected them. The American thought the feedback was harsh and concluded that his German colleagues were rude. However, they were merely critiquing the ideas, not the individual—a distinction that the American was unable to make, perhaps due to a lack of cultural intelligence. As a result, the American became wary of contributing potentially good ideas. Had the American been more culturally intelligent, he likely would have recognized the true motives behind his colleagues’ remarks and thus may have been able to use those remarks to improve his ideas.


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It is unclear whether the notion of cultural intelligence is separate from other forms of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence, and even whether cultural intelligence is different from cognitive ability. However, it is clear that the ability to interact well with individuals from different cultures is a key asset in today’s global business environment.

Source: Based on C. Earley and E. Mosakowski, “Cultural Intelligence,” Harvard Business Review, October 2004, pp. 139–146.

OB IN THE NEWS

Are You More Biased Than You Think?

One late Wednesday afternoon, a 34-year-old white woman sat down in her Washington, DC, office to take a test. She prided herself on being a civil rights advocate, and her office décor gave ample testament to her liberal causes.

The woman accessed a test on a Web site run by a research team at Harvard. The test was relatively simple; it asked her to distinguish between a series of black and white faces. When she saw a black face, she was to press a key on the left, and when she saw a white face, she was to press a key on the right. Next, she was asked to distinguish between a series of positive and negative words. Words such as “wonderful” required pressing the “i” key, words such as “terrible” required pressing the “e” key. The test remained simple when two categories were combined: The person pressed “e” if she saw either a white face or a positive word, and she pressed “i” if she saw either a black face or a negative word.

Then the groupings were reversed. The woman's index fingers hovered over her keyboard. The test now required her to group black faces with positive words and white faces with negative words. She leaned forward intently. She made no mistakes, but it took her longer to correctly sort the words and images.

Her result appeared on the screen, and the activist became very silent. The test found she had a bias for whites over blacks.

"It surprises me I have any preferences at all," she said. "By the work I do, by my education, my background. I'm progressive, and I think I have no bias. Being a minority myself, I don't feel I should or would have biases.”

As it turns out, evidence is starting to accumulate—there are more than 60 studies so far—showing that most people have these sorts of implicit biases. They’re implicit because we don’t consciously realize they’re there. But there they are. We may have implicit biases against minorities or women, or people of a certain religion or sexual orientation. Some people do not have an implicit bias in one area (say, toward race), but do in another area (say, toward Republicans).

Are these biases set in stone? Are they changed by experience? That’s not yet clear. Some of the researchers argue that such biases are so primitive that simple training exercises or experiences are unlikely to change them. Like race or gender, they may be part of who we are. “Mind bugs operate without us being conscious of them,” says one of the Harvard researchers. “They are not special things that happen in our heart because we are evil.”Source: Based on S. Vedantam, “See No Bias,” Washington Post, January 23, 2005, p. W12; and A. S. Baron and M. R. Banaji, “The Development of Implicit Attitudes: Evidence of Race Evaluations from Ages 6 and 10 and Adulthood,” Psychological Science, January 2006, pp. 53–58.



Myth orScience? “You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks!”

This statement is false. This statement reflects the widely held stereotype that older workers have difficulties in adapting to new methods and techniques. Studies consistently demonstrate that older employees are perceived as being relatively inflexible, resistant to change, and less willing and able to be trained than their younger counterparts.1 But these perceptions are mostly wrong.

Evidence does indicate that older workers (typically defined as people aged 50 and over) are less confident of their learning abilities (perhaps due to acceptance of societal stereotypes). Moreover, older workers do seem to be somewhat less efficient in acquiring complex or demanding skills, and, on average, they are not as fast in terms of reaction time or in solving problems. That is, they may take longer to train. Finally, older employees receive less support from supervisors and coworkers for engaging in learning and developmental activities.2 However, once trained, research indicates that older workers actually learn more than their younger counterparts, and they are better at transferring what they have learned to the job.3

The ability to acquire the skills, knowledge, or behavior necessary to perform a job at a given level—that is, trainability—has been the subject of much research. And the evidence indicates that there are differences between people in their trainability. A number of individual-difference factors (such as low ability, and reduced motivation) have been found to impede learning and training outcomes. However, age has not been found to influence these outcomes. In fact, older employees actually benefit more from training. Still, the stereotypes persist.4 ■

Class Exercise

Conduct this exercise before discussing this MYTH OR SCIENCE? box.1. Ask students to describe how people, over 50, are different from them or a recent college

graduate. Record their ideas on the board. [To prime the pump, ask them to compare themselves to their parents or grandparents.]

1

ENDNOTES

? T. Maurer, K. Wrenn, and E. Weiss, “Toward Understanding and Managing Stereotypical Beliefs about Older Workers’ Ability and Desire for Learning and Development,” Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, vol. 22, 2003, pp. 253–285.

2 T. J. Maurer, E. M. Weiss, and F. G. Barbeite, “A Model of Involvement in Work-Related Learning and Development Activity: The Effects of Individual Situational, Motivational, and Age Variables,” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 88(4), 2003, pp. 707–724.

3 J. A. Colquitt, J. A. LePine, and R. A. Noe, “Toward an Integrative Theory of Training Motivation: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis of 20 Years of Research,” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 85(5), 2000, pp. 678–707.

4 K. A. Wrenn and T. J. Maurer, “Beliefs About Older Workers’ Learning and Development Behavior in Relation to Beliefs About Malleability of Skills, Age-Related Decline, and Control,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 34(2), 2004, pp. 223–242.


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2. After generating a list of at least 20 characteristics, ask them to help you sort the characteristics into two sets: positives regarding work, negatives regarding work.

3. Discuss with students two ideas: (1) Why are older people different in these ways than younger—i.e., older people tell stories about the good old days, and (2) If they were a manager, would the list of positives or negatives weigh more heavily in their hiring decision?

4. Discuss the material above (also found in the student’s text).5. Conclude by asking students to research this issue on the WWW (a suggested exercise can be

found in the Exploring OB Topics on the World Wide WEB exercise found at the end of this chapter or you can photocopy an article on this issue and hand it out in class). Have them report back in the next class about how the article affected their thinking. Start the next class with 15 minutes on discussion of their research.

Class Exercise

Have students break into small groups.1. Assign a learning theory to each group and ask them to apply the theory to the facts of the case.2. Ask them to use a learning theory to explain the behavior of CEO’s during this time period.3. Have a spokesperson from each group outline their application of the theory.4. Ask the class to decide which theory has the strongest possibility for this situation.

Point CounterpointAll Human Behavior Is Learned5

PointHuman beings are essentially blank slates that are shaped by their environment. B.F. Skinner, in fact, summarized his belief in the power of the environment to shape behavior when he said, “Give me a child at birth and I can make him into anything you want.”

Following are some of the societal mechanisms that exist because of this belief in the power of learned behavior.

Role of parenting. We place a great deal of importance on the role of mothers and fathers in the raising of children. We believe, for instance, that children raised without fathers will be hindered by their lack of a male role model. And parents who have continual run-ins with the law risk having government authorities take their children from them. The latter action is typically

5 Points in this argument are based on N. Nicholson, “How Hardwired Is Human Behavior?” Harvard Business Review, July–August 1998, pp. 135–47; and B. D. Pierce and R. White, “The Evolution of Social Structure: Why Biology Matters,” Academy of Management Review, October 1999, pp. 843–53.



taken because society believes that irresponsible parents don’t provide the proper learning environment for their children.

Importance of education. Most advanced societies invest heavily in the education of their young. They typically provide 10 or more years of free education. And in countries such as the United States, going on to college after finishing high school has become the norm rather then the exception. This investment in education is undertaken because it is seen as a way for young people to learn knowledge and skills.

Job training. For those individuals who don’t go on to college, most will pursue job-training programs to develop specific work-related skills. They’ll take courses to become proficient as auto mechanics, medical assistants, and the like. Similarly, people who seek to become skilled trades workers will pursue apprenticeships as carpenters, electricians, or pipe fitters. In addition, business firms invest billions of dollars each year in training and education to keep current employees’ skills up-to-date.

Manipulating of rewards. Complex compensation programs are designed by organizations to reward employees fairly for their work performance. But these programs are also designed with the intention to motivate employees. They are designed to encourage employees to engage in behaviors that management desires and to extinguish behaviors that management wants to discourage. Salary levels, for instance, typically reward employee loyalty, encourage the learning of new skills, and motivate individuals to assume greater responsibilities in the organization.

These mechanisms all exist and flourish because organizations and society believe that people can learn and change their behavior.

CounterpointAlthough people can learn and can be influenced by their environment, far too little attention has been paid to the role that evolution has played in shaping human behavior. Evolutionary psychology tells us that human beings are basically hardwired at birth. We arrive on Earth with ingrained traits, honed and adapted over millions of years that shape and limit our behavior.


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POINT/COUNTERPOINT (Continued)

All living creatures are “designed” by specific combinations of genes. As a result of natural selection, genes that produce faulty design features are eliminated. Characteristics that help a species survive tend to endure and get passed on to future generations. Many of the characteristics that helped early Homo sapiens survive live on today and influence the way we behave. Here are a few examples:

Emotions. Stone Age people, at the mercy of wild predators and natural disasters, learned to trust their instincts. Those with the best instincts survived. Today, emotions remain the first screen to all information we receive. We know we are supposed to act rationally but our emotions can never be fully suppressed.

Risk avoidance. Ancient hunter-gatherers who survived were not big risk takers. They were cautious. Today when we’re comfortable with the status quo, we typically see any change as risky and, thus, tend to resist it.

Stereotyping. To prosper in a clan society, Early Man had to quickly “size up” who he could trust and who he couldn’t. Those who could do this quickly were more likely to survive. Today, like our ancestors, we naturally stereotype people based on very small pieces of evidence, mainly their looks and a few readily apparent behaviors.

Male competitiveness. Males in early human societies frequently had to engage in games or battles in which there were clear winners and losers. Winners attained high status, were viewed as more attractive mates, and were more likely to reproduce. The ingrained male desire to do public battle and display virility and competence persists today.

Evolutionary psychology challenges the notion that people are free to change their behavior if trained or motivated. It doesn’t say that we can’t engage in learning or exercise free will. What it does say is that nature predisposes us to act and interact in particular ways in particular circumstances. As a result, we find that people in organizational settings often behave in ways that don’t appear to be beneficial to themselves or their employers.

Teaching Note:

1. Discuss with students how and why they choose courses within their major. (Caution students at the beginning not to name professors teaching the various sections.)

2. Have students create their own individual lists of criteria. Give them five minutes to create their lists.

3. Ask for volunteers to record their reasons on the board.4. Discuss the reasons—creating a composite list that supports Point and one that supports

Counterpoint.5. Which position is more thoroughly supported by students’ experiences with choosing

classes?6. Do they think their class-choosing experience would be paralleled in the real work world?

Why or why not? ■



Questions for Review

1.What are the two types of ability?

Answer: 1) Intellectual abilities – the abilities needed to perform mental activities

2) Physical abilities – the capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity,

strength and similar characteristics

2.What is intellectual or cognitive ability, and how is it relevant to OB?

Answer: Intellectual or cognitive ability is the capacity to do mental activities such as thinking, reasoning and problem solving. This ability is important since companies need to identify those who have more intelligence so that the person’s potential can be maximized in jobs that are more complex. Placing the right person in a challenging position based on his/her cognitive abilities can result in increased productivity for the firm and employee satisfaction.

3.What are the key biographical characteristics, and why are they relevant to OB?

Answer: 1) Age - Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment

to quality.

2) Gender - Few differences between men and women that affect job performance.

3) Race - (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)

Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based

4) Tenure - People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive,

absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.

5) Religion - Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11 world.

6) Sexual Orientation - Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may). Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.

7) Gender Identity - Relatively new issue – transgendered employees

These characteristics are important to OB since corporations are always searching for varaibles that can impact employee productivity, turnover, deviance, citizenship and satisfaction. Data that is easily defined and available in an employee personnel file can contribute to success in an organization.

4.What is learning, and what are the major theories of learning?

Answer: Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result

of experience.

The major theories of learning include:

- Classical Conditioning - A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

- Operant Conditioning - A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

- Social-Learning Theory - People can learn through observation and direct experience.


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5.What is shaping, and how can it be used as a management tool?

Answer: - Shaping is a managerial tool that involves systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Managers can use all four methods of shaping behavior to teach

employees to behave in ways that are most beneficial to the organization:

– Positive reinforcement - Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)

– Negative reinforcement - Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning)

– Punishment - Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”)

– Extinction - Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)

6.How does culture affect our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning?

Answer: There is some cross-cultural research that shows how culture affects our

understanding of these topics, however, inconclusive. The following contains

information based on the available research:

Intellectual Abilities - Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across

cultures.

Biographical Characteristics - Not much evidence on the global relevance of the

relationships described in this chapter. Countries do vary dramatically on their

biographical composition.

Learning - Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point

Experiential ExercisePOSITIVE REINFORCEMENT VERSUS PUNISHMENT

Exercise Overview (Steps 1–4)This 10-step exercise takes approximately 20 minutes.

1. Two volunteers are selected to receive reinforcement or punishment from the class while performing a particular task. The volunteers leave the room.

2. The instructor identifies an object for the student volunteers to locate when they return to the room. (The object should be unobstructed but clearly visible to the class. Examples that have worked well include a small triangular piece of paper that was left behind when a notice was torn off a classroom bulletin board, a smudge on the chalkboard, and a chip in the plaster of a classroom wall.)

3. The instructor specifies the actions that will be in effect when the volunteers return to the room. For punishment, students should hiss or boo when the first volunteer is moving away from the object. For positive reinforcement, they should cheer and applaud when the second volunteer is getting closer to the object.

4. The instructor should assign a student to keep a record of the time it takes each of the volunteers to locate the object.



Volunteer 1 (Steps 5 and 6)5. Volunteer 1 is brought back into the room and is told, “Your task is to locate and touch a particular

object in the room and the class has agreed to help you. You cannot use words or ask questions. Begin.”

6. Volunteer 1 continues to look for the object until it is found, while the class engages in the punishing behavior.

Volunteer 2 (Steps 7 and 8)7. Volunteer 2 is brought back into the room and is told, “Your task is to locate and touch a particular

object in the room and the class has agreed to help you. You cannot use words or ask questions. Begin.”

8. Volunteer 2 continues to look for the object until it is found, while the class assists by giving positive reinforcement.

Class Review (Steps 9 and 10)9. The timekeeper will present the results on how long it took each volunteer to find the object.10. The class will discuss: What was the difference in behavior of the two volunteers? What are the

implications of this exercise to shaping behavior in organizations?

Source: Adapted from an exercise developed by Larry Michaelson of the University of Oklahoma. With permission.

Teaching Note:

1. In the discussion of the results, raise the issue of the ethicality of shaping behavior with punishment and positive reinforcement. “Is it right for a manager to use these techniques to direct the behavior of an employee?”

2. Students may need help making the mental transition from being individual contributors (they are responsible only for themselves and their own goals as students) to the position of a manager (responsible for others and getting things done through others). What they see as manipulation as students may be perfectly legitimate as someone who works through others.

3. Discuss specific contexts where punishment would be best and situations where positive would be best. Students may well feel that only positive reinforcement should be used, particularly if they come out of a public school system with a heavy emphasis on self-esteem. ■

Ethical DilemmaYOU MUST HAVE SEX

Recently, The University of Florida changed its policy to provide health benefits for cohabitating partners. The change in policy sparked some controversy. For example, Larry Cretul, a member of Congress whose district includes the university, introduced a bill to make it illegal to use taxpayer dollars to fund a domestic-partner benefit program. In explaining his bill, Cretul said, “I just happen to be one who supports the idea that marriage should continue to be held in the elevated position.”

Another part of the policy sparked as much controversy—the requirement that the cohabitating partners sign an agreement indicating that they’re having sex. The policy stipulates that enrollees “must have been in non-platonic relationship for the preceding 12 months.” As part of qualifying for the benefits, employees must sign an agreement indicating that they have


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engaged in sexual activity with their partner.One employee of the university said she was offended by the policy and

wondered how the university was going to enforce it.In response, the university’s director of human resources, Kyle

Cavanaugh, said that the “non-platonic” clause was increasingly common in domestic partner benefit plans, to rule out qualification for people who happen to be living together but aren’t in a romantic relationship. Cavanaugh promises that responses to the question are confidential, but some still wonder. “That’s a personal question,” said one employee.

Questions

1. What do you think about same-sex domestic partner benefits? To what extent are your views affected by your religious or political views?

Answer: This answer will depend on the student’s religious, moral, ethical and/or political viewpoint. The definition of marriage in the minds of the students will help them determine the answer. The distribution of benefits has legal implications such as taxpayer monies/allocation and state laws but the benefits must also be disseminated fairly. One example would include heterosexual couples living together. Should they also receive benefits?

2. What do you think about the policy that requires employees to stipulate that they have sexual activity with their domestic partner? If you think it’s a bad policy, what (if anything) would you propose in its place?

Answer: Sexual activity is a private issue and should remain private. If the state allows for same-sex unions, then that certificate is the legal proof required. If not, the use of similar policies for heterosexual couples should be fairly applied.

Case Incident 1THE FLYNN EFFECT

Given that a substantial amount of intellectual ability (up to 80 percent) is inherited, it might surprise you to learn that intelligence test scores are rising. In fact, scores have risen so dramatically that today’s great-grandparents seem mentally deficient by comparison.

First, let’s review the evidence for rising test scores. Then, we’ll review explanations for the results.

On an IQ scale where 100 is the average, scores having been rising about 3 points per decade, meaning that if your grandparent scored 100, the average score for your generation would be around 115. That’s a pretty big difference—about a standard deviation—meaning that someone whose from your grandparent’s generation whose score was at the 84th percentile would only be average (50th) percentile



by today’s norms.James Flynn is a New Zealand researcher credited with first documenting the rising scores. He first

reported the results in 1984, when he found that almost everyone who took a well-validated IQ test in the 1970s did better than those who took it in the 1940s.

The results appear to hold up across cultures. Test scores are rising not only in the United States but in most other countries in which the effect has been tested, too.

What explains the Flynn Effect? Researchers are not entirely sure, but some of the explanations offered are:

1. Education. Students today are better educated than their ancestors, and education leads to higher test scores.

2. Smaller families In 1900, the average couple had four children; today the number is less than two. We know firstborns tend to have higher IQs than other children, probably because they receive more attention than their later-born siblings.

3. Test-taking savvy. Today’s children have been tested so often that they are test savvy: They know how to take tests and how to do well on them.

4. Genes. Although smart couples tend to have fewer, not more, children, it’s possible that due to better education, tracking, and testing, those who do have the right genes are better able to exploit those advantages. Some genetics researchers also have argued that if two people of different intelligence mate, because the gene of the more intelligent mate is stronger, it wins out, meaning the child’s IQ will be closer to the IQ of the smarter parent.

Questions

1. Do you believe people are really getting smarter? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, based on test scores, people are getting smarter. There is more of a focus on education today. Generations ago, many people did not complete high school and many worked in farming versus the service sector.

2. Which of the factors explaining the Flynn Effect do you buy?

Answer: All of the potential explanations have merit. Education has progressed and would directly attribute to higher test scores. Smaller families with more parental influence and many educational and learning toys, books, DVDs, etc. also improves the learning process. Test-taking abilities and techniques can lead to better scores and genetic composition measured in the form of IQ scores has clearly improved resulting in increased intellectual capital.

3. Are there any societal advantages or disadvantages to the Flynn Effect?

Answer: The societal advantages of increased intelligence are obvious in terms of potential gains in every area such as the economy, government, business, medical, science field, etc. where intellectual capital can be applied. Disadvantages may be limited to those who use their intellect in unsavory situations or for unethical gains.

Source: F. Greve, “Rise in Average IQ Scores Makes Kids Today Exceptional by Earlier Standards,” Jewish World Review, February 14, 2006, pp. 1–3; and M. A. Mingroni, “Resolving the IQ Paradox: Heterosis as a Cause of the Flynn Effect and Other Trends,” Psychological Review, July 2007, pp. 806–829.

Case Incident 2PROFESSIONAL SPORTS: REWARDING AND PUNISHING THE SAME BEHAVIOR?


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Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig is feeling the heat, but not the kind a 90-mile-per-hour fastball brings. He has been facing allegations that many players, including some of Major League Baseball’s biggest stars, are using steroids to enhance their performance. When Congress intervened, Selig stated that the league’s policy on steroids was “as good as any in professional sports.” The policy? Random drug testing, with a 10-day suspension for first-time offenders. Congress and the general public were not satisfied. So, Selig announced that he would attempt to adopt a tougher “three strikes and you’re out” policy: a 50-game suspension for the first offense, a 100-game suspension for the second, and a permanent ban from baseball for the third. Players may incur fines as well. Not only does Selig intend on exercising a stricter policy, but other professional sports leagues such as the NFL and NBA, are promising to improve their drug-testing policies as well.

But here’s the problem: The same system that punishes those who take performance-enhancing drugs may also reinforce such behavior. Major League Baseball appears to be genuinely interested in eliminating the use of steroids in professional baseball, but is has yet to implement a stricter policy. And the current repercussions for players may not serve as a strong deterrent. A fine of $10,000 or a 10-day suspension may be a relatively minor setback compared to the millions that can be earned for becoming an all-star power hitter.

Take Rafael Palmeiro as an example. He tested positive for steroids. Though Palmeiro insists that he inadvertently took steroids, the type that was found in his system (stanozolol) is not the kind found in dietary supplements. His punishment: Palmeiro received a 10-day suspension, forfeited $167,000 of his $3 million salary, and a banner celebrating his 3,000th hit was removed from Camden Yards.

Now consider players such as Barry Bonds and Mark McGuire demonstrate the rewards of becoming a power hitter. Both players broke the major league record for the most home runs hit in a single season—first McGuire, then Bonds—eclipsing the record set by Roger Maris in 1961. Although there is speculation that both players had taken performance-enhancing drugs, to date their records are clean (though Bonds admitted to taking steroids without knowing it at the time). In addition to the exorbitant salaries both players received, the players were on the front pages of newspapers across the country. They became larger than life. And the rewards of hitting more than 70 home runs in a single season are not limited to the players. Revenues from increased game attendance and sports merchandise, as well as helping to build the team’s popularity and success, to local business revenues are all incentives for players to perform at high levels and for owners to reward these players.

In the NFL, the punishments are stiffer. For a first offense, players face a four-game suspension and a loss of salary for the amount of games missed. However, is this punishment strong enough to deter steroid use? Apparently not. Consider the three members of the Carolina Panthers who reportedly used steroids weeks before their trip to the 2004 Super Bowl. Although a four-game suspension can mean a large loss of income (the average NFL salary tops $1 million), such punishment still may not deter steroid use because the money that can be made from endorsements and winning the Super Bowl can far exceed players’ salaries.

It appears that professional sports may be trying to have their cake and eat it too. As we have seen, behavior that may lead individuals and teams to fame and fortune may also be behavior that demands punishment.

Questions

1. What type of reinforcement schedule does random drug testing represent? Is this type of schedule typically effective or ineffective?

Answer: This would be a variable-ratio schedule. This may be effective depending upon the frequency and strength of the behavior.

2. What are some examples of behaviors in typical organizations that supervisors reward but may actually be detrimental to others or to the organization as a whole? As a manager, what might you do to try to avoid this quandary?

Answer: Have students generate a list of issues. It is best to form teams of students. Each team will undoubtedly have several different examples. There may be some disagreement among students in the class. Use this as a basis for explaining how perceptions differ.



3. If you were the commissioner of baseball, what steps would you take to try to reduce the use of steroids in baseball? Is punishment likely to be the most effective deterrent? Why or why not?

Answer: Have students identify four or five specific steps and have them present these to the class for discussion. Whether punishment is effective will depend on whether or not the punishment is commensurate with the inappropriate behavior.

4. Is it ever “okay” to allow potentially unethical behaviors, which on the surface may benefit organizations, to persist? Why or why not?

Answer: Ethical behavior is a value that must be reinforced throughout the organization. There are no exceptions. Here you could discuss the various approaches to “justice” in evaluating the ethical practices of steroid use and other workplace behaviors that may be detrimental to it.

Source: Based on V. Bernstein, “N.F.L. Seeks Tougher Steroid Policy,” New York Times, March 30, 2005, p. D4; M. Lewis, “Absolutely, Power Corrupts,” New York Times Magazine, April 24, 2005, p. 46; and “Fight Against Steroids Just May Be Getting Muscles,” USA Today, May 6, 2005, p. 12a.

Instructor’s Choice

Personality and Innovation at Apple

“It’s Showtime!” is now a phrase that can adequately describe the art and personality of Steve Jobs. At one time or another, Steve Jobs has been called brilliant, creative, demanding, domineering, eccentric, a predatory competitor, hard, unforgiving, or one of the best marketing minds alive today. Mr. Jobs’ new passion is online music and digital entertainment. Just as Apple Computer revolutionized the character and style of computing, it now plans to do the same in the world of music. From iPods, iLife software, iTunes for downloads, Pixar Animated movies, and new Apple stores, Steve Jobs has Apple on everyone’s lips once again. The up and down swings of Apple Computer are legendary; however, through it all Steve Jobs’ vision has remained constant. He seems to really be able to envision the future before it happens.

Using a search engine of your own choosing, find an article about Steve Jobs that outlines his successes and failures as a corporate executive and entrepreneur. Which of the Big Five personality traits do you think Mr. Jobs would score high on? Explain your rationale.

Using a search engine of the Apple Web site, review the latest innovations from Apple in digital entertainment and music. Write a one- to two-paragraph synopsis of these innovations.

Considering what you have done in a and b above, describe which of Mr. Jobs’ personality characteristics has helped him the most in putting together the deals that have propelled Apple to the forefront on digital entertainment and music via the Internet.

Instructor Discussion

To aid the student in this application project suggest that they read “Show Time” by Peter Burrows found in Business Week (February 2, 2004, pp. 57–64). With respect to the personality characteristics presented in the chapter, Mr. Jobs would certainly rate high on Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience. He would also have an internal locus of control approach, be self-monitoring, have high self-esteem, be a Type A personality, have a high need for achievement, and a high need for power. However, he is also very good at building partnerships. Note the differences between his ability to partner versus that of rival Microsoft. In fact even though the Apple vs. Microsoft rivalry is legendary, Steve Jobs long ago recognized the benefits of having


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his Apple (Mac) system be user friendly to the Windows world. His alliances in the entertainment field with Disney and various film producers have certainly given him a head start in the emerging digital entertainment field. Recent creative conflicts with Disney lead to senior staff shakeups at Disney. Apple is certainly a force to be recognized. See www.apple.com for additional information.

EXPLORING OB TOPICS ON THE

WORLD WIDE WEB Search Engines are our navigational tool to explore the WWW. Some commonly used search engines are:

www.excite.com www.yahoo.com www.hotbot.comwww.google.com www.lycos.com www.looksmart.com

1. Do a WWW search on age discrimination. Choose three sites that each deal with a different aspect of age discrimination. For example: discrimination in High Tech industries, preventing discrimination, AARP’s involvement with the issue, etc. Write a one-page paper outlining the key points of the information obtained and how it confirms or disconfirms what we learned about older workers in this chapter.

2. Find a current article of an organization that has been involved in an age discrimination suit. What were the specific issues involved? If resolved, what was the outcome? Bring a copy of the web page to class and be prepared to discuss it. In addition to searching, here are some places to start digging:www.aarp.comwww.bizjournals.com (there is a free registration process for this site)www.hrlawindex.com (there is a free registration process for this site)

3. Shaping as a tool for changing behavior and outcome is used in a wide variety of ways. Perform a search on “shaping behavior” or other similar key words and analyze the results. Write a list of all the ways this strategy is used—and who is using it (businesses, occupations, etc.). Bring your list to class to discuss.

4. Visit http://sun.science.wayne.edu/~wpoff/cor/mem/operschd.html to learn more about the “Skinner Box” and schedules of reinforcement. While there, click on the other links to learn more about reinforcers, operant conditioning, and a definition of behavior. Then visit http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/eam/eam2.htm for more information on schedules of reinforcement and how it applies to humans and animals.

5. Top executives and tough jobs. Learn more about the skills and abilities managers need, like intelligence, leadership, motivation, etc., to be successful. Visit the About.com site and learn more. Print and bring an article to class for discussion. Try these pages or do your own search on About.com. Be sure to select links that look interesting found in the left frame.www.learning.about.comwww.psychology.about.com


George, 01/03/-1,

No link.

http://www.psychology.about.com/

http://www.learning.about.com/

http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/eam/eam2.htm

http://sun.science.wayne.edu/~wpoff/cor/mem/operschd.html

http://www.hrlawindex.com/

http://www.bizjournals.com/

http://www.aarp.com/

http://www.lycos.com/

http://www.google.com/

http://www.hotbot.com/

http://www.yahoo.com/

http://www.excite.com/



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Organization Behavior chapter 2

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Transcript of Organization Behavior chapter 2