Organic photovoltaics using novel pentacene derivatives1430/fulltext.pdfOrganic Photovoltaics using...

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1 Organic Photovoltaics using Novel Pentacene Derivatives A dissertation presented by Anup Kumar Singh to the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Electrical Engineering Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts December, 2013

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Page 1: Organic photovoltaics using novel pentacene derivatives1430/fulltext.pdfOrganic Photovoltaics using Novel Pentacene Derivatives A dissertation presented by Anup Kumar Singh to the

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Organic Photovoltaics using Novel

Pentacene Derivatives

A dissertation presented

by

Anup Kumar Singh

to

the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the field of

Electrical Engineering

Northeastern University

Boston, Massachusetts

December, 2013

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Abstract

Organic photovoltaic (OPV) technology has attracted scientific and economic interest over the

last decade due to the possibility of low-cost manufacturing and the rapid increase in OPV power

conversion efficiency. The future potential of these devices and the increasing demand for green

energy have motivated government and private organizations and researchers.

In OPV cells, excitons are generated in the organic semiconductor materials after absorption of

photons. These excitons diffuse towards the electrode-semiconductor interface or donor-acceptor

(p-type and n-type) interface, dissociate, and move by drift and diffusion processes toward the

respective electrodes to generate electricity.

Organic semiconductors suffer from low mobility resulting low short-circuit current and hence

low power conversion efficiency (PCE). It is therefore critical to investigate an optimal value for

which cells can perform the best. We use a new model to determine the optimum mobility for

which the PCE is maximum. It is observed that PCE does not improve above this optimum

mobility value of about 10-4

cm2/V-s. Donor and acceptor thicknesses are also optimized using

the simulation program to get the best efficiency. We also investigate the effect of exciton

diffusion length of organic semiconductor on power conversion efficiency, and simulations

suggest that PCE almost saturates above certain value of exciton diffusion length.

One of the most promising organic semiconductors is pentacene, which acts mainly as a donor

molecule. We explore the efficacy of various new, very stable pentacene derivatives synthesized

by Prof. Glen Miller’s group at University of New Hampshire, Durham. These pentacenes are

water soluble pentacene (WSP); 5,6,7-trithiapentacene-13-one (TTPO), and Bis-C60 adduct of

6,13-(decylthio)pentacene (BC60DTP). We, in this thesis, present the OPV cell designs (bilayer

or planar and bulk heterojunction type), fabrication steps, electrical results and discuss them to

correlate the experimental findings with simulation data.

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Acknowledgements

My first debt of gratitude must go to my thesis advisor, Prof. Nicol McGruer. I appreciate all his

contributions of perennial guidance, valuable times, ideas and funding to complete my Ph.D.

study. He motivated me to be confident in taking up any new difficult challenges and I came up

with success. I sincerely thank him for many insightful discussions of semiconductors,

photovoltaic theories and microfabrication, which helped me a lot during my Ph.D. pursuit.

Special thanks to my committee thesis readers, Prof. Glen Miller and Prof. Matteo Rinaldi for

their valuable suggestions during my thesis and proposal defense. My heartfelt thanks go to Prof.

Glen Miller for providing me with various newly synthesized organic semiconducting materials

to carry on my photovoltaic research. We had several useful meetings and insightful discussions

with Prof. Glen and his research group members Chandrani, John, Jeremy, and Yushu.

I am grateful to Prof. Ahmed Busnaina, the director of the Center for High-rate

Nanomanufacturing (CHN), who funded me as a Research Assistant. While working at the

microfabrication facility of the Kostas Nanoscale Research Center, the lab manager Scott

McNamara, who helped me with training on various equipment, deserves my sincere thanks.

I sincerely thank Dr. Siva Subramanian, from whom I learned many things in device physics and

microfabrication. He has been a great colleague, mentor and supportive. My friends, and

colleagues in the lab, Erfan, Saba, Praba, Suchit, Mithun, Kapil, Ritesh, Peter, Hunchul, and

especially Kamal with whom I had many technical as well as informal discussions, were sources

of laughter, joy and support.

I would be thankless if I don’t mention the indirect contribution of my villagers in India who had

huge expectations from me since my childhood. This encouraged me to work hard.

The love and support given by my parents, my brother and sisters, and my wife were incessant

and truly inspiring, for which my mere expression of gratitude does not suffice. Our newly born

angel Arohi filled me with joy and energy toward the end of my Ph.D. Thank you.

Anup Kumar Singh

Northeastern University

December 2013

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I dedicate this thesis to

my parents, my brother and sisters,

my wife, and our little angel.

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Contents

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... 3

TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 9

1. MOTIVATION AND OUTLINE ....................................................................................... 15

1.1 THE BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................ 15

1.1.1 Limited Fossil Fuels and Environmental Impact ................................................... 15

1.1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy ............................................................................... 16

1.1.2.1 Wind Power .................................................................................................................... 16

1.1.2.2 Hydro Power ................................................................................................................... 16

1.1.2.3 Solar Energy ................................................................................................................... 17

1.1.3 Photovoltaic Technology and Development .......................................................... 17

1.1.4 Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Present and Future ................................................... 19

1.1.5 Solar Cell Types ..................................................................................................... 20

1.1.5.1 Solar Cells of Crystalline Silicon .................................................................................... 20

Monocrystalline Silicon (c-Si): ............................................................................................... 21

Polycrystalline Silicon (poly-Si): ............................................................................................ 21

1.1.5.2 Thin Film Solar Cells ...................................................................................................... 21

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): ....................................................................................................... 21

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) ........................................................................................................ 22

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) ..................................................................................................... 22

1.1.5.3 Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) .................................................................................. 22

1.1.5.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDSC) ................................................................................... 23

1.1.5.5 Organic Solar Cell (OSC) ............................................................................................... 23

1.2 MOTIVATION OF THIS THESIS ........................................................................................ 24

1.3 OUTLINE ......................................................................................................................... 26

2. ORGANIC SOLAR CELL – GENERAL .......................................................................... 27

2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 27

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION .............................................................................................. 28

(a) Photon Absorption .............................................................................................................. 29

(b) Exciton Generation and Diffusion ....................................................................................... 29

(c) Exciton Dissociation ........................................................................................................... 30

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(d) Charge Transport ................................................................................................................. 30

(e) Charge Collection ............................................................................................................... 30

2.3 DEVICE PHYSICS ............................................................................................................ 30

2.3.1 Active Layers for Light Absorption ....................................................................... 31

2.3.2 Donor/Acceptor Interface ...................................................................................... 32

2.3.3 Semiconductor/Electrode Interface ........................................................................ 33

2.3.4 Interfacial Layers ................................................................................................... 34

2.3.4.1 Functions of Interfacial Materials ................................................................................... 34

2.3.4.2 Anode Interlayers ............................................................................................................ 35

2.3.4.3 Cathode Interlayers ......................................................................................................... 36

2.3.5 Electrode Materials ................................................................................................ 37

2.3.6 Operating Steps of OPV Cells ............................................................................... 37

2.4 OPV ARCHITECTURES ................................................................................................... 40

2.4.1 Single Layer Device ............................................................................................... 40

2.4.2 Planar or Bilayer Structure ..................................................................................... 41

2.4.3 Bulk-heterojunction Device ................................................................................... 42

2.5 PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS................................................................ 42

2.5.1 Properties of Conjugated Materials ........................................................................ 42

(a) Hybridization ...................................................................................................................... 42

(b) LUMO and HOMO Energy Levels ..................................................................................... 43

(c) Conjugation ......................................................................................................................... 45

2.5.2 Excitons.................................................................................................................. 46

2.5.3 Polarons and Polaron Excitons .............................................................................. 47

2.5.4 Space Charge Limited Photocurrent ...................................................................... 49

2.5.5 Charge Transport in Organic Materials ................................................................. 51

2.5.5.1 Band Transport ............................................................................................................... 51

2.5.5.2 Disordered Based Transport ........................................................................................... 51

2.6 PARAMETERS AFFECTING OPV PERFORMANCE ............................................................. 53

2.6.1 Mobility.................................................................................................................. 53

2.6.2 Phase Morphology ................................................................................................. 55

2.6.3 HOMO-LUMO Levels and Electrode Work Functions ......................................... 56

2.6.4 Layer Thicknesses .................................................................................................. 56

2.6.5 μτ-Product Balance ................................................................................................ 57

2.7 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL PARAMETERS .............................................................................. 57

2.7.1 Equivalent Circuit Diagram ................................................................................... 57

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2.7.2 Open Circuit Voltage ............................................................................................. 59

2.7.3 Efficiencies and Fill Factor .................................................................................... 60

3. DEVICE MODEL FOR ORGANIC SOLAR CELL........................................................ 62

3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 62

3.2 DEVICE OPERATION AND MODEL SYSTEM .................................................................... 62

3.2.1 Exciton Model of Photocurrent Generation ........................................................... 62

3.2.2 Carrier Transport .................................................................................................... 65

3.3 SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 67

3.3.1 Effect of Mobilities, Layer Thicknesses, Interface Widths & Exciton Diffusion

Lengths 68

3.3.1.1 Electrical Parameters for Various Mobilities (μh = μe = μ) .............................................. 69

3.3.1.2 Variation in Donor Thickness and Mobility (μh = μe = μ) ............................................... 75

3.3.1.3 Variation in Hole and Electron Mobility ........................................................................ 80

3.3.1.4 Effect of Interface Widths (wint)...................................................................................... 86

3.3.1.5 Effect of Exciton Diffusion Length in the Donor (Ldd) ................................................... 89

4. OPV BASED ON WATER SOLUBLE PENTACENE .................................................... 91

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 91

4.2 SUBSTRATE COATING WITH WSP .................................................................................. 94

(a) WSP in DMSO .................................................................................................................... 94

(b) WSP in DI water ................................................................................................................. 95

(c) WSP in Ethanol and Methanol ............................................................................................ 96

(d) Spin Coating of WSP in Ethanol at Raised Temperature .................................................... 97

4.3 FABRICATION ................................................................................................................. 98

Materials Used ................................................................................................................................. 98

(a) Dicing and First Cleaning ................................................................................................... 98

(b) ITO Etch .............................................................................................................................. 99

(c) Substrate Clean ................................................................................................................... 99

(d) Substrate Bake and Plasma Clean ....................................................................................... 99

(e) Spin Coat the Electron Blocking Layer ............................................................................... 99

(f) Spin Coat the Donor Layer .................................................................................................... 100

(g) Evaporation of the Acceptor Material and Cathode .......................................................... 100

4.4 MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION .................................................................. 101

4.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 102

5. OPV BASED ON TTPO .................................................................................................... 104

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5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 104

5.2 FABRICATION OF TTPO BASED OPV ........................................................................... 105

5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 106

6. BHJ OPV CELL USING BC60DTP .................................................................................. 108

6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 108

6.1.1 Electronic Properties of BC60DTP ....................................................................... 109

6.2 BULK HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELL FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION ....... 110

6.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 112

7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ....................................................................... 116

FUTURE WORK AND SUGGESTIONS .......................................................................................... 117

8. APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................... 120

8.1 MEASUREMENT SETUP ................................................................................................. 120

8.1.1 Solar Radiation ..................................................................................................... 121

8.1.1.1 Solar Spectrum and Air Mass ....................................................................................... 121

8.1.1.2 Solar Light Intensity ..................................................................................................... 123

8.1.2 A Cheap Alternative Solar Simulator .................................................................. 123

8.2 PROCESS RUN SHEET FOR WSP BASED OPV FABRICATION ........................................ 125

8.3 MATLAB CODE FOR THE DEVICE SIMULATION ......................................................... 127

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 130

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Table of Figures

Figure 1: Power Conversion Efficiency for various photovoltaic technologies up to year 2012

(Source: NREL) ............................................................................................................................. 19

Figure 2: Projected convergence of the cost of electricity produced by PV and the grid prices [8]

....................................................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 3: Schematic of an organic photovoltaic cell (source: [35]) ............................................... 27

Figure 4: Operational steps and loss mechanism in organic solar cell........................................... 28

Figure 5: Operational steps of bilayer and bulk-heterojunction OPV cell: (a) Photon absorption

and exciton generation (b) Exciton diffusion (c) Exciton dissociation, polaron formation &

dissociation (d) Charge transfer (e) Charge collection. Blocking layers are not shown for

simplicity ....................................................................................................................................... 29

Figure 6: A general schematic of (a) a bilayer OPV cell (b) a bulk heterojunction OPV cell and

(c) Energy band diagram of the device .......................................................................................... 31

Figure 7: Modification of the hole (electron) injection barrier ϕh (ϕe) upon introducing interface

dipole (source: [43]) ....................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 8: Energy band diagram of a typical OPV cell under (a) short circuit (b) open circuit (c)

reverse bias and (d) forward bias ................................................................................................... 39

Figure 9: Current-voltage curve of a typical OPV cell (dotted: dark current; solid: illuminated

current). (a) short circuit (b) open circuit (c) reverse bias (d) forward bias ................................... 39

Figure 10: (a) Single layer device (b) Bilayer or planar heterojunction and (c) Bulk heterojunction

....................................................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 11: A schematic of sp2 hybridization of a carbon atom with unhybridized pz [88] ............ 43

Figure 12: (a) σ and π bonding in ethylene (b) chemical structure (source: lecture notes[89]) ..... 43

Figure 13: Bonding and anti-bonding orbitals (source: handout - [90]) ........................................ 44

Figure 14: Bonding and anti-bonding energy levels coming together into HOMO and LUMO

bands as dimerization length increases. LUMO-HOMO levels are somewhat equivalent to

conduction and valence bands in conventional semiconductor (Source: handouts - [91]) ............ 44

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Figure 15: A schematic of the simplest conjugated polymer molecule, transpolyacetylene [88].

The polymer molecules are more stable by interchanging the position of single and double bonds

....................................................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 16: A schematic representing CSCs and XSCs. Wavefunction (rB) and critical distance (rc)

depend on effective mass, permittivity and the temperature [92] .................................................. 47

Figure 17: Artist view of a polaron (source: WIKIPEDIA) ........................................................... 48

Figure 18: A polaron in polythiophene. Top: Change in chemical structure. Bottom:

Corresponding energy diagram where localized states are created due to polaron formation [93] 48

Figure 19: Schematic of energy bands for the photovoltaic device under illumination [95] ......... 50

Figure 20: Open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current density and fill-factor dependence on the

carrier mobility, for two sets of injection barriers [106]. Note that SI units are used ................... 54

Figure 21: (Top) Band diagrams (solid), electron and hole quasi-Fermi levels (dotted). (Bottom)

electron (dotted) and hole (solid) concentrations at maximum power point for (a) μe ~ 7×10-11

m2/V.s, PCE = 0.5%, (b) μe ~ 10

-6 m

2/V.s, PCE = 3% (max) and (c) μe ~ 2×10

-2 m

2/V.s, PCE =

0.5% [106] ..................................................................................................................................... 55

Figure 22: Equivalent circuit diagram for a photovoltaic cell ....................................................... 58

Figure 23: Current and output power versus terminal voltage, i.e. I-V and P-V curve ................. 61

Figure 24: Active bi-layers of organic solar cell with light incidents at x=0. D-A interface is at

x=d1 ................................................................................................................................................ 63

Figure 25: J-V characteristics of simulated bilayer OPV cell. Thickness d1 = d2 = 50nm; μh = μe =

μ. With increase in mobility, open circuit voltage decreases. Short circuit current does not

change much for mobility range of 10-5

- 10-2

cm2/V-s but decreases with decrease in mobility

below 10-5

cm2/V-s ......................................................................................................................... 70

Figure 26: OPV power conversion efficiency at various mobilities (μh = μe = 10-7

to 10-2

cm2/V-s)

for donor and acceptor thicknesses of 50nm each. PCE increases with mobility increase until it

reaches to maximum at mobility = 10-4

cm2/V-s. PCE starts decreasing thereafter ..................... 71

Figure 27: Concentration (/cm3) of holes in the donor and electrons in the acceptor for various

mobilities (μh = μe = μ). The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both are 50nm and D-A

interface is at distance 0. The charge accumulation at the D-A interface decreases with increasing

mobility .......................................................................................................................................... 72

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Figure 28: Electric field in the donor and the acceptor for various mobilities (μh = μe = μ) in open

circuit condition. The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both are 50nm and D-A interface is

at distance 0. Electric field at D-A interface increases with increasing mobility ......................... 73

Figure 29: Relative levels of HOMO-LUMO energy of donor and acceptor in open circuit

condition for three mobilities (μh=μe=μ) 10-6

cm2/V-s, 10

-4 cm

2/V-s and 10

-2 cm

2/V-s. Donor

LUMO level is set at 0 eV for the convenience. The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both

are 50nm and D-A interface is at distance 0. As mobility increases, the difference between the

donor LUMO and the acceptor LUMO increases and thus, the split between the donor HOMO

and the acceptor LUMO decreases ................................................................................................ 74

Figure 30: Open circuit voltage of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm

and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. VOC decreases with increase in

mobilities but does not change much with change in donor thickness .......................................... 75

Figure 31: Short circuit current of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm,

acceptor thickness 50nm and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. ISC sharply

increases for mobility greater than 10-6

cm2/V-s and then saturates. ISC also increases with

increase in donor thickness and reaches maximum for 50nm and then a gradual decrease follows

....................................................................................................................................................... 77

Figure 32: Fill factor of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm, acceptor

thickness 50nm, and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. FF is almost

constant for higher mobilities (≥ 10-4

cm2/V-s) for all thickness. FF for low mobilities decreases

with increase in donor thickness .................................................................................................... 78

Figure 33: Power conversion efficiency of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70,

90] nm, acceptor thickness 50nm and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s.

PCE is found to be maximum of 0.67% at 50nm thick donor with electron and hole mobility of

10-4

cm2/V-s ................................................................................................................................... 79

Figure 34: Power conversion efficiency of OPV for acceptor thicknesses [10, 30, 50] nm, donor

thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm, and mobilities μh = μe = μ = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-

s. For mobility range μ = [10-6

-10-5

] cm2/V-s, maximum PCE is found to be 0.59 % when the

donor thickness is 30nm and the acceptor thickness is 10nm (dashed line surface). For higher

mobility range μ = [10-4

- 10-2

] cm2/V-s, maximum PCE is found to be 0.67 % for 50nm thick

donor and 50nm thick acceptor (solid line surface) ....................................................................... 80

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Figure 35: Open circuit voltage (VOC) of OPV device for electrons and holes mobilities both

varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. VOC increases as mobilities decrease. For high mobility (10

-

2cm

2/V-s) of either of electrons or holes, open circuit voltage is about 0.55 V and does not change

much............................................................................................................................................... 81

Figure 36: Fill factor of OPV cell for electrons and holes mobilities both varying from [10-7

to 10-

2] cm

2/V-s. FF is higher for higher mobilities and decreases sharpely for mobilities below 10

-

4cm

2/V-s ......................................................................................................................................... 82

Figure 37: Short circuit current density (ISC) of OPV cell for electrons and holes mobilities both

varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. ISC does not change much for mobilities of electrons and

holes between 10-5

and 10-2

cm2/V-s but sharp decrement is found below the value of 10

-5 cm

2/V-s

....................................................................................................................................................... 83

Figure 38: Percentage power conversion efficiency (PCE) of OPV device for electrons and holes

mobilities both varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. Maximum PCE of 0.67% is found at

electrons and holes mobilities, μh = μe = 10-4

cm2/V-s. Further increases in mobilities, the

conversion efficiency slightly decreases ........................................................................................ 85

Figure 39: Bar plot of percentage change in PCE for various mobilities and mobility imbalance

ratios. For higher mobilities (10-4

, 10-3

) cm2/V-s, PCE drops at even lower mobility ratio (10).

For lower mobilities (10-6

, 10-7

) cm2/V-s, PCE drops at higher mobility ratios (>10

4) ................. 86

Figure 40: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2

2.0] nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. Short circuit current does not change much for change in

interface width. Open circuit voltage reduces with increase in wint .............................................. 87

Figure 41: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2

2.0] nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-6

cm2/V-s. Short circuit decreases with increase in interface widths.

A slight open circuit voltage drop is also found with increase in wint ............................................ 87

Figure 42: Percentage PCE of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2

2.0] nm and μ = μe = μh = [10-6 and 10-4

]cm2/V-s. PCE decreases with increase in interface

widths for both mobilities .............................................................................................................. 88

Figure 43: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for five different exciton diffusion lengths in the donor,

Ldd = [10 20 30 50 80] nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. OPV cell performance is much better

for higher exciton diffusion lengths ............................................................................................... 89

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Figure 44: Percentage PCE of OPV cell for five different exciton diffusion lengths in the donor,

Ldd = [10 20 30 50 80] nm and mobility μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. PCE increases with Ldd but

saturates beyond 50nm. Inset: Optimized donor thickness varies almost linearly with Ldd.......... 90

Figure 45: Chemical structure of water soluble pentacene or Potassium 3,3’-[(pentacene-6,13-

diyl)bis(sulfanediyl)]dipropanoate [142] ....................................................................................... 92

Figure 46: Left: Synthesis of the first water soluble pentacene; Right: WSP dissolved in water .. 93

Figure 47: UV-Vis absorbance spectra for WSP in water, methanol and a buffer solution of pH

10[142] ........................................................................................................................................... 93

Figure 48: Crystalline WSP solution in DMSO spin coated on PEDOT: PSS film. Micron size

crystals were found all over the surface of PEDOT: PSS film ...................................................... 94

Figure 49: Dektak profilometry: WSP crystals of as tall as 200nm were observed on a 70-80 nm

thick PEDOT: PSS film; inset: Optical image of ITO surface and WSP on PEDOT: PSS film ... 95

Figure 50: For DI water as solvent, Left: (a) WSP on PEDOT: PSS - broken or pilled out films of

PEDOT: PSS were found re-deposited randomly on WSP film; Right: (b) WSP on ITO coated

glass – crystals were found on the surface and were quite loosely attached to ITO that DekTak

measurement was not possible ....................................................................................................... 96

Figure 51: Optical image of the first fabricated OPV cell using WSP, showed a photovoltaic

effect. (VOC = 0.3V, ISC = 1.7μA/cm2). Many circular boundaries of WSP crystals of micron sizes

were observed. WSP coating in a solid circular pattern of about 2-4 mm diameter at the center of

the chip was also found .................................................................................................................. 96

Figure 52: Optical images of WSP spin coated on PEDOT: PSS film when; Left: (a) WSP

solution in ethanol; Right: (b) WSP solution in methanol. In both the cases micron size crystals

were found on whole substrate ...................................................................................................... 97

Figure 53: WSP solution in ethanol spin coated on a PEDOT: PSS film while substrate and

solution were heated with IR lamp. Left: WSP film in the middle of the substrate and Right:

Image near the corner showing WSP film and crystals separated by a boundary ......................... 97

Figure 54: (a) Schematic of WSP based OPV cell with electron blocking layer (b) Dektak

Profilometer reading of various layers ........................................................................................... 98

Figure 55: Fabrication steps for WSP based OPV. The actual fabricated device is in center .... 100

Figure 56: J-V characteristics of WSP based OPV cell under dark and illumination .................. 102

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Figure 57: Chemical structure of 5,6,7-(trithia)pentacene-13-one (TTPO) ................................. 104

Figure 58: Structure of a TTPO based OPV cell ......................................................................... 105

Figure 59: Chemical structure of BC60DTP acceptor [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished result] 109

Figure 60: UV-Vis spectra of BC60DTP and C60 in o-DCB [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished

result] ........................................................................................................................................... 110

Figure 61: Schematic of BC60DTP based OPV device ................................................................ 111

Figure 62: Fabrication steps of BC60DTP based OPV device ...................................................... 111

Figure 63: J-V characteristics of BC60DTP based BHJ solar cell ................................................ 115

Figure 64: OPV device test under sunlight .................................................................................. 120

Figure 65: Solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of the Earth's atmosphere and

at sea level. (The curve is based on American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

Terrestial Reference Spectra) ....................................................................................................... 121

Figure 66: Representation of path length and zenith angle .......................................................... 122

Figure 67: 300 watts xenon light source with fiber cable and surgical headlight used in endoscopy

..................................................................................................................................................... 124

Figure 68: Left: Xenon lamp module inside the light source; Right: spotlight diamete can be

adjusted between 3/4 inch and 4 inch .......................................................................................... 124

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1. Motivation and Outline

1.1 The Background

1.1.1 Limited Fossil Fuels and Environmental Impact

At present time we are heavily dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas and wood

for our daily need of energy requirements. In 2011, fossil fuels contributed approximately 82%

of world’s primary energy use (Source: Energy Information Agency). These sources of energy

have a limited supply including Uranium and are non-renewable.

Based on the world’s population growth trend, a total population of nine billion in the next 50

years and 10 billion by year 2100 has been projected. The world’s energy demand will increase

at least proportionately. A continuing rise in oil prices is expected due to increasing demand.

According to the US department of energy, fossil fuels will be mostly consumed within 100-120

years. A few other estimates say it will be depleted even before the end of this century. In any

case, these estimated times are not too far ahead before we may face a great crisis of energy

supply. Therefore, we need to look for long lasting or renewable sources of energy.

Humans are adding more than 30 billion metric tons (30x1012

Kg) of CO2 to the atmosphere each

year, mainly by burning fossil fuel. Uncontrolled deforestation makes this situation worse due to

the inability of plants to handle the rapid influx of CO2, resulting global warming. The global

mean surface temperature has already increased by 0.3-0.6℃ since the late 19th century and the

global sea level has increased by 10-25cm [1]. With the present CO2 emission scenario a

temperature increase of 0.6-7℃ by 2010 is extrapolated. Certainly this will have a devastating

effect on human life in coming decades.

In such conditions, development of alternative sources of green energy such as hydro-power,

wind power, tidal power and solar power become inevitable.

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1.1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy

We have abundant free energy sources like wind, tidal waves, sunlight, water reservoir potential

etc. One of our targets in harvesting energy from these sources should be less harmful to humans

and the environment. Secondly, the life-time energy output value should be considerably more

than its input costs in installation, fabrication, labor, research and development, maintenance etc.

In other words, the higher the energy payback values the better.

1.1.2.1 Wind Power

Wind energy has been used for generations and is in abundant supply. This energy is converted

into other useful form of energy, e.g. wind turbines for generating electricity, windmills for

mechanical power to machines, windpumps for pumping water, sails to propel ships etc.

Sailboats and sailing ships have been widely used for thousands of years. The first practical

windmill was used somewhere between 7th and 9

th century in Iran [2]. In recent technology, wind

energy is mostly used to drive turbines to generate electricity which is either stored using

batteries or directly fed to the power grid. Growing demand for wind power generation in the

market is due to its clean, abundant supply and one of the cheapest renewable energy in terms of

energy payback value. US Department of Energy has estimated that wind power could

contribute up to 20% of the nation’s total electricity supply by 2030. Total wind energy

production today is, however, less than 4% of worldwide electricity usage but the annual growth

in recent years is more than 25%, according to World Wind Energy Association WWEA 2011

report [3]. American Wind Energy Association 2011 report says that wind energy cost has gone

down to 5-6 cents/kWh which is 2 cents cheaper than coal-based electricity generation.

1.1.2.2 Hydro Power

Hydro power also has been used from ancient times for driving watermills, textile mills etc. The

power is derived from the kinetic energy of the water current or falling water from a dam or

reservoir. The concept is similar to wind power generation but since water is much denser than

air, it can generate considerable power with even a slow water stream flow. Electric generators

introduced in the early 20th century could be coupled with hydro turbines to generate electricity.

Since then there has been a tremendous rise in hydroelectric power plant set up all over the world.

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It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, meeting 16% of worldwide energy need in

2010[4].

The cost of hydroelectricity for plants larger than 10MW is around 3 to 5 US cents/kWh making

it the cheapest renewable energy and comparable to energy produced from fossil fuels [4]. It is

also considered to have the least environmental impact in terms of pollution and disposal of the

waste products.

Tidal waves and currents are also used to generate electricity by using potential energy of the

water head created by low and high ocean tides. The kinetic energy of the tidal streams is also

used to drive the water turbines. Tidal power is also a form of hydro power and is renewable

energy source. These are highly predictable compared to wind energy and sunlight.

1.1.2.3 Solar Energy

Our planet receives ~1.2x1017

watts power from the sun whereas the current worldwide electric

energy consumption is ~10,000 times smaller, i.e. ~1.3x1013

watts [5]. Meaning, the earth

receives more energy in an hour than the worldwide energy need for the whole year. Solar cells

or photovoltaic cells directly convert solar energy in the form of energetic photons into

electricity. Photovoltaic industries are still struggling with the fact that the energy payback value

for solar energy system is much higher compared to that of fossil fuels. We need to focus more

on research and development for increasing photovoltaic efficiency and life-time and for

decreasing production costs by exploring alternative cheaper semiconducting active materials etc.

1.1.3 Photovoltaic Technology and Development

Global interest in photovoltaic (PV) technology has increased sharply over the last decade due to

speculation on the possibility of a future energy crisis, pollution, developments in fabrication

technology etc. Spectacular gains in both the PV market and in research activity are seen. A solar

cell or photovoltaic cell directly converts the sunlight into electricity. The first solar cell was

constructed by Charles Fritts in 1880s where he used Selenium semiconductor and a thin layer of

gold. The semiconductor served as photon absorber and the electron-hole pair is separated by the

electric field in the Au-Se Schottky junction. The first silicon solar cell where electron-hole pairs

were separated at the p-n junction was developed by Russel Ohl in 1941. The cell was

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remarkably improved by Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin in 1954 at Bell

Laboratory and was capable of 6% conversion efficiency from direct sunlight [6].

Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early

1980s thwarted the growth in PV research from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has

accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and the

improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies [7]. Photovoltaic

production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000. According to the European

Photovoltaic Industry Association the world’s total installed capacity reached 40 GW in 2010

from 23 GW in 2009.

Currently, most of the solar cells are made of silicon where costs are high, many alternative types

of solar cells are fabricated and new cheaper materials have been investigated to replace silicon.

The use of amorphous silicon is one of its solutions as it is less expensive and higher light

absorbing capability compared to monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon. Recently, organic

solar cells (OSCs) having much cheaper photo active layer organic semiconductors have drawn

attentions of PV research groups worldwide due to its easy and inexpensive fabrication cost.

Various types of solar cell’s power conversion efficiency from 1976 through 2012 have been

reported by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Power Conversion Efficiency for various photovoltaic technologies up to year 2012 (Source:

NREL)

1.1.4 Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Present and Future

In the USA, average cost of grid-supplied electricity in 2009 was 9.5¢/kWh and will continue to

rise due to increase in demand. Three different rates in cost increment are shown in Figure 2 [8].

Photovoltaic production has grown at a rate of greater than 40%/year over the past decade.

However, the current price of electricity produced by PV is 2 to 3 times the cost of grid-supplied

electricity but it continues to decrease and projected to converge, called grid parity, sometime in

this decade (before 2020) [8], shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Projected convergence of the cost of electricity produced by PV and the grid prices [8]

1.1.5 Solar Cell Types

Various types of solar cells based on types of materials used are classified briefly in this section.

Inorganic bulk semiconductors such as mono- and polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon and

thin films of semiconductors such as cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper indium gallium selenide

(CIGS) are used as photovoltaic material. Another category of materials include organic dyes and

organic polymers make solar cells of thin film type. The third category uses nanocrystals and

used as quantum dots.

1.1.5.1 Solar Cells of Crystalline Silicon

Photovoltaic cells made of silicon are the p-n junction type where electron-hole pairs generated

after absorbing photons are driven in opposite directions by the barrier potential generating a

current in the closed circuit. Solar cell modules manufactured today mostly use monocrystalline

(c-Si) and polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) which shared 87% of the PV market in 2011 [9]. Both

are discussed below.

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Monocrystalline Silicon (c-Si):

Monocrystalline silicon is produced by the Czochralski (CZ) method where a single crystal

silicon seed is dipped into a high purity melt of polycrystalline and pulled slowly to form an ingot

of single crystal silicon. Single crystal silicon has high lattice uniformity throughout the material

resulting in higher mobility of charge carriers. Although, they show a higher power conversion

efficiency (up to 25% [10]) compared to poly-Si PV modules, c-Si manufacturing costs are

higher. Due to higher thickness requirements and a significant amount of c-Si loss during wafer

process, cost of the PV modules becomes even more.

Polycrystalline Silicon (poly-Si):

Polycrystalline silicon has many crystalline grains connected in different orientations.

Polycrystalline silicon is made by cooling large molten blocks of silicon. Poly-Si is stronger and

can be cut to one-third the thickness of c-Si material making it cost effective. The ribbon growth

method directly grows thin sheets of poly-Si that does not require sawing, reducing the cost of the

PV module. Irregular grain boundaries in poly-Si hinder the charge mobility causing a decrease

in power conversion efficiency. However, its longevity comparable to monocrystalline cousin,

lower manufacturing cost and decent conversion efficiency up to 20% [10], such cells are the

most popular choice in residential installations

1.1.5.2 Thin Film Solar Cells

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si):

Amorphous silicon is the most developed of the thin film technologies and its basic electronic

structure is p-i-n type. It has a higher bandgap (1.4 - 1.7 eV) and stronger absorption in the

visible light due to high absorptivity, even a micron thick amorphous silicon is able to absorb

most of the usable sunlight, hence reduces the material cost. Amorphous silicon can be deposited

on low cost substrates such as glass and transparent plastic, and it requires low temperature (≈

75℃) processes, reducing the production cost drastically. However, disordered a-Si based solar

cells suffer from a poor conversion efficiency of about 10% and from significant degradation

within few months of sunlight exposure. Amorphous silicon solar cells are about 3% of the world

PV market [9].

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Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

It’s a compound semiconductor made of gallium (Ga) and arsenide (As) and has a crystal

structure same as that of silicon. Due to a high photon absorption coefficient, GaAs requires only

a few microns of material to absorb the same amount of light as a 200-300 micron thick

crystalline silicon cell. It has high power conversion efficiency too, about 25-30%. A triple

junction GaAs cell held the high efficiency record on 15 Oct 2012 [11].

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)

It is polycrystalline direct bandgap material made of cadmium (Cd) and Tellurium (Te), which

has a band gap of 1.5 eV, a perfect matching material for absorbing sunlight coming to the Earth

in terms of optimal conversion to electricity. Since it is difficult to produce thin film of n-type

CdTe, a heterojunction of p-CdTe and wide band gap n-type semiconductors are commonly used.

The most common heterojunction partner for p-CdTe is wide band gap (2.4eV) n-type CdS thin

film. High absorptivity of CdTe film enables sunlight to be fully absorbed by nearly 2μm thick

material [8], which reduces the material cost. In addition, relatively easy and cheap fabrication

processes such as high-rate evaporation, spray or screen printing are added advantages. An

efficiency of more than 17% has been achieved so far [10]. The power conversion efficiency of

CdTe based solar modules has disadvantages of its instability and extreme toxicity of cadmium

metal during recycling. It represented 6% of the 2011 world market [9].

1.1.5.3 Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

The dye sensitized solar cell also known as a Gratzel cell is an electrochemical device. The

Gratzel cell was invented by Gratzel at EPFL, Switzerland [12, 13]. A porous bed of titanium

dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles soaked in a dye solution acts as photoactive layer. Ruthenium-

polypyridine is generally used for dye molecules, also called sensitizers. Sensitizers are in

contact with a thin layer of iodide electrolyte coated on cathode. When excited by a light photon,

the dye molecule injects an electron into the TiO2 and diffuses towards the external circuit. This

loss of the electron is compensated by the iodide electrolyte which regains an electron from the

cathode to complete the circuit. DSSC has a very high response in visible light spectrum, so can

efficiently work even in diffused light, indoor light or cloudy weather. The liquid electrolyte

could be leaky and freeze at low temperatures. A record high efficiency of 12.3% has been

achieved [14].

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1.1.5.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDSC)

The electron energies in quantum dots (QDs), which are nanometer sized semiconductor particles,

are limited as per quantum mechanics considerations. These energy levels are the bandgaps

which can be tuned by changing the size of the QDs without changing the material. The tuning

requires simple processes such as varying growth time or temperature. This facilitates QDs to use

in multi-junction solar cells to absorb a wider spectrum of photons. Colloidal quantum dots can

be synthesized using inexpensive wet chemistry processes. The QD solar cell has a record

efficiency of 7% [15].

1.1.5.5 Organic Solar Cell (OSC)

In organic photovoltaic cell (OSCs) [16-23], the active materials are donor (p-type

semiconductor) and acceptor (n-type semiconductor) layers. Excitons (excited electron-hole

bound pairs) are generated upon absorption of photons and are dissociated at the donor-acceptor

(D-A) interface. These separated charge carrier’s transport towards the respective electrodes is

governed by diffusion and the internal electric field. In a single layer OPV device, excitons are

dissociated at the metal-semiconductor Schottky barrier whereas in bilayer devices they are

dissociated at the donor-acceptor planar junction. A method of improving dissociation of

excitons was later developed by making the active layer of intimately mixed active D-A materials

together that forms a much larger interface area. Phase segregation is also important for bi-

continuous path for charge carriers to reach to electrodes. Organic semiconductors or polymers

are inexpensive as they can easily be synthesized in any chemical laboratory. These materials

have very high absorption coefficients. Only a few hundred nanometers of material is required to

absorb the sunlight efficiently and therefore less material is needed which lowers the fabrication

cost further and also enables fabrication of flexible devices. Low efficiency is the one of the

major drawback of such cells, yet inexpensive fabrication makes OPV research attractive. A

recent rapid growth in overall efficiency has been observed. Heliatek has recently achieved the

highest efficiency of 12% by improving its previous record of 10.7% efficiency [24].

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1.2 Motivation of This Thesis

In previous Section, we have seen that photovoltaic technology is one of the most promising

technologies among renewable energy resources. Photovoltaic technology apart from being

abundant in nature, much cleaner compared to conventional fuel resources such as coal and

natural gas, its portable use facilitates a quick installation of solar cells at any small and remote

place are the.

Silicon is a prime candidate for photovoltaic cells as it quite abundant in the nature and has broad

absorption spectrum of the sunlight reaching to the Earth. In photovoltaic industries, the

production of the silicon based photocells is well established. The underlying problem with this

is the cost of production due to high purity and high temperature process. A widespread

industrial production is impeded due to the marginal energy payback value of this technology. A

large number of hazardous chemicals and water are needed to make monocrystalline silicon solar

cells. The energy production from the photovoltaic cells, however, is clean but the production of

the cell itself is not. Harmful gases such as sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide are released

during the production of electronic grade silicon. In terms of the environmental impact, the

quantitative values of Composite Environmental Impact Index (CEII) of energy resources

presented in the Table below indicates the silicon based solar cells are better than energy

produced by coal and natural gas but not better than wind and hydroelectric power [25].

Total Environmental Impact of 1 kWh of Electricity Production From -

Coal Natural gas Solar panel Wind Hydro

885.5 133 52.4 8.5 0.5

Therefore, we need to develop a technology which can reduce this environmental cost if we want

a mass production of photovoltaic cells. Organic photovoltaic technology using organic

semiconductors as active layers can be among promising technologies which can cause less

environmental pollution and comparatively less expensive disposal of the waste.

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Unlike silicon, organic semiconductors have a very high light absorption coefficient and hence a

very thin layer of the material coating less than couple of hundred nanometers can absorb the

necessary amount of light to produce the electricity. This is another reason the material cost in

organic solar cell is much less compared to silicon photocells. Organic semiconductors offer a

less sophisticated low temperature synthesis than silicon production resulting lowering the cost.

Flexible cells are possible to fabricate due to very thin layer of the materials used in it. In this

case, of course, brittle ITO has to be replaced by a flexible, conductive and transparent substrate

such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) coated with a conductive thin polymer.

Polymers can be coated using low cost techniques such as ink-jet printing, screen printing, doctor

blading etc. [26]. Roll-to-roll deposition of the active layers on flexible substrates would be very

cost effective technological effort to establish organic photovoltaic technology in the market.

P3HT and PCBM are the most common active materials used as donor and acceptor, respectively

and OPV cells made out of these materials show efficiencies of 3-6% [27-30]. Other common

donor materials are pentacene derivatives that coupled with C60 as acceptor show efficiency range

of 1% - 2.8% [31-34]. Organic materials also suffer from low lifetime or stability. For

commercial production of organic photovoltaic cells the laboratory efficiency needs to be

improved to at least 15%. Material stability is also important aspect to address. Therefore, we

need to explore new organic donor and acceptor materials that can provide better efficiency and

stability. We, in this thesis, are discussing the design, fabrication and investigating the

performance of OPV cells using novel pentacene molecules synthesized by Prof. Glen Miller’s

group at University of New Hampshire, Durham.

One of the key factors of poor OPV cell efficiency is the very low mobility of carriers in the

active materials. It becomes inevitable to investigate whether the improvement in the mobility is

always essential or there is an optimal value for which cells can perform the best. Other

parameters such as donor and acceptor thicknesses affect the cell efficiency drastically and

optimal thicknesses need to be chosen. This thesis addresses the task of device modeling,

simulation and analysis which is a perfect choice for giving a better insight to the cell parameters

variation versus the performance.

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1.3 Outline

Chapter 2 will begin with details about the physical theory involved in organic photovoltaic

device operation. This will include light absorption, exciton generation, charge separation and

collection at electrodes. This will also describe the device parameters which are extracted after

the device electrical characterization. Different types of organic photovoltaic structures are also

described which are used in our various cell designs.

In Chapter 3, we present a simple existing device model for the bilayer organic solar cell with a

modification in the model to calculate electric field at the interface more accurately. With

simulation, the model explores the effect of critical parameters such as charge carrier mobilities,

photoactive layer thicknesses, absorptivity, metal work functions, LUMO and HOMO values of

donor and acceptors, exciton diffusion lengths etc. We investigate the optimal mobilities and

active layer thicknesses to achieve maximum power conversion efficiency quantitatively.

In Chapter 4, we discuss the design, fabrication and testing of the organic solar cell using a

newly synthesized pentacene derivative which is soluble in water (water soluble pentacene or

WSP), ethanol, methanol etc. The coatings of this solution processable pentacene in various

solvents are studied and a method is developed for coating a film of WSP.

Chapter 5 describes about an OPV cell using another new pentacene 5,6,7-trithiapentacene-13-

one (TTPO) which is thermally stable up to 400℃. A bilayer cell is fabricated; and characterized

at two different raised temperatures as its mobility increases with increase in temperature.

In Chapter 6, BC60DTP based bulk heterojunction solar cell design, fabrication and

characterization are discussed.

Chapter 7 will conclude this whole thesis briefly and will present the possible extensions of my

current research work.

Chapter 8 is Appendix which includes the measurement set up and an alternative to expensive

solar simulators. It also includes a run sheet of the OPV device fabrication steps and MATLAB

device simulation code.

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2. Organic Solar Cell – General

2.1 Introduction

Figure 3: Schematic of an organic photovoltaic cell (source: [35])

Figure 3 is a schematic of a typical organic solar cell consisting of a transparent and conductive

electrode (usually an ITO anode) with a transparent substrate, an electron blocking layer (such as

PEDOT: PSS), an active organic polymer layer (monolayer, bilayer or bulk heterojunction) and a

cathode (typically Al or Ca/Al). Light enters through the transparent substrate and charge carriers

are generated in the active layer after light absorption and flow towards the respective electrodes.

Details of operation are presented in the following sections.

This chapter will describe device operation from light absorption to transport of charge carriers.

Various photovoltaic structural designs such as monolayer (or homojunction), bilayer (or planar

heterojunction) and bulk heterojuntion will be described. A band energy model under forward

and reverse bias, open-circuit and short-circuit conditions will also be explained. The origin of

conjugation and semiconductivity in organic materials will be discussed. Atomic and molecular

phenomenon such as excitons and polarons within organic materials will be described. A circuit

model with the necessary electrical parameters representing the cell will also be presented.

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2.2 Principle of Operation

Schematically, Figure 4 indicates loss mechanisms and device operational mechanisms of organic

solar cells at various stages from light absorption to charge collection. In the following, we will

discuss the five operational steps of organic photovoltaic device, shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4: Operational steps and loss mechanism in organic solar cell

• Reflection (IL)

• Transmission (IL)

• Recombination of excitions after

creation and during diffusion (Io)

• Recombination of excitions when no

charge separation (Io)

• Recombination of charges (Rsh)

• Limited mobility (Rs)

• Recombination near electrodes (Rsh2)

• Barrier height (Rs, Io)

Photon absorption

Incident

photons, I

Charge separation

Charge transport

Charge collection

Photocurrent

Operational

mechanism

Loss

mechanism

Exciton diffusion

Exciton creation

• Reflection (IL)

• Transmission (IL)

• Recombination of excitions after

creation and during diffusion (Io)

• Recombination of excitions when no

charge separation (Io)

• Recombination of charges (Rsh)

• Limited mobility (Rs)

• Recombination near electrodes (Rsh2)

• Barrier height (Rs, Io)

Photon absorption

Incident

photons, I

Charge separation

Charge transport

Charge collection

Photocurrent

Operational

mechanism

Loss

mechanism

Exciton diffusion

Exciton creation

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Figure 5: Operational steps of bilayer and bulk-heterojunction OPV cell: (a) Photon absorption and

exciton generation (b) Exciton diffusion (c) Exciton dissociation, polaron formation & dissociation (d)

Charge transfer (e) Charge collection. Blocking layers are not shown for simplicity

(a) Photon Absorption

The first step for power conversion from the light is absorption of photons in active layer of the

organic solar cell. Incoming photons undergo reflection, absorption and transmission.

(b) Exciton Generation and Diffusion

Photon having energy more than or equal to optical band gap of the organic polymer when

absorbed, an electron is excited leaving a hole behind but are still attracted strongly by a

Coulombic force. This quasineutral particle in a bound state is called an exciton.

The properties of excitons are discussed in Section 2.5. Excitons start diffusing towards a

systematically designed interface with another organic polymer or electrode. The excitons

diffuse to the donor-accept interface in case of a bulk heterojunction or bilayer device or a

Schottky barrier in the case of a single active layer. The diffusion length must be at least equal to

the polymer thickness for excitons to be efficiently dissociated before they are quenched.

D

A

D

A

D

A

D

A

D

A

ITO ITO

ITOITO ITO

Al Al

AlAl Al

(a) (b)

(e) (d) (c)

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(c) Exciton Dissociation

Once excitons reach the interface, they get dissociated due to the local electric field created by

difference of electron affinities (EAs) and ionization potentials (IPs) between donor and acceptor

material. At the interface, the polymer semiconductor material with higher electron affinity

(lower ionization potential) can take electron (hole) from the material having lower EA (higher

IP). In other words, after dissociation of an exciton at D/A interface, the electron (hole) from the

LUMO (HOMO) of donor (acceptor) transfers to the LUMO (HOMO) of acceptor (donor).

Excitons do not contribute to photocurrent if the difference in ionization energies or electron

affinities is not sufficient to dissociate them.

(d) Charge Transport

The dissociated charge carriers start moving towards the respective electrodes by diffusion and

drift processes. The mobility plays an important role, and is discussed later in this Chapter. At

the interface of the organic semiconductor and metal electrodes, the separated charge carriers are

collected resulting in a photocurrent.

(e) Charge Collection

The efficiency of charge collection is mostly dependent on the energy band alignment of the

donor-HOMO with the anode and the acceptor-LUMO with the cathode. The nature of the

semiconductor/electrode interface is complex as interfacial charge density due to dipole

formation or chemical reaction at the interface, widely affect the alignment which may or may not

favor the charge collection. Efficient charge collection is achieved by using intermediate layers

such as electron and/or hole transport layers that favor unidirectional flow of carriers; and

passivation layers to inhibit chemical reaction.

2.3 Device Physics

Below are the diagrams, Figure 6(a) and Figure 6(b) for a general schematic of bilayer and bulk

heterojunction OPV devices showing electrodes and various layers used. In bilayer structure, it is

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always guaranteed that donor and acceptor phase are in contacts with hole and electron transport

layer, respectively whereas in bulk heterojunction case, it happens only if bi-continuous or

percolated paths exist which is necessary for the cell to work. The bilayer and bulk

heterojunction both can be represented by a single energy band diagram, Figure 6(c) as they both

differ only in spatial orientation of layers and not energetically. The step by step process of

operation is shown via energy band diagram (Figure 6(c)). This section mainly explains about

functions of various layers used in the cell. The basic comparison of three different types of OPV

structures are explained in next section.

Figure 6: A general schematic of (a) a bilayer OPV cell (b) a bulk heterojunction OPV cell and (c)

Energy band diagram of the device

2.3.1 Active Layers for Light Absorption

Active layers are the main constituents of OPV cell which are small molecules or polymer

semiconductors. These are also called photo-active layers (or donors and acceptors, explained

Acceptor layer

HTL or EBL

ETL or HBLAl (cathode)

ITO (anode)

(VOC)max

HOMO

HOMO

LUMO

LUMO

ETL

HTL

Al (cathode)

ITO (anode)

Evac

ϕ

EA IP

Donor Acceptor

e-

h+

Light

(a)

(c)

e-

h+ Active layer

HTL or EBL

ETL or HBL

ITO (anode)

Donor layer

Al (cathode)

e-

h+

(b)

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next) as they can absorb photons with energy greater or equal to optical band gap of the material

and generate excitons that are eventually converted to charge carriers. The light absorption can

be explained by Beer-Lambert’s law which relates the absorption of light through a material

having absorption coefficient α (λ). If the material is a solid thin film of thickness (d), then α(λ)d

> 1, transmitted light intensity I(d) can be represented by

( ) ( )

Where, Io is incoming light intensity, α(λ) is the wavelength dependent light absorption

coefficient and d is the film thickness.

For most efficient absorption of sunlight at earth, the ideal band gap is around 1.4 eV. Most

organic semiconducting polymers have band gaps higher than 2 eV (600 nm) which limits the

possible absorption to about 30% of the solar spectrum. Organic polymers display orders of

magnitude lower mobility compared to inorganic semiconductor crystals and therefore the

material has to be very thin in order for excitons to reach the interface without being quenched.

Fortunately, a high absorption coefficient (usually > 105 cm

-1) of the material partially balances

the negative impact of lower mobility in photovoltaic device. Some light trapping methods are

also employed to enhance the light absorption [36].

2.3.2 Donor/Acceptor Interface

At heterojunction, the material with higher electron affinity can take electrons to its LUMO is

called acceptor (A). Similarly, the material with lower ionization potential can easily donate an

electron from its HOMO, or in other words can take a hole is called donor (D). Meaning, the

material with lower (higher) LUMO and HOMO values is donor (acceptor). An electron in donor

is excited to LUMO leaving a hole in its HOMO or a hole in acceptor is excited to HOMO

leaving an electron in LUMO thus forming an exciton after absorbing a photon. Unlike

conventional solar cells, absorption of photons is not enough to generate free charge carriers and

an interface of donor/acceptor (D/A) material with proper energy level matching is required for

exciton to dissociate into free charge carriers. The differences in energy levels LUMOs and

HOMOs should be larger than exciton binding energy (~ 0.4 eV) for dissociation to occur.

Exciton generated in donor (acceptor) material is dissociated at the interface of the organic

semiconductors heterojunction by donating an electron (hole) from its LUMO (HOMO) to the

LUMO (HOMO) of the acceptor (donor) material and retaining the hole (electron). Exciton

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dissociation has been described as two-step process: (a) charge transfer to form polaron, i.e.

exciton separated into hole and electron in D and A, respectively, but still bound together; (b)

polaron dissociation into separated charge carriers (however, polarons may recombine also). The

separated charge carriers are then transported to respective electrodes. Therefore, the donors are

hole transporting materials or p-type and the acceptors are electron transporting materials or n-

type.

If both LUMO and HOMO level of one of the heterojunction organic semiconductor materials is

bigger than the other, exciton split is not possible but rather energy transfer will occur in the form

of radiation. This situation is desired for designing light emitting diodes (LEDs).

Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) or P3HT, poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-

phenylenevinylene] or MEH-PPV, copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) are commonly used donors or

p-type material in organic electronics. Fullerene (C60), [6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester

(PCBM) are common n-type organic semiconductors or acceptors.

2.3.3 Semiconductor/Electrode Interface

A seminal work of Mott and Schottky has established the theory of metal-semiconductor contact

for charge injection from the doped semiconductor to the metal [37, 38]. However, it is not well

known to what extent it applies in organic semiconductors, but it is often used to predict the

behavior of such contacts for carrier collection or injection. The barrier can be formed at the

interface of ITO (anode) and the donor material or Al (cathode) and the acceptor material. A

Schottky barrier is formed when metal work function is smaller (larger) than the work function

which is the difference between vacuum level to Fermi level of p-type (n-type) semiconductor,

i.e. ϕM < ϕS (ϕM > ϕS), otherwise the contact is ohmic. Such barriers act as an obstruction to

charge carriers which should kept minimum for better charge collection. Charge carriers can

overcome the barrier ϕB by thermionic emission and/or field emission (quantum mechanical

tunneling). The current through the barrier is often described by

( ) )

where, Jo is a constant for low doping and n ≈ 1 at high temperatures [39], V is the applied

voltage and T is the temperature. When the thermal energy kBT is sufficient to produce charge

carriers with potential greater than the barrier height ϕB (=|ϕM – ϕS|), thermionic emission occurs.

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The Schottky barrier is ohmic also when the barrier ϕB is very thin or very low. Ohmic contacts

are preferred for efficient charge collection for which electrode work functions should be

properly matched at donor-HOMO and acceptor-LUMO levels. A large difference between the

anode work function and the D-HOMO or the cathode work function and the A-LUMO will

cause the loss of open circuit voltage and working potential.

2.3.4 Interfacial Layers

By inserting a very thin interfacial layer between the electrode and active layer the overall device

performance can be significantly improved, Figure 6. Several interfacial buffer layers have been

reviewed by Chen et al. [40]. The main functions are described below:

2.3.4.1 Functions of Interfacial Materials

(a) Injection barrier reduction by interfacial dipole:

The injection barrier ϕh (ϕe) is the difference between the metal work function and HOMO

(LUMO) of the semiconductor material. Upon introduction of an interface dipole with the

positive (negative) pole towards metal the hole (electron) injection barrier can be reduced, shown

in Figure 7. Barrier height reduction increases the injection efficiency of carriers in case of

OLEDs and can enhance the open circuit voltage in OPVs. Similarly, the reverse dipole can

increase the injection barrier causing an open circuit voltage loss [41, 42].

Figure 7: Modification of the hole (electron) injection barrier ϕh (ϕe) upon introducing interface

dipole (source: [43])

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(b) Blocking layers:

Blocking layers are introduced between the electrode and the active layer of OPV cells to avoid

recombination of charge carriers at semiconductor-electrode interface and allow passing certain

type of charge carrier, either holes or electrons. An electron blocking layer (EBL), also called a

hole transport layer (HTL) is when inserted between the anode and donor layer, only holes could

be allowed to reach the anode from the active layer and hence impedes the recombination with

electrons at the anode-donor interface. Similarly, insertion of hole blocking layer (HBL) or

electron transport layer (ETL) between the active layer and the cathode (Al) can improve the

device performance by allowing electron transport only and also hindering exciton quenching at

cathode.

(c) Active layer passivation and suppression of diffusion:

Metal ion diffusion into the organic layer has a detrimental effect. The metal/organic interface

undergoes chemical reactions that change the contact properties and forms interfacial dipole

barriers which can cause kink (S-shape) effects in J-V curves [44]. Therefore a buffer or

passivation interlayer is inserted to prevent diffusion and interface reaction.

(d) Modulation of optical field by an optical spacer:

The incident light forms a standing wave inside the active layer of the cell. The transparent

optical spacer between polymer and electrode is introduced such that the optical field strength is

maximum in active layer zone to enhance the photocurrent [45].

2.3.4.2 Anode Interlayers

The most commonly used EBL at anode is poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):

poly(styrenesulfonate) or PEDOT: PSS, a conjugated polymer that is doped by H+ from PSS has

work function of 4.75eV – 5.15eV depending on the doping concentration [46]. PEDOT is

conductive (~1000S/cm) and not soluble in water, however, when doped with PSS, it becomes

hydrophilic and soluble in water. PEDOT: PSS has a lower conductivity of conductivity ~ 1-10

S/cm. It absorbs little light in the visible region and is widely used as transparent and conductive

polymer with ductility. PEDOT: PSS is widely used for coating ITO glasses to smooth their

spikiness to avoid shorts in OSCs. The top layer of PEDOT: PSS is PSS- rich phase which is a

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wide band gap polymer is responsible for blocking the electrons [47] and increased photovoltage

[48]. This layer also hinders exciton recombination at the anode resulting in improved photo

carrier generation. PCE with optimized thickness of PEDOT: PSS can be 6 times more than the

PCE without it [49]. However, its acidic nature etches the ITO and causes lifetime instability [50,

51]. Its conductivity can be significantly improved by a post-treatment (also called secondary

doping) with various compounds, such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethylene glycol (EG),

acids etc. [52, 53]. Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) is also used as an EBL due to its low LUMO

value (LUMO – HOMO: 2.4eV – 5.3eV) and high transparency and improvement in device

performance has been achieved [54-56]. V2O3 and MoO3 as anodic interlayers is are reported as

replacements for PEDOT: PSS [57].

2.3.4.3 Cathode Interlayers

Aluminum is the most commonly used cathode electrode. Instability of Al was studied by

Logdlund et al and Antoniadis et al who found that Al-C bond formation disrupts the π-

conjugated system [58, 59]. Formation of a dipole at the interface of Al and PCBM in (P3HT:

PCBM) device increases the extraction barrier and reduces the VOC [41, 42]. A low work function

metal, calcium (Ca), makes an ohmic contact when inserted between Al and the polymer,

resulting in a higher fill factor [60]. Alkali metal compounds such as lithium fluoride (LiF) and

cesium carbonate (Cs2CO3) provide low work function contacts [61-63]. A thin layer (~1nm) of

LiF acts as dipole modifying the vacuum level to reduce the workfunction of Al which helps in

better electron extraction [64] and also serves as a buffer layer to reduce the Al diffusion into the

polymer. A more versatile electron injection layer Cs2CO3 which can be thermally evaporated or

spin coated before cathode layer, be it Al or Ag, shows similar performance [61, 65, 66].

Other commonly used HBLs or ETLs between the polymer and the cathode are bathocuproine

(BCP), titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO). Such materials are able to block holes due to

the large HOMO values of BCP (LUMO-HOMO: 3.5 eV – 7 eV), TiO2 (LUMO – HOMO: 4.4

eV – 8.1eV) or ZnO (LUMO – HOMO: 4.2 eV – 7.5 eV) and inhibit recombination of excitons at

the cathode. BCP as an interfacial HBL is also known to be an excellent exciton blocking layer,

and can more than double in the PCE [67, 68]. With titanium dioxide (TiO2) the PCE is enhanced

more than twice and also the stability is greatly improved [69, 70]. With ZnO as the HBL an

improvement in device performance and stability is reported [54, 71, 72].

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2.3.5 Electrode Materials

The selection of electrode material is crucial and as discussed before, depending on the

LUMO/HOMO levels of the Donor and Acceptor materials, the contact could be ohmic or

blocking. The difference between anode and D-HOMO or cathode and A-LUMO should be

minimized to lower the voltage loss of the cell. Elements in the periodic table with their

workfunctions are given in Table 1 [73]. The common cathode electrodes used in organic solar

cells are Al, Ca and Mg. Effects of few common cathodes on performance of BHJ solar cell were

investigated in [74].

Transparent electrodes are generally hole-collecting anodes and have high work-functions.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is the most widely used transparent conducting anode, which is a

degenerate semiconductor comprising a mixture of indium oxide (In2O3 – 90%) and tin dioxide

(SnO2 – 10%). It is formed by reactive sputtering of an In-Sn target in an oxygen atmosphere.

ITO has a Fermi-level of 4.5 – 4.9 eV and a bandgap of 3.7eV. There is no absorption of light of

wavelength longer than 350 nm due to its large bandgap and hence it is quite suitable as a

conducting material that is transparent to much of the solar spectrum.

Table 1: Workfunction (eV) of elements in polycrystalline form

2.3.6 Operating Steps of OPV Cells

The electrodes are represented by their work functions, and the organic semiconductors by their

LUMO-HOMO levels. Four simple device operational steps under different voltage regimes and

I-V curve are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.

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(a) Short circuit condition: is when metals shorted together align to same energy level resulting

tilting the LUMO-HOMO bands of organic semiconductor layer/layers between electrodes.

There is no dark current as no voltage is applied across. The output current is represented by

short-circuit current ISC, Figure 9(a). The difference of work functions of the metals creates an

internal electric field distributed throughout the device. After excitons dissociation at interface,

the holes and electrons are pulled toward higher and lower work function electrode, respectively

due to internal field and thus cell generates electricity.

(b) Open circuit condition: is when dark current or diffusion current counter balances the

photocurrent or drift current and output light current is zero. LUMO-HOMO energy bands of the

semiconductor are almost flat. The applied voltage in this case is a little below the metal work

function difference which opposes the built-in electric field.

(c) Reverse bias condition: of the OPV device extracts more charge carriers under stronger

electric field and diode works as a photodetector, i.e. extracted charge carriers or photocurrent is

proportional to the light intensity.

(d) Forward bias condition: The dark current is almost zero until the open circuit voltage and

heavy injection of charge carriers takes place near and after VOC, Figure 9. In this case, there is

large recombination and if it is radiative, the device operates as a LED.

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Figure 8: Energy band diagram of a typical OPV cell under (a) short circuit (b) open circuit (c)

reverse bias and (d) forward bias

Figure 9: Current-voltage curve of a typical OPV cell (dotted: dark current; solid: illuminated

current). (a) short circuit (b) open circuit (c) reverse bias (d) forward bias

VOC

ITO AlITO

Al

ITO

AlITO

Al

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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2.4 OPV Architectures

We will discuss three main types of organic photovoltaic cell structures shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: (a) Single layer device (b) Bilayer or planar heterojunction and (c) Bulk heterojunction

2.4.1 Single Layer Device

The first organic solar cells were based on an organic layer sandwiched between two metal

electrodes of different work functions. Such type of cells can be explained by the MIM model or

by Schottky barrier formation between a metal of low work function and a p-type semiconducting

layer. Band bending of organic semiconductor at the semiconductor-metal interface has been

confirmed with Kelvin probe study by H. Ishii et al [75]. Figure 10(a) shows a band bending at

the interface between the electrode (Al) and the p-type organic semiconductor where electric field

is created due to the bend. Excitons which diffuse towards the Schottky barrier can be

dissociated into electrons and holes under this field. Schottky-based organic solar cells using

phthalocyanine produced very small photocurrents on the order of 20μA/cm2, under AM1.5 [17,

76, 77]. Single layer type OPV cells suffer from severe exciton recombination due to insufficient

electric field to dissociate excitons; and charge carriers recombination as holes and electrons are

generated in the bulk which has higher probability to recombine. Organic layer has to be thin

p-type semiconductorAcceptor

Donor

ITO

Al

PEDOT: PSS

D

A

PEDOT:PSS

Al

A

PEDOT:PSS

Al

h+

e-

h+

e-

PEDOT:PSS

Al

h+

e-

p-type Semiconductor

(a) (b) (c)

e-

h+Bulk polymers blend

ITO

PEDOT: PSS

Al

ITO

PEDOT: PSS

Al

e-

h+

DITO ITO

ITO

p-type semiconductor

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enough as excitons generated near the depletion region or in the near range of exciton diffusion

length can contribute to photocurrent.

2.4.2 Planar or Bilayer Structure

In bilayer device, the active layer consists of two organic semiconductors namely the donor and

the acceptor stacked together with a planar interface. Such stacking is done by either sequential

spin coating of the solution or thermal evaporation of the donor (D) and the acceptor (A). Unlike

in the depleted region of p-n junction solar cells, it does not have an in-built electric field at D-A

interface due to absence of doping. Excitons in this case are dissociated more efficiently at the

donor-acceptor (D-A) interface due to sufficient LUMOs and HOMOs level differences of these

two layers, Figure 10(b).

Upon photon absorption, excitons are excited from HOMO to LUMO and diffuse towards the D-

A junction where an exciton can be separated by donating an electron from the donor to acceptor

or a hole from the acceptor to the donor. The dissociation may take place under the condition

when the difference of electron affinity (EA) of the acceptor and ionization potential (IP) of

excited state of the donor is greater than exciton binding energy (UB) or, (EA)A – (IP)D* > UB.

Similarly, excitons generated in the acceptor can be dissociated at the interface when (IP)D –

(EA)A* > UB. An asterisk mark (*) indicates the excited state condition.

Bilayer devices show majority-carrier transport phenomena as after dissociation, the electron is

transferred to the acceptor or n-type layer and the hole is retained in the donor or p-type material.

Hence, bulk recombination is not possible in this case. A bilayer solar cell made of copper

phthalocyanine (CuPc) and fullerene (C60) as a donor-acceptor pair has showed a power

conversion efficiency about 3.6% under AM1.5 [78, 79]. Pentacene based bilayer cells showed

efficiencies about 1% - 2.7% [31-34].

Due to concentration gradient, excitons once generated diffuse towards the D-A interfaces. The

exciton diffusion length is LD = √(Dτ), where D is diffusion coefficient and τ is the exciton life-

time. Very low exciton diffusion length (few tens of nanometers) [80] limits the thickness of the

active layers to about hundred nanometer in order to inhibit exciton quenching before reaching

the interface of active layers in the bilayer structure.

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2.4.3 Bulk-heterojunction Device

The donor and the acceptor materials are intimately mixed in a bulk heterojunction (BHJ) type to

reduce the distance of interface sites from the point of exciton generation so that the exciton has

to travel less than its diffusion length to prevent its recombination. The device should have

enough percolated pathways for dissociated charge carriers to reach to their respective electrodes

for a useful photocurrent. An extreme intermixing of the blend could be deterrent to such bi-

continuous interpenetrating network and hence phase segregation of the components is necessary

for efficient charge transport [28, 81-84], Figure 10(c). In BHJ device, donor-acceptor interface

is three-dimensional unlike two-dimensional D-A interface in case of bilayer structure.

Therefore, in BHJ, the interface area is increased by several folds and exciton dissociation is

much more efficient. The active layer thickness could be chosen considerably larger than the

exciton diffusion length and this will allow absorbing the light more efficiently. Most common

BHJ type OPV cells are made by blend of P3HT: PCBM [27-30] or PPV: PCBM [85-87].

2.5 Properties of Organic Semiconductors

2.5.1 Properties of Conjugated Materials

(a) Hybridization

The backbone of the molecules of organic materials consists of covalent bonded carbon atoms.

The wavefunction of the valence electrons is distorted by the surrounding atoms or molecules and

atomic orbitals form new hybrid orbitals. Hybridized orbitals are useful in explaining the shape

of molecular orbitals. In methane (CH4), four electrons (2s and 2p) in the outer shell of the

carbon atom forms four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals and makes four covalent σ-bonds with

neighboring hydrogen atoms. The sp3-orbitals form a tetrahedral structure with an angle

approximately 109° between the orbitals. In ethylene (H2C=CH2), three electrons (1s and 2p) of

the C atom form three coplanar and 120° spaced sp2 hybrid orbitals (Figure 11) to make σ-bonds

with four hydrogen atoms. Another two hybrid orbitals form a σ(C-C)-bond when remaining two

p-orbitals form a π(C-C)-bond, shown in Figure 12(a) and (b).

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Figure 11: A schematic of sp2 hybridization of a carbon atom with unhybridized pz [88]

Figure 12: (a) σ and π bonding in ethylene (b) chemical structure (source: lecture notes[89])

(b) LUMO and HOMO Energy Levels

When two atoms interact with each other to form a molecule, depending on constructive or

destructive interference of the atomic orbitals, new wave functions describing the valence

electrons are called molecular orbitals, shown in Figure 13. In case of constructive interference, a

finite probability of finding an electron between two nuclei acts as a glue to bind them together.

These orbitals are called bonding orbitals. If the atomic orbitals undergo destructive interference,

there is no probability to find the electrons between the two atoms, thus positive nuclei repel each

other. These orbitals are called anti-bonding orbitals. Energy levels when molecular orbitals are

formed, split into two - bonding orbitals which are stabilized and have lower energy levels than

original atomic level, and - anti-bonding orbitals which are destabilized that are pushed to higher

energy levels. Figure 14 shows few dimerization steps of hydrogen molecules in carbon based

compounds where at each step, orbitals are split into bonding and anti-bonding orbitals. For a

large chain, orbital energy levels are grouped into two compact orbital bands, called valence band

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with occupied orbitals and conduction band with unoccupied orbitals. The lowest level of the

conduction band is called the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) and the highest

level of the valence band is called the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO). LUMO-

HOMO energy level and their difference (band gap) mainly determine the optical and electronic

properties of an organic semiconductor.

Figure 13: Bonding and anti-bonding orbitals (source: handout - [90])

Figure 14: Bonding and anti-bonding energy levels coming together into HOMO and LUMO bands

as dimerization length increases. LUMO-HOMO levels are somewhat equivalent to conduction and

valence bands in conventional semiconductor (Source: handouts - [91])

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(c) Conjugation

Conjugated molecules have single and double (or multiple) bonds in alternation along their

skeleton. Such molecules have connected p-orbitals which allow delocalization of π-electrons to

lower the overall energy of the molecule and increase stability. The basic structure of a

conducting or semiconducting organic material is shown in Figure 15 [88]. The compound may

be cyclic, acyclic, or mixed. Butadiene (H2C=CH CH=CH2) is one of the smallest conjugated

molecules and benzene is (C6H6) one of the conjugated cyclic compounds with carbon based

skeleton. Conjugated systems can easily donate or except delocalized π-electrons and these

polymers are widely used in donor-acceptor based photovoltaic devices. The large conjugated

systems include conductive and semiconducting polymers, carbon nanotube, fullerene etc. The

larger is the conjugated π-system, smaller is the bandgap, in general.

Figure 15: A schematic of the simplest conjugated polymer molecule, transpolyacetylene [88]. The

polymer molecules are more stable by interchanging the position of single and double bonds

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2.5.2 Excitons

Unlike conventional semiconductors where free electron-hole pairs are generated upon light

absorption, organic semiconductors create excitons which are essentially quasi-neutral

electrostatically bound electron-hole pairs and are not free carriers. The exciton binding energy is

about 0.3-0.5eV in organics compared to 0.01eV in conventional semiconductors. To understand

more about excitons it is important to examine the difference between conventional

semiconductors (CSC) and excitonic semiconductors (XSC), Figure 16.

A charge carrier becomes free when its thermal energy kBT is equal to or greater than the

electrostatic potential energy. For a critical distance rc between charge carriers,

( )( )

where, q is the electronic charge, ε and εo are relative and absolute permittivities, respectively.

“In a semiconductor with hydrogen-like wavefunctions, the Bohr radius of the lowest electronic

state is” [92],

( )

where, ro (= 0.53 Å) is the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom in its ground state, me and meff are the

free electron mass in vacuum and effective mass in the semiconductor, respectively. For XSC,

effective mass meff is more than me but is opposite in case of CSC. Rearranging the above two

equations and we define a ratio γ [92],

[ ( )][ (

)]

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Figure 16: A schematic representing CSCs and XSCs. Wavefunction (rB) and critical distance (rc)

depend on effective mass, permittivity and the temperature [92]

When γ > 1, rc > rB indicates carriers are not free which is the case for excitonic semiconductor

(XSC), and for γ < 1, rc < rB indicates carriers are free suggesting the case in conventional

semiconductor (CSC). Although the ratio of rc/rB in above equation is only a rough

approximation as parameters rc, rB, ε, and meff do not actually have spherical symmetry for XSC,

but it’s a useful interpretation showing parameters mainly indicate the conditions when excitonic

or conventional semiconductors behavior is observed.

According to equations in previous expressions of rc and rB, lower relative permittivity ε of XSCs

accounts for larger critical distance rc at a fixed temperature, and the wavefunction rB is lower for

XSC due to its lower value of ε and higher effective mass meff, indicates rc ≫ rB. Similarly,

inverse temperature dependence suggests that at very low temperature T, even CSCs turn into

XSCs as rc ≫ rB.

2.5.3 Polarons and Polaron Excitons

The polarization in a lattice occurs due to electrons repelling its neighboring electrons or negative

ions while being attracted towards the nuclei or positive ions in the vicinity. When electron

moves through the lattice, it carries the induced polarization as a unit called a polaron, Figure 17.

This acts as a potential well which hinders the charge movements and hence decreases the

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mobility. “In a conjugated molecule, a charge is self-trapped by deformation it induces in the

chain. This mechanism of self-trapping is often described through the creation of localized states

in the gap between the valence (HOMO) and the conduction (LUMO) bands, as shown in Figure

18 in the case of polythiophene” [93]. A bound pair consisting of an electron polaron and a hole

polaron is called a polaron exciton or polaron pair and usually referred to an intermediate state

between exciton and dissociated charge carriers.

Figure 17: Artist view of a polaron (source: WIKIPEDIA)

Figure 18: A polaron in polythiophene. Top: Change in chemical structure. Bottom: Corresponding

energy diagram where localized states are created due to polaron formation [93]

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2.5.4 Space Charge Limited Photocurrent

Goodman and Rose, in 1971, presented a simple model and approximate theory for double

extraction of uniformly generated electron-hole pairs from a photoconductor [94]. They

predicted the electrostatic photocurrent limit in semiconductors at high light intensities.

Photocurrent is injected in an external circuit when charge carriers are produced by photons and

separated by built-in electric field or external bias. The magnitude of photocurrent depends upon

generation, recombination and transport process. Inside the photoconductor (insulator) the mean

drift lengths are we = μeτeE for electrons, and wh = μhτhE for holes, where μ’s are carrier

mobilities, τ’s are lifetimes before deep trapping and E is the electric field in the photoconductor.

“If both we and wh are much larger than length L of the photoconductor, all of the photogenerated

carriers are extracted and no net charge is stored in the photoconductor. If, however, either we or

wh or both are smaller than L, trapped charge will accumulate in the layer altering the electric

field. The electric field will continue to change until a steady condition is reached in which there

is no further net trapping of charge and, consequently, equal currents of electrons and holes are

extracted at the contacts” [94]. The same effect has been well studied on PPV based polymer

and PCBM blend, and explained by Mihailetchi et al [95]. In the case when all the

photogenerated carriers are extracted (we and wh > L), photocurrent is saturated and is given by Jph

= qGL, with q an electronic charge and G the generation rate of the electron-hole pairs. In case of

wh ≪ we and wh < L, the holes will accumulate to a greater extent in the device than the electrons,

forming space charge resulting in increase in the electric field in the region (L1) enhancing

extraction of holes, Figure 19. Similarly, the electric field decreases near the cathode which

reduces the extraction of electrons.

In steady state, the modified electric field in the region (L1) is such that the external hole current

equals the external electron current and total voltage V appears across the hole accumulated

region (V1 ≈ V) and photogenerated current in this region is almost the total current. Therefore,

hole drift length L1 = μhτhV1/L1 or L1 = (μhτhV1)1/2

follows that [94, 95],

( )

which is termed as μτ-limited current. Goodman and Rose indicated that a fundamental limit can

be expected for the buildup of space charge in a semiconductor at high intensities. At the

electrostatic limit, the photogenerated current Jph = qGL1 is equal to space-charge limited (SCL)

current,

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where, ϵoϵr is the permittivity of the medium. Solving for L1 assuming V1 ≈ V, the maximum

photocurrent that can be extracted electrostatically from the device is [94, 95],

[

]

Figure 19: Schematic of energy bands for the photovoltaic device under illumination [95]

In both above equations (μτ-limited current) and (space-charge limited current) the photocurrent

varies as square root of the applied voltage and is governed by slowest charge carrier mobility,

however, they differ their dependence on G or light intensity. Following are the requirements to

observe the space-charge limited current in a semiconductor [95],

The material should have high G and a long carrier lifetime τ after e-h pair dissociation.

Charge transport should be strongly unbalanced leading to space-charge formation, i.e.

wh/we ≪ 1 or ≫ 1.

Slowest charge carrier should have low mobility to reach the SCL inside the space-charge

region.

A blend of conjugated polymers and fullerene molecules can fulfill the above criteria to observe

the SCL current. After light absorption, excitons are generated and subsequently dissociated at

the interface inside the blend. The photogeneration is ultrafast (< 100 fs) [96] and electron-hole

pairs are spatially separated leading to long carrier life times (microsecond to millisecond) [97].

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2.5.5 Charge Transport in Organic Materials

Organic semiconductors have a backbone arising from sp2 hybridized atomic orbitals of adjacent

carbon atoms that overlap to form bonding σ and antibonding σ* molecular orbitals. The

remaining atomic pz orbitals overlap to a lesser degree form π and π* molecular orbitals [98].

“The electrical band-gap arises because of the alternation between single and double carbon-

carbon bonds, a signature of the Peierls distortion in a 1D system. When a perfect 1D chain of

the equidistant carbon atoms is considered, the electronic structure resulting from the electronic

coupling between the atomic pz-orbitals is that of a half-filled π band, implying a metallic

character. The introduction of an alternating bond length, however, leads to the formation of a

filled π-band and an empty π*-band, with a gap separating them, thus predicting semiconducting

properties” [98].

Charge transport in organic semiconductor is usually described by a hopping model. The

mobility edge model is another alternative to hopping model. In the mobility edge model,

electronic states are divided into two non-overlapping state distributions – localized or trapped

states and delocalized or band states – which are separated by an energy level called the mobility

edge [99].

2.5.5.1 Band Transport

If the interaction energy is larger than any energy associated with disorder in the neighbor, charge

transport takes place through a band. Band transport can only occur if the bands are wider than

the energetic uncertainty of the charge carrier [98].

2.5.5.2 Disordered Based Transport

In crystalline inorganic semiconductors, the atoms are aligned in lattice which allow good orbital

overlap between neighboring atoms and delocalization is present throughout the material [100].

Mobility is very high in such materials is limited mainly by phonon scattering. Defects,

impurities or dislocations in the lattice induce localization and result in the mobility decrease. In

the extreme case, such as in amorphous semiconductors the electronic states become localized

over a small volume and charge transfer occurs via hopping mechanism. The mobility in such

case is mainly phonon assisted unlike mobility that is limited by phonon scattering in delocalized

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or band states. In other words, the mobility decreases with temperature in conventional

semiconductor whereas it is opposite the case in most of the organic semiconductors.

In disordered organic semiconductors, π-orbitals are weakly overlapped and charge transport

depends on the ability of charge carriers to pass from one molecule to another, which is referred

to as hopping transport. This is affected by temperature and the electric field across the material.

The conductivity is proportional to T–1/4

and exp(–Ea/kBT) in a low and high electric fields,

respectively [101]. A simpler Miller-Abrahams hopping rate is given by [102],

( ) { ( ) }

( )

where, the carrier hops from site i with energy εi to site j with energy εj, and the distance between

these sites is Rij. γ is the inverse localization radius tells that how well charge carriers can tunnel

from site i to site j, kB is Boltzman’s constant. The energy difference plays a role in hopping rate

only when the second hopping site has the higher energy than the first one, otherwise the second

exponent part is 1. The first exponent part is tunneling contribution and the second exponent

shows the thermally activated upward hopping.

In disordered systems, the barriers created by energetic disorder can be overcome at higher

temperatures and the hopping transport is improved. An Arrhenius-like model is used to model

the temperature dependence of mobility for disordered systems and is given by,

(

)

where, Δ is the activation energy which typically increases with the amount of disorder [103].

In mobility edge model (contrast to the hopping model), charge carriers in the localized or trap

states are completely immobile. These carriers contribute to transport only if they are thermally

activated into the band states, i.e. thermal energy kBT > trap energy. In organic semiconductors,

traps are created by structural defects and impurities causing a different set of HOMO-LUMO

values that falls within the HOMO-LUMO levels of the intrinsic semiconductor. In

homogeneous traps, the mobility is expressed as,

(

)

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where, ΔE is the trap energy, μo is mobility in delocalized states, and α a constant [103].

2.6 Parameters affecting OPV performance

We have to consider many factors while designing an organic solar cell. The most important ones

including mobility, HOMO-LUMO matching of donor-acceptor materials, electrode work-

functions, and layer thicknesses are presented below.

2.6.1 Mobility

Disordered organic polymers have mobility values orders of magnitude lower than inorganic

crystals. One question we would like to answer is whether low mobility always limits the

performance of the organic solar cell and if polymers with higher mobility will perform better.

Higher mobility, on one hand, leads to efficient charge extraction, but on the other hand, it can

cause an increased rate of charge carrier recombination at the donor-acceptor interface. As

reported in [104], increases in mobility beyond what is required for efficient charge extraction

lead to lower efficiency because of increased recombination . In bilayer structure modeling

which is exclusively studied in the next Chapter, the Langevin recombination rate which is

proportional to the product of summation of mobilities and charge carrier concentration at D-A

interface has been used. It has been shown that at higher mobilities, the efficient charge

extraction strongly reduces the charge carrier concentration at D-A interface reducing the open-

circuit voltage [105, 106]. Authors found theoretically that the optimal power efficiency of a

bulk heterojunction organic solar is achieved for a mobility of about 10-2

cm2/V.s [104-107].

A simulation program solving the Poisson differential equation, and the continuity equation using

a drift-diffusion model describes the performance vs mobility of a bulk heterojunction (μe = μh) in

[106]. The results are shown in Figure 20. The short-circuit current density (JSC) saturates above

a carrier mobility of 10-2

cm2/V.s and there is a sharp decrease in open-circuit voltage (VOC) for

mobilities greater than 10-4

cm2/V-s. Combined, these effects cause the power conversion

efficiency to reach a maximum near these values. The model considers the reduced Langevin-

type polaron recombination rate R [106, 108],

( )

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where, ζ is a prefactor considering the reduction in bimolecular Langevin recombination. Since

only a fraction of the total phase segregated volume of active materials take part in recombination

at D-A interface and there is imperfect bi-continuous interpenetrating network in the blend, γ is

modified by the prefactor ζ. The Langevin recombination parameter is given by [104, 108, 109],

( )

where, q is electronic charge and ε is the permittivity of the medium, n (p) is the free electron

(hole) densities and ni (pi) is intrinsic electron (hole) density.

Figure 20: Open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current density and fill-factor dependence on the

carrier mobility, for two sets of injection barriers [106]. Note that SI units are used

Figure 21(a) depicts that at lower mobility, the inefficient charge extraction leads to space-charge

build up that forms high carrier concentrations. The performance is poor mainly due to low

mobility (μe ~ 7×10-11

m2/V.s, PCE = 0.5%). Efficient charge extraction at high mobility leads to

depletion of charge carriers (μe ~ 2×10-2

m2/V.s, PCE = 0.5%), Figure 21(c). Therefore, such

high carrier concentration reduces quasi-Fermi level splitting resulting in lowering the open

circuit voltage and hence overall PCE after a certain mobility. The maximum achievable

efficiency (at μe ~ 10-6

m2/V.s, PCE = 3.0%) would be a trade-off between high mobility (causing

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high carrier extraction and low open-circuit voltage) and low mobility, leading to low short

circuit current, shown in Figure 21(b).

Figure 21: (Top) Band diagrams (solid), electron and hole quasi-Fermi levels (dotted). (Bottom)

electron (dotted) and hole (solid) concentrations at maximum power point for (a) μe ~ 7×10-11

m2/V.s,

PCE = 0.5%, (b) μe ~ 10-6

m2/V.s, PCE = 3% (max) and (c) μe ~ 2×10

-2 m

2/V.s, PCE = 0.5% [106]

2.6.2 Phase Morphology

In bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells, morphology plays an important role. Very fine grained

ultimate phase mixing of D-A pair would be ideal for effective exciton dissociation but may not

be great for charge transport due to poor bi-continuous path formation. On the other hand,

extreme phase segregation will not be effective in terms of exciton dissociation due to reduced

heterojunction area. Hence a trade-off between efficient dissociation and transport is required.

Different D-A ratios or thermal annealing experiments have been done in order to influence the

device performance by changing the nanomorphology of PPV:PCBM [81], P3HT:PCBM [28, 82,

83]. Thermal annealing could improve the photocurrent by up to one order of magnitude [84].

Annealing was found to increase the size of PCBM aggregates and also P3HT crystallinity [110].

The polymer fiber growth in P3HT: PCBM by annealing is confirmed by transmission electron

microscopy [111].

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A vertical phase segregation also showed the improvement in device performance by graded

higher concentration of donor at anode and acceptor at cathode [112, 113]. This helps collecting

holes at anode and electrons at cathode more effectively.

Phase morphology in case of bilayer cell is helpful up to some extent as mobility is improved due

crystallinity of the material by annealing and interpenetration of D-A at the interface making a

pseudo bulk heterojunction type structure [114].

2.6.3 HOMO-LUMO Levels and Electrode Work Functions

For efficient charge separation at the D-A interface, the difference of LUMOs and HOMOs

should be more than exciton binding energy (0.3-0.5 eV). Lower value will make inefficient

charge separation whereas quite large value will account for the loss of energy. Similarly, the

work function of anode (cathode) should be smaller (larger) but as close to the donor-HOMO

(acceptor-LUMO) as possible in order to minimize the voltage loss. The theoretical open circuit

voltage is the difference of donor-HOMO and acceptor-LUMO should be chosen larger as

possible. Again, quite larger value may not absorb the sunlight efficiently and hence reduce the

short circuit current and so the overall efficiency. The optimal band gap for plastic photovoltaics

has been theoretically predicted to about 2.0 eV [115].

2.6.4 Layer Thicknesses

In case of a bilayer structure, a thicker active layer will absorb more photons and generate more

excitons but the excitons may recombine before they reach the interface due to the very short

diffusion length (< few tens of nm) that limits the material thickness to ~100nm for efficient

exciton dissociation. In the bulk heterojunction structure, thicker layers will absorb more light

but still can downplay the performance due to lower probably of bi-continuous path formation

and increased chance of recombination for larger thickness. Therefore, the thicknesses of

photoactive layers need to be optimized.

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2.6.5 μτ-Product Balance

Mean drift length ratio defined by (b = μeτe/μhτh) the ratio of mobility-lifetime products of

electrons and holes directly affects the illuminated J-V response in case of ohmic contacts (non-

injecting in reverse bias) [94]. Severe μτ-imbalance (b≪1 or ≫1) creates a space charge build up

and a transition of ohmic conductivity to SCL current takes place. In such case, J-V

characteristics shows a S-kink effect [116] and causes reduced fill-factor [44, 60, 117]. In case of

SCL where photocurrent closely follows 1/2 power dependence on applied voltage, maximum

possible fill-factor limited to only 42% [95].

From our simulation results in the next Chapter, we confirm it is not the mobility imbalance

which causes the PCE drop but the lower mobility among two mobilities plays the dominating

role to reduce the PCE for one or both mobilities lower than the optimum mobility. For

mobilities above optimum mobility, if one of the mobilities is increased, PCE decreases, and that

is because of increase in mobility after optimum value and not because of the imbalance.

2.7 Photovoltaic Cell Parameters

2.7.1 Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Equivalent circuit diagrams (ECDs) are used to characterize the electrical behavior of

semiconductor devices with a network of electrical components. A solar cell can be modeled

as a diode in parallel with a constant current source and a shunt resistor, and a series resistor

shown in Figure 22.

Current source Iph and diode D: Iph = photocurrent generated by the current source upon

illumination before any recombination can take place. Id = current through the diode D. Ish

and I = current through the shunt resistance Rsh and Rs respectively. I and V = output current

and voltage, respectively. We can formulate the relation,

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Figure 22: Equivalent circuit diagram for a photovoltaic cell

where, current through the ideal diode D is given by Shockley diode equation,

( ( ) )

Rearranging the above two equations, we get the expression of output current I with function

of output voltage V,

[

(

( ) )]

The short circuit current ISC (I|V=0) reduces to photocurrent Iph considering diode current is

negligible in this case.

Shunt resistors Rsh and Rsh2: Loss due to recombination of charge carriers near the

dissociation sites is represented by Rsh. For very small voltages, the diode D does not conduct

and the shape of the I-V curve is mainly dominated by the shunt resistance (given Rsh ≫ Rs)

which can be derived to,

[

]

Sometimes an extra shunt resistor Rsh2 at the output is also considered representing shorts

caused by pinholes or conductivity of the bulk material. It also accounts for recombination

losses near the electrodes.

Rs

RshD

IshIdIph

Rsh2 V

I

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Series resistor Rs: Mobility of the charge carriers in PV cell or conductivity can collectively

be transferred into a series resistor Rs. It can be adversely affected by space charges, traps,

barriers at contacts or thickness of the transport layers. The slope of the I-V curve can be

expressed as,

(

)

For high forward bias voltages, diode current Id ≫ Ish and the shape of the I-V curve is

dominated by series resistor Rs and the above equation can reduced to,

[

]

To achieve high fill factor, low series resistance and high shunt resistance is desirable.

2.7.2 Open Circuit Voltage

The open circuit voltage is mainly governed by two energy levels: (1) the effective band gap

which is the difference of LUMO level of acceptor and HOMO level of donor (Eg,DA= LUMOA –

HOMOD), and (2) the difference of the work functions of the electrodes (ΔWf). In case of bulk

heterojunction (BHJ) the bands are parallel which is true for very fine intermixing of the blend

constituents. In contrast, a band bending is possible for bilayer solar cells as D-A has only one

heterojunction interface and there is large layer width for space charge formation [118].

Cheyns et al considered the thermionic emission at the injection barriers and showed that band

bending effect is nullified by injection barriers [119],

(

)

where, Eg is the effective bandgap, kT/q is the thermal voltage, ND and NA are the effective density

of states (DOS) of donor and acceptor, respectively, pi and ni are the hole and electron

concentration respectively at the D-A interface.

For BHJ, Koster et al derived the equation for VOC which is based on the quasi-Fermi level

difference [120],

(

( )

)

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where, P is the exciton dissociation probability, G is the exciton generation rate, N is the effective

density of states, γ is the Langevin recombination strength.

Scharber et al. determined VOC = |HOMOD – LUMOA|/q – 0.3 V [121]. The difference of 0.3eV

below the effective band gap includes the energy needed for exciton dissociation, energetic

disorder and band bending due to charge carrier diffusion.

2.7.3 Efficiencies and Fill Factor

The sum of the total absorptance (A), transmittance (T), and reflectance (R) must be unity, A + T

+ R = 1. Absorptance of the active layer, ηA = number of photons absorbed in the layer/number of

incident photons to the cell.

Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) is the quantity defined by ratio of number of electrons in

external circuit to number of photons absorbed.

External quantum efficiency EQE or Incident Photon to Current Efficiency (IPCE) of the device

is defined by the ratio of number of electrons generated to incident photons in a given time. EQE

includes optical losses such as transmission and reflection. This is experimentally determined

and measured for monochromatic light. Number of electrons generated/cm2.s = JSC/e, where JSC

is short-circuit current density (A/cm2) and e is an electronic charge (C). Number of photons

generated/cm2.s = Iλ/Eλ, where, Iλ is the incident light intensity (W/cm

2) and Eλ (=1240×e/λ) is the

energy (J) of a photon of wavelength λ (nm), respectively. Therefore,

( )

Quantum efficiencies relate the electrical sensitivity of the solar cell to particular wavelength of

light and they are often measured over a range of wavelengths. QE does not give information of

the overall power conversion efficiency with respect to incident light power.

Power conversion efficiency (PCE) which is the most important parameter in photovoltaics is

defined by the ratio of the maximum attainable electric output power from the cell to incident

power of light spectrum of interest (or sunlight) to the cell. The current density versus output

voltage; and output power versus output voltage has been shown in Figure 23. At point (Vm, Im)

the output power Pm = (Im×Vm) is maximum. For a PV cell, the quality of shape of I-V curve is

defined by the ratio of the maximum power that can be drawn from the cell and the maximum

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ideal power output (ISC × VOC). This ratio is called the cell’s fill-factor, FF = (Im×Vm)/(ISC×VOC).

The power conversion efficiency (PCE) for input power Pin is defined,

Figure 23: Current and output power versus terminal voltage, i.e. I-V and P-V curve

If bandgap is wider, open circuit voltage is more. But photons with energy smaller than the

bandgap will not be absorbed therefore photon absorption will be less that will lead to reduced

short circuit current and vice versa. There must be an optimal bandgap for a given illumination

spectrum for which efficiency is at maximum. Shockley and Queisser were the first who

theoretically calculated the maximum PCE of 33.7% for a semiconductor with a bandgap of

1.34eV and 29% for silicon with bandgap of 1.12eV [122].

Voltage (V)

Cu

rre

nt

& P

ow

er

ou

tpu

t

0

(Vm, Im)

VOC

Pm I-V curveP-V curve

ISC

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3. Device Model for Organic Solar Cell

3.1 Introduction

The potentially inexpensive and simple fabrication processes for organic solar cells is a key

motivation for the scientific community to explore various new polymer materials. However, the

low power conversion efficiency and the material degradation is a major roadblock to use such

cells for commercial applications. There are many factors that affect the cell performance such as

the organic material’s charge carrier mobility, mobility imbalance, active layer thickness, exciton

diffusion length, optical band gap, absorptivity of sun spectrum. Hence, it becomes important to

model the OPV cell to investigate the performance for various parameters and optimization. We

are investigating a bilayer OPV cell with the existing model of exciton generation [123] and

charge carrier transport with known parameters [124]. Electric field at the D-A interface used by

Ray et al. [124] is unaffected by space charge formation while it is changed considerably when

hole and electron mobilities are different or donor and acceptor layer thicknesses are not the

same. We present a more accurate calculation of electric field at the D-A interface that is needed

to solve the two-boundary-valued problem. We have optimized the design for mobility and layer

thicknesses of donor and acceptor using our modified model. We also study the effect of

increasing mobility of one type of charge carrier (either hole or electron) or making mobilities

imbalanced.

3.2 Device Operation and Model System

3.2.1 Exciton Model of Photocurrent Generation

The exciton flux to the donor-acceptor (D-A) interface of the in bilayer organic solar cell is

calculated based on layer thickness, exciton diffusion length, exciton dissociation and

recombination properties, and spectral absorption. The model is based on following assumption:

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Incident light is perpendicular to active layer surfaces. Scattering or reflection and

interference are ignored.

Light intensity has an exponential decay following Beer-Lambert’s law.

Dissociation occurs at D-A interface only.

All excitons recombine at the electrodes.

Figure 24: Active bi-layers of organic solar cell with light incidents at x=0. D-A interface is at x=d1

Figure 24 shows the active bilayers with layer thicknesses d1 (for front layer or illuminated side)

and d2 (for back layer) of the cell where light incidents at x=0. According to Beer-Lambert’s law,

photon flux density at a distance x is , where wavelength dependent and α are

incident photon flux density and absorption coefficient of the material, respectively. The exciton

generation rate Gex and recombination rate Rex at a distance x are

We first model the exciton diffusion in the donor layer. We will then generalize the expression to

the acceptor layer with minor modifications. At the metal-semiconductor junction (x=0) where

excitons are quenched and the D-A interface (x=d1) where excitons are completely dissociated,

d1 d2

x, n(x)

Jex,1

Jex,2

D A

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the exciton concentration is zero. Exciton diffusion is described by a second order differential

equation and with the appropriate boundary conditions can be written as,

( ) ( )

where, nex is the exciton concentration at x, D is the diffusion constant of the excitons, α is the

absorption coefficient, Φo is the photon flux density, d1 is the donor layer thickness, τex is the

exciton life-time, LDex is the exciton diffusion length, β = 1/LDex = 1/√(Dexτex). The solution for

nex, exciton flux density Jex at distance x are given by[123, 125],

( ){( ) ( )

( ) }

Now, exciton flux density at the interface due to front layer Jex,1 and back layer Jex,2 has to be

calculated separately using above equations and are expressed as follows[123],

(

){

}

(

){

}

where, Jex,i is total exciton flux density at the D-A interface with the assumption of complete

dissociation of excitons at the interface.

The total generated current density JG for the whole incident light spectrum is obtained by

integrating with respect to wavelength λ,

∫ ( ( ) ( ))

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3.2.2 Carrier Transport

Once the excitons are dissociated at the interface the charge carriers move towards the respective

electrodes under internal electric field and diffusion with hole and electron currents confined

exclusively within the donor and acceptor materials, respectively. Due to the absence of minority

carriers, recombination takes place mostly at the interface and not in the bulk (we neglect bulk

recombination). Carrier transport is modeled by the Poisson equation and the continuity equation

with appropriate drift-diffusion formulations and recombination models [124, 126, 127].

1. Poisson equation:

[ ]

ε is the permittivity, and ψ is the electric potential, ne(h) are charge carrier concentrations of

electrons and holes.

2. Continuity equation:

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( )]

where, Je(h) is the current density, Ge(h) and Re(h) are charge carrier generation and recombination

rate respectively. In the case of a bilayer device, dJe(h)/dx=0 in the bulk.

3. Recombination equation [127, 128]:

( ) [ ]

( )

where, R is the recombination rate, γ is the Langevin recombination strength, nint is the intrinsic

carrier density at the D-A interface. Following assumptions are made for charge carriers

recombination in bilayer structure; (i) All the excitons are dissociated at D-A interface, Jh = Je =

Jex,i (ii) Excitons are dissociated within a very small D-A interface width of wint only and charge

carrier generation in D-A interface width is Jex,i/wint per volume (iii) Recombination happens only

within this D-A interface width wint and not beyond that. D-A interface width shall not be smaller

than 0.1 nm which is an approximate thickness of an atom. In a typical case of mobilities μh = μe

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66

= 10-5

cm2/V-s, when D-A interface width wint was changed in our simulation from 0.1nm to 1nm

(10 times), PCE decreases by less than 25%. Further increment in wint does not change the PCE

very much. Ray et al. have selected the D-A interface width of 1nm [124] and we have selected

wint = 0.8nm, randomly between 0.1 to 1nm. The continuity equations take the form of,

( )

(

( )) | |

4. Drift-diffusion equation:

[ ]

[ ]

where, μe(h) are the charge carrier mobilities, De(h) are the diffusion coefficients and E is the

electric field.

5. Hole boundary condition:

The hole concentration in donor HOMO at the anode junction can be expressed as,

( )

6. Electron boundary condition:

The electron concentration in acceptor LUMO at the cathode junction can be expressed as,

( )

where, d is the the total thickness (d1+d2) of the active bilayer, ϕa and ϕc are anode and cathode

work functions, HOMOD and LUMOA are HOMO of the donor and LUMO of the acceptor,

respectively, Nc(v) are the effective density of states for LUMOA and HOMOD.

7. Electric field boundary condition:

For solving the two-boundary-value problem, it is necessary to calculate the electric field at the

D-A interface. An approximation of the electric field EI at the interface x = d1 is proposed by Ray

et al [124] and expressed by,

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67

where, Vbi built-in potential, V applied voltage, d=d1+d2 total film thickness. However, the

electric field is not uniform between electrodes and is nonlinearly modified by the space charge

distribution. We in this thesis, calculate the accurate electric field at the interface by an iteration

process. With an initial guess of EI given above, we get a solution for electric field and integrate

with respect to distance through the thickness of the active layer to calculate the potential drop.

The actual total potential drop from anode to cathode due to band alignment should be built-in

voltage less applied voltage, i.e. Vbi – V. Any error will accordingly modify the EI for the next

iteration until it is less than a tolerance value (0.001V). The two-boundary-value problem itself is

solved by an iterative process hence solving for the interfacial electric field is an iterative process

using one loop inside another loop.

3.3 Simulation Results and Discussion

The simulation parameters and their values used are given in Table 2. Fixed parameters of

exciton diffusion lengths in donor and acceptor, effective density of states of donor-HOMO and

acceptor-LUMO, relative permittivity, and diffused D-A interface width are used from a literature

[124].

Table 2: Simulation Parameters

d1, d2 Thickness of front and back layers (10 to 90nm)

μe, μh Mobility of electron in acceptor and hole in donor (10-7

to 10-2

)

cm2/V/s

wint Effective width of the diffused D-A interface 0.8nm

LDex Exciton diffusion lengths in donor and acceptor 20nm, 5nm

Nc, Nv Effective density of states 1021

/cm3

εr Relative permittivity 3

De, Dh Diffusion coefficients of electrons in acceptor and holes in

donor

kBTμe(h)/q

γ Langevin bimolecular recombination strength /cm3/s

nint Intrinsic carrier density at D-A interface 1011

/cm3

LUMOD Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of donor 3.0 eV

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68

HOMOD Highest occupied molecular orbital of donor 4.9 eV

LUMOA Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of acceptor 3.7 eV

HOMOA Highest occupied molecular orbital of donor 6.0 eV

Φc Cathode work function (Al) 3.9 eV

Φa Anode work function (ITO) 4.7 eV

Φo Wavelength dependent photon flux density /cm2/s

α Wavelength dependent absorption coefficient /cm

Rex Exciton recombination rate /cm3/s

Gex Exciton generation rate /cm3/s

nex Steady state exciton density /cm3

Re(h) Carrier recombination rate near the interface /cm3/s

JG Generated current density at the interface mA/cm2

Je(h) Electron (hole) current density in acceptor (donor) mA/cm2

We study the effect of changing the mobility of holes in donor and electrons in acceptor on

various output parameters such as open circuit voltage, short circuit current, fill-factor and power

conversion efficiency of the OPV device. We also study the effect of layer thicknesses on cell

performance. Typical case of absorbance spectrum of WSP and fullerene (C60) has been

considered for the simulation. For an optimal width of donor (50nm) and acceptor (50nm) we

have shown in next section, we obtain the exciton flux at the D-A interface to be 1015

/cm2 which

corresponds to a maximum photocurrent to be q×1015

/cm2 = 1.288 mA/cm

2.

3.3.1 Effect of Mobilities, Layer Thicknesses, Interface

Widths & Exciton Diffusion Lengths

With the help of simulation results, the effect of mobilities and layer thicknesses on open circuit

voltage, fill factor, short circuit current and power conversion efficiency will be discussed below.

For fixed donor and acceptor thicknesses, first, J-V characteristics, power conversion efficiencies

(PCE), space charge formations, electric fields and band energies for various mobilities (μh = μe)

will be examined. Then surface plots of electrical output parameters for the case of variation in

donor and acceptor thicknesses and mobility will be discussed. After determining the optimal

donor and acceptor thicknesses, surface plots of electrical output parameters for various

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69

combinations of donor and acceptor mobilities will be investigated. The effect of increasing

mobilities or imbalance in mobilities will also be examined. Interface width wint has the direct

effect on charge carrier recombination and hence the power conversion efficiency which is also

studied in this section. Exciton diffusion lengths in active layers directly affect the number of

excitons reaching the D-A interface in unit time. The PCE variation with respect to exciton

diffusion length in the donor is examined.

3.3.1.1 Electrical Parameters for Various Mobilities (μh = μe = μ)

Initially we simulated the device for equal hole and electron mobilities varying from 10-7

to 10-2

cm2/V-s, i.e. μh = μe = μ = [10

-7, 10

-6, 10

-5, 10

-4, 10

-3, 10

-2] cm

2/V-s (Figure 25 to Figure 29). The

donor and the acceptor thicknesses are [50nm, 50nm]. Other simulation parameters are given in

Table 2. As we increase the mobility from 10-7

to 10-2

cm2/V-s the open circuit voltage (VOC =

[0.80, 0.763, 0.715, 0.664, 0.606, 0.547] V) decreases considerably, Figure 25. The short circuit

current remains almost same for mobility values between 10-5

and 10-2

cm2/V-s, but starts

decreasing below 10-5

cm2/V-s. For very low mobilities (<10

-5 cm

2/V-s), space charge formation

is so high that recombination at the D-A interface results in reduction in short circuit current.

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70

Figure 25: J-V characteristics of simulated bilayer OPV cell. Thickness d1 = d2 = 50nm; μh = μe = μ.

With increase in mobility, open circuit voltage decreases. Short circuit current does not change

much for mobility range of 10-5

- 10-2

cm2/V-s but decreases with decrease in mobility below 10

-5

cm2/V-s

For optimal donor and acceptor layer thicknesses, [donor: 50nm, acceptor: 50nm], PCE is plotted

for mobility range of 10-7

- 10-2

cm2/V-s (Figure 26). PCE increases with increase in mobility until

it reaches to maximum (0.67%) at mobility = 10-4

cm2/V-s and then decreases afterwards. The

detailed performance study is done in the following sections.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

Voltage (V)

Curr

ent

density (

mA

/cm

2)

=10-7cm2/V-s

=10-6cm2/V-s

=10-5cm2/V-s

=10-4cm2/V-s

=10-3cm2/V-s

=10-2cm2/V-s

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71

Figure 26: OPV power conversion efficiency at various mobilities (μh = μe = 10-7

to 10-2

cm2/V-s) for

donor and acceptor thicknesses of 50nm each. PCE increases with mobility increase until it reaches

to maximum at mobility = 10-4

cm2/V-s. PCE starts decreasing thereafter

For the open circuit condition, the simulated values for the charge carrier concentration in donor

and acceptor regions with respect to distance are plotted in Figure 27. Thickness of both donor

and acceptor are 50 nm and the D-A interface location is at 0. Other simulation parameters are

given in Table 2. By increasing the mobility (μh = μe = μ) of holes and electrons the concentration

of holes in the donor and electrons in the acceptor decreases. This reduction in charge

concentration at the D-A interface compared to anode and cathode interface (x = –50nm and

50nm, respectively) results in band lowering at D-A interface shown in Figure 29. This band

bending increases the difference of donor LUMO at anode and acceptor LUMO at cathode.

Therefore, the split between donor HOMO at anode and acceptor LUMO at cathode decreases

resulting in reduction in the open circuit voltage, Figure 29. Current in open circuit condition is

zero and hence the direction of the electric field is opposite to diffusion current. We find that

diffusion current at the D-A interface is from right to left (from acceptor to donor) for low

mobilities (10-6

to 10-4

cm2/V-s) and left to right (from donor to acceptor) for high mobility 10

-2

cm2/V-s, Figure 27. Therefore, the electric field at the D-A interface will be negative (donor to

Mobility (cm2/V-s )

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

PC

E (%

)

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72

acceptor) for low mobilities (10-6

to 10-4

cm2/V-s) and positive for high mobility (10

-2 cm

2/V-s),

shown in Figure 28. This increase in electric field with increase in mobility bends the band

downward at D-A interface, Figure 29.

Figure 27: Concentration (/cm3) of holes in the donor and electrons in the acceptor for various

mobilities (μh = μe = μ). The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both are 50nm and D-A interface

is at distance 0. The charge accumulation at the D-A interface decreases with increasing mobility

-50 -25 0 25 501e15

1e16

1e17

1e18

Con

cen

trati

on

of

ho

les/

ele

ctro

ns (

/cm

3)

Donor (nm) Acceptor (nm)

=10-6cm2/V-s

=10-5cm2/V-s

=10-4cm2/V-s

=10-3cm2/V-s

=10-2cm2/V-s

Increasing mobility

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73

Figure 28: Electric field in the donor and the acceptor for various mobilities (μh = μe = μ) in open

circuit condition. The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both are 50nm and D-A interface is at

distance 0. Electric field at D-A interface increases with increasing mobility

-50 -25 0 25 50-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5x 10

7

Ele

ctr

ic f

ield

(V

/m)

Donor (nm) Acceptor (nm)

=10-6

cm2/V-s

=10-5

cm2/V-s

=10-4

cm2/V-s

=10-3

cm2/V-s

=10-2

cm2/V-s

Increasing mobility

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74

Figure 29: Relative levels of HOMO-LUMO energy of donor and acceptor in open circuit condition

for three mobilities (μh=μe=μ) 10-6

cm2/V-s, 10

-4 cm

2/V-s and 10

-2 cm

2/V-s. Donor LUMO level is set at

0 eV for the convenience. The thickness of the donor and the acceptor both are 50nm and D-A

interface is at distance 0. As mobility increases, the difference between the donor LUMO and the

acceptor LUMO increases and thus, the split between the donor HOMO and the acceptor LUMO

decreases

For clarity in Figure 29, we consider only three mobilities (μh = μe = μ), 10-6

, 10-4

and 10-2

cm2/V-

s. Other conditions are same as mentioned before. The donor LUMO is set at zero level for

analytical convenience and the relative energy levels of the other HOMO-LUMO levels are

plotted. As the mobility increases, the difference between the donor LUMO at the anode and the

acceptor LUMO at the cathode increases. Therefore, the split between the donor HOMO and the

acceptor LUMO decreases which indicates a reduction in open circuit voltage.

-50 -25 0 25 50-3.5

-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

HO

MO

-LU

MO

Levels

(eV

)

Donor (nm) Acceptor (nm)

=10-6

cm2/V-s

=10-4

cm2/V-s

=10-2

cm2/V-s

Increasing mobility

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75

3.3.1.2 Variation in Donor Thickness and Mobility (μh = μe = μ)

In this section, we study the effect of donor of various donor thicknesses and mobilities ((μh = μe =

μ) on electrical output parameters. We keep the acceptor thickness at 50nm. Surface plots of all

four parameters open circuit voltage, short circuit current, fill factor and power conversion

efficiency are shown in Figure 30 to Figure 33. These plots are helpful in determining the

optimal donor thickness and mobility.

Figure 30: Open circuit voltage of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm and

mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. VOC decreases with increase in mobilities but

does not change much with change in donor thickness

It has been explained earlier that open circuit voltage decreases with increase in mobilities of hole

and electron as the potential split between donor HOMO to acceptor LUMO decreases with

increasing mobilities. Decrease in VOC with increasing mobility has been shown in Figure 30.

At very low mobility, μ = 10-6

cm2/V-s, recombination is quite significant due to high

concentration of charge carriers at the D-A interface and hence the short circuit (SC) current is

10

30

50

70

90

-6-5

-4-3

-2

0.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

0.75

0.8

VO

C(V

)

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76

low, as shown in Figure 31. When the electron and hole mobilities both increase, the carrier

concentration of electrons and holes at the D-A interface decreases. Since, Langevin

recombination is proportional to the product of carrier concentrations (nh×ne) and the sum of the

electron and hole mobilities (μh+μe), carrier concentrations play a large role in determining the

recombination parameter. Therefore, an increase in mobility sharply increases the SC current and

soon saturates as the electric field that increases with mobility extracts the almost all generated

carriers quiet efficiently. Increasing the donor thickness absorbs more of incident photons to

generate more excitons and hence photocurrent. But a thicker than a certain value will not

improve the exciton flux at D-A interface as many excitons will not reach to the interface due to

its very short diffusion length. Also, the thicker donor will reduce the electric field at the

interface and charge carrier extraction suffers.

The fill factor surface plot is shown in Figure 32. For relatively high mobilities (≥10-4

cm2/V-s) it

remains almost the same for all the donor thicknesses. However, for lower mobilities, the fill

factor decreases with increase in donor thickness.

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77

Figure 31: Short circuit current of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm,

acceptor thickness 50nm and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. ISC sharply

increases for mobility greater than 10-6

cm2/V-s and then saturates. ISC also increases with increase

in donor thickness and reaches maximum for 50nm and then a gradual decrease follows

Combined effect of all three characteristics VOC, ISC, and FF, power conversion efficiency is

calculated and a surface plot is shown in Figure 33. It is found that for donor widths, PCE

increases with increase in mobility (μh = μe) starting at 10-6

cm2/V-s. PCE has a maximum value

of 0.67% for 50 nm thick donor with mobility of 10-4

cm2/V-s. Further increase in mobility

causes a slight decrease in PCE mainly due to monotonic decrease in open circuit voltage as other

parameters ISC and FF have almost flat profiles for the mobilities in that range.

10

30

50

70

90

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20

0.5

1

1.5

I SC (m

A/c

m2)

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78

Figure 32: Fill factor of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm, acceptor thickness

50nm, and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. FF is almost constant for higher

mobilities (≥ 10-4

cm2/V-s) for all thickness. FF for low mobilities decreases with increase in donor

thickness

PCE for the highest mobilities case (μe = μh =10-2

cm2/V-s) was found to be 0.57% which is about

15% less than the optimum PCE (0.67%). While designing an OPV cell with a given material,

there is almost no choice to change its mobility, hence parameters of active layers thickness

(donor and acceptor) that can easily be changed during fabrication, an optimal thickness is

determined by the surface plot. For mobilities between 10-4

cm2/V-s and 10

-2 cm

2/V-s, it is found

that 50nm thick donor delivers maximum PCE whereas for mobility of 10-5

and 10-6

cm2/V-s, PCE

is maximum for 30nm thick donor (Figure 33).

10

30

50

70

90

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Fill

fact

or

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79

Figure 33: Power conversion efficiency of OPV device with donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm,

acceptor thickness 50nm and mobilities μh = μe = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. PCE is found to

be maximum of 0.67% at 50nm thick donor with electron and hole mobility of 10-4

cm2/V-s

Below is the surface plot of PCE of OPV for three different acceptor thicknesses [10, 30, 50] nm,

donor thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm, and mobilities μh = μe = μ = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

]

cm2/V-s (Figure 34). It is found that for lower mobility range μ = [10

-6 - 10

-5] cm

2/V-s, maximum

PCE is found to be 0.59% at [donor: 30nm, acceptor: 10 nm] (dashed line surface). For higher

mobilities μ = [10-4

- 10-2

] cm2/V-s, maximum PCE is found to be 0.67% for 50nm thick donor

and 50nm thick acceptor (solid line surface).

For a thinner active layer, the electric field is higher and the charge carrier concentration is lower

at the D-A interface and hence reduced recombination near the maximum power point, results in

a higher fill factor. This effect of increase in fill factor for thinner active layers compared with

thicker ones is more pronounced for very low mobilities (10-6

, 10-5

cm2/V-s). Therefore, the PCE

is improved for thinner active layers (donor: 30nm, acceptor: 10nm) in case of lower mobilities

(10-6

, 10-5

cm2/V-s). However, reducing the donor thickness to 10nm, the PCE is decreased, as

thinner donor (≤ 10nm) is not able to absorb enough photons. For higher mobilities (≥10-4

cm2/V-

10

30

50

70

90

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC

E (%

)Maximum PCE of 0.67% at h=e=10-4cm2/V-s

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80

s), the fill factor is high (~0.7-0.8) and more improvement in it is not possible by making the

active layer thinner and hence PCE is not improved further.

Figure 34: Power conversion efficiency of OPV for acceptor thicknesses [10, 30, 50] nm, donor

thicknesses [10, 30, 50, 70, 90] nm, and mobilities μh = μe = μ = [10-6

, 10-5

, 10-4

, 10-3

, 10-2

] cm2/V-s. For

mobility range μ = [10-6

-10-5

] cm2/V-s, maximum PCE is found to be 0.59 % when the donor

thickness is 30nm and the acceptor thickness is 10nm (dashed line surface). For higher mobility

range μ = [10-4

- 10-2

] cm2/V-s, maximum PCE is found to be 0.67 % for 50nm thick donor and 50nm

thick acceptor (solid line surface)

3.3.1.3 Variation in Hole and Electron Mobility

In the previous section we found from the surface plot that the optimal thickness of the donor is

50 nm and mobility is 10-4

cm2/V-s. In this section we will study the cell performance for various

electron and hole mobilities which are independently varied. Simulations were performed for

various combinations of hole mobility in donor and electron mobility in the acceptor, keeping

both the donor and acceptor thicknesses at 50nm. Three-dimensional surface plots are shown in

Figure 35 to Figure 38. The mobility of holes and electrons are varied from 10-7

cm2/V-s to 10

-2

1030

5070

90

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

10nm

30nm

50nm

PC

E (%

)

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81

cm2/V-s, i.e. μh = [10

-7, 10

-6, 10

-5, 10

-4, 10

-3, 10

-2] cm

2/V-s and μe = [10

-7, 10

-6, 10

-5, 10

-4, 10

-3, 10

-2]

cm2/V-s and for each combination of [μh, μe] the device is simulated.

The decrease in VOC with increasing mobility (μh = μe) has been explained in the previous section.

Here we will study the change in VOC when hole and electron mobilities are varied independently,

Figure 35. At balanced mobility conditions, when either hole or electron mobility decreases, VOC

remains almost unchanged; and by increasing mobility of one of the charge carriers, VOC

decreases fast, Figure 35.

Figure 35: Open circuit voltage (VOC) of OPV device for electrons and holes mobilities both varying

from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. VOC increases as mobilities decrease. For high mobility (10

-2cm

2/V-s) of

either of electrons or holes, open circuit voltage is about 0.55 V and does not change much

That implies that VOC is mainly determined by the higher among hole and electron mobility value.

In case of open circuit condition and balance mobility (μh = μe), the electric field at D-A interface

is very low or even negative for low mobilities and a large pile up of space charge forms at D-A

interface. At slight increase in mobility of either hole or electron, carrier concentration at D-A

interface reduces rapidly and more flatter profile of band is found. This reduces the open circuit

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

VO

C(V

)

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82

voltage. Similarly, charge carrier concentration at D-A interface and hence energy bands and

hence VOC does not change rapidly if mobility of one of the charge carriers is decreased from

balanced mobility condition. A monotonic decrease of VOC is found as the mobilities (μh = μe)

increase.

A surface plot (Figure 36) of the fill factor for the previous conditions show a minimum fill factor

of 0.18 for the lowest mobility (10-7

cm2/V-s) and 0.8 for the highest mobility (10

-2cm

2/V-s).

Figure 36: Fill factor of OPV cell for electrons and holes mobilities both varying from [10-7

to 10-2

]

cm2/V-s. FF is higher for higher mobilities and decreases sharpely for mobilities below 10

-4cm

2/V-s

Figure 37 shows a surface plot for the short circuit current density (ISC) of OPV cell for electrons

and holes mobilities both varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. It is assumed that all the excitons

are dissociated at the D-A interface and current density Jex before recombination at the D-A

interface is fixed for a given light input. The photocurrent density is Jph = Jex – Jrec.

-7-6

-5-4

-3-2

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Fill

fact

or

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83

Figure 37: Short circuit current density (ISC) of OPV cell for electrons and holes mobilities both

varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. ISC does not change much for mobilities of electrons and holes

between 10-5

and 10-2

cm2/V-s but sharp decrement is found below the value of 10

-5 cm

2/V-s

For higher mobilities (≥10-5

cm2/V-s), electric field is high in short circuit condition and space

charge density at the D-A interface is very low. Therefore, recombination is negligible in these

cases and short circuit current profile for mobilities (≥10-5

cm2/V-s) is flat in the surface plot.

However, ISC start decreasing sharpely for hole or electron mobility below 10-5

cm2/V-s as

recmobination current density increases due to large space charge formation near the D-A

interface. Keeping the electron mobility of the acceptor constant (10-7

cm2/V-s), if we increase the

hole mobility in the donor, space charge formation in the donor depletes and reduces the hole

concentration at the D-A interface. This leads to reduced recombination at the interface and

hence increased short circuit current. Further increases in hole mobility saturate ISC as even in the

presence of a small electric field, most holes are efficiently extracted from the donor material and

not much improvement could be done. In fact for low electron mobilities (μe = 10-7

and 10-

6cm

2/V-s), ISC starts decreasing if the hole mobility is increased above μh = 10

-4cm

2/V-s. In this

case of mobility ratio (μh /μe ≥ 100), for such a low electron mobility a dense space charge is

-7-6

-5-4

-3-2

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20

0.5

1

1.5

I SC(m

A/c

m2)

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84

always present in the acceptor and carrier recombination is dominated by increasing hole mobility

in the donor than depletion of hole carrier concentration. The similar explanation can be given for

fixing hole mobility and varying electron mobility as the 3-D surface plot is symmetrical along

both mobilities.

Percentage power conversion efficiency (PCE) of OPV device for electrons and holes mobilities

both varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s is shown in Figure 38. Maximum PCE of 0.67% is

found at electrons and holes mobilities, μh = μe = 10-4

cm2/V-s and almost saturates beyond that

point or a slight decrease in efficiency was found. Further increases in mobilities, the conversion

efficiency slightly decreases. Overall minimum PCE was found to be 0.009% for μh = 10-7

cm2/V-

s, μe = 10-2

cm2/V-s.

We have seen that for low mobilities (<10-5

cm2/V-s), VOC decreases slowly (Figure 35)

compared to sharp rise in ISC (Figure 37) when mobility of either or both charge carriers (hole and

electron) is increased. For higher mobilities (≥10-5

cm2/V-s), ISC remains almost unchanged and

fill factor (Figure 36) increases slowly but VOC which decreases monotonically with increasing

mobilities mainly dominates the profile of PCE. Therefore, overall PCE decreases after an

optimum point of mobility 10-4

cm2/V-s.

Mobility is termed as balanced when μh = μe. In PCE surface plot Figure 38, we have observed

that beyond the dotted boundary increase in mobility ratio (μh /μe > 10 or, μh /μe<1/10) causes a

drop in PCE. For example, PCE [μe: μh =10-5

:10-5

cm2/V-s] = 0.49%, PCE [μe: μh =10

-5:10

-4

cm2/V-s] = 0.54% and PCE [μe: μh =10

-5:10

-2 cm

2/V-s] = 0.37%. In this case, percentage decrease

in PCE for mobility ratio of 1000 compared to balance mobilities is = (0.49-0.37)/0.49 = 25%.

For the simultaneous increase in balanced mobility, PCE increases for low mobilities (μ =10-7

-10-

4 cm

2/V-s) but decreases for higher mobilities (μ =10

-4-10

-2 cm

2/V-s, and that has already been

shown in Section 3.3.1, Figure 26. To study the effect of mobility imbalance or various mobility

ratios, we show a bar plot for PCE percent change when mobility of one of the charge carriers

(either holes or electrons) is increased (Figure 39).

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85

Figure 38: Percentage power conversion efficiency (PCE) of OPV device for electrons and holes

mobilities both varying from [10-7

to 10-2

] cm2/V-s. Maximum PCE of 0.67% is found at electrons and

holes mobilities, μh = μe = 10-4

cm2/V-s. Further increases in mobilities, the conversion efficiency

slightly decreases

It was found that increase in mobility ratio has adverse impact on PCE for higher mobility cases

(≥10-4

cm2/V-s) and percentage PCE decrement increases with increase in mobility ratio. But for

lower mobilities (<10-5

cm2/V-s), smaller mobility ratios (up to 100) in fact enhances the PCE and

only larger imbalance (≥104) causes a reduction in PCE when it is compared with the PCE in

balanced mobility case. For lower mobilities (<10-5

cm2/V-s), even small increase in mobility or

mobility ratio there is a sharp rise in short circuit current, leads to increased PCE but for larger

mobility ratios (≥104), PCE decreases as short circuit current decreases due to increased

recombination at D-A interface. For higher mobilities (≥10-4

cm2/V-s), monotonic decrease in

open circuit voltage and very less change in short circuit current with increase in mobility ratios

lead to PCE decrease.

-7-6

-5-4

-3-2

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-20

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC

E (%

)

Mobility increase beyond this area reduces the PCE

Maximum PCE of 0.67% at h=e=10-4cm2/V-s

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86

Figure 39: Bar plot of percentage change in PCE for various mobilities and mobility imbalance

ratios. For higher mobilities (10-4

, 10-3

) cm2/V-s, PCE drops at even lower mobility ratio (10). For

lower mobilities (10-6

, 10-7

) cm2/V-s, PCE drops at higher mobility ratios (>10

4)

3.3.1.4 Effect of Interface Widths (wint)

By increasing the depleted interface width wint, recombination of charge carriers at the D-A

interface increases. We, in our simulation, have examined the effect of various wint [0.4 0.8 1.2

2.0] nm for two different mobilities (10-4

cm2/V-s and 10

-6cm

2/V-s) to see how it affects the PCE

for lower and higher charge carrier mobilities (Figure 40 and Figure 41). We have kept hole and

electron mobility equal, (μe = μh). For the higher mobility case (10-4

cm2/V-s), charge carrier

extraction is efficient and hence D-A interface recombination under short circuit conditions is

quite small with an increase in wint. For higher applied voltage (near VOC), the charge

recombination at D-A interface is pronounced due to very low electric field and hence

recombination current that increases with increase in wint, leads to lowering the open circuit

voltage (as early crossing of zero axis) (Figure 40).

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

12

34

5

-50

-25

0

25

50

75

= 10-7

= 10-6

= 10-5

= 10-4

= 10-3

PC

E ch

ange

(%

)

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87

Figure 40: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2 2.0]

nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. Short circuit current does not change much for change in interface

width. Open circuit voltage reduces with increase in wint

Figure 41: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2 2.0]

nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-6

cm2/V-s. Short circuit decreases with increase in interface widths. A slight

open circuit voltage drop is also found with increase in wint

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

Voltage (V)

Curr

ent

density (

mA

/cm

2)

wint

= 0.4nm

wint

= 0.8nm

wint

= 1.2nm

wint

= 2.0nm

Decreasing wint

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

Voltage (V)

Curr

ent

density (

mA

/cm

2)

wint

= 0.4nm

wint

= 0.8nm

wint

= 1.2nm

wint

= 2.0nm

Decreasing wint

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88

For the lower mobility case (<10-6

cm2/V-s), charge carrier extraction is poor due to large space

charge formation near the D-A interface and the short circuit current is lower due to increased

recombination at the D-A interface. For larger interface widths wint, the recombination current is

more and hence short circuit current density is lower (Figure 41).

Power conversion efficiency is plotted for various interface widths and two mobility values (10-

4cm

2/V-s and 10

-6cm

2/V-s), shown in Figure 42. The PCE drops with increases in wint for both

mobilities. In the case of higher mobility (10-4

cm2/V-s), PCE decreases by only 12% when the

interface width is increased 5 times from 0.4nm to 2nm. For the lower mobility case (10-6

cm2/V-

s), the PCE decreases by 17.4%, for the same increase in interface width. The PCE is more

sensitive to interface width change for lower mobilities.

Figure 42: Percentage PCE of OPV cell for four different interface widths wint = [0.4 0.8 1.2 2.0] nm

and μ = μe = μh = [10-6

and 10-4

]cm2/V-s. PCE decreases with increase in interface widths for both

mobilities

0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 20

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Interface width wint

(nm)

PC

E (

%)

= 10-6

cm2/V-s

= 10-4

cm2/V-s

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89

3.3.1.5 Effect of Exciton Diffusion Length in the Donor (Ldd)

The exciton diffusion length is a key parameter in OPV devices and directly affects the exciton

flux density at the D-A interface. A small diffusion length limits the active layer thickness of the

device and therefore reduces the possible light absorption, impacting the PCE. The contribution

of the exciton flux from the acceptor layer (C60) compared with the flux from the donor layer (or

front layer) is very small (typically a 20:1 ratio) because of the small exciton diffusion length (5

nm) and the fact that only some of the light penetrates through to the acceptor layer. Hence in

this section we examine the effect of various exciton diffusion lengths in the donor layer, Ldd =

[10 20 30 50 80] nm, on the power conversion efficiency. When increasing the diffusion length

Ldd, however, the donor thickness needs to be increased to achieve the maximum PCE (in order to

absorb more light). Hence, for each Ldd, the donor thickness is optimized to obtain the maximum

PCE. The results are plotted in Figure 43 and Figure 44.

Figure 43: J-V characteristics of OPV cell for five different exciton diffusion lengths in the donor, Ldd

= [10 20 30 50 80] nm and μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. OPV cell performance is much better for higher

exciton diffusion lengths

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

Voltage (V)

Curr

ent

density (

mA

/cm

2)

L

dd = 10nm, d

1=40nm

Ldd

= 20nm, d1=50nm

Ldd

= 30nm, d1=55nm

Ldd

= 50nm, d1=75nm

Ldd

= 80nm, d1=100nm

Increasing Ldd

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90

Acceptor thicknesses were also readjusted while optimizing the PCE. This resulted in only small

changes to the optimum acceptor thickness, from about 50 nm to 40 nm as the donor thickness

increased. The acceptor exciton diffusion length was kept constant at 5nm as its contribution to

the exciton flux at the D-A interface is very small. Donor and acceptor mobilities of 10-4

cm2/V-s

(μ = μe = μh) were used for this simulation.

We find that the PCE increases when the diffusion length of exitons in the donor is increased and

also that the optimized donor thickness d1 increases accordingly. The PCE saturates for exciton

diffusion lengths more than 50nm as shown in Figure 44. Also shown in Figure 44 is that the

optimized donor thickness varies almost linearly with Ldd.

Figure 44: Percentage PCE of OPV cell for five different exciton diffusion lengths in the donor, Ldd =

[10 20 30 50 80] nm and mobility μ = μe = μh = 10-4

cm2/V-s. PCE increases with Ldd but saturates

beyond 50nm. Inset: Optimized donor thickness varies almost linearly with Ldd

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 800.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

Exciton diffusion length in donor (nm)

PC

E (

%)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 800

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Exciton diffusion length in donor (nm)

Optim

ized d

onor th

ickness (

nm

)

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91

4. OPV Based on Water Soluble

Pentacene

In this chapter, we will briefly discuss the first pentacene derivative that is soluble in water and

was synthesized by Prof. Glen Miller’s group at University of New Hamphshire, Durham. This

water soluble pentacene (WSP) shows field-effect transistor and photovoltaic behavior. The

fabrication procedure and its challenges for making the OPV cell based on WSP will be discussed

in detail. The cell performance or electrical characterization will also be discussed.

4.1 Introduction

Pentacene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting five linearly connected benzene rings.

This is a p-type organic semiconductor which generates excitons upon absorption of UV or

visible light.

π-conjugated molecules of pentacene have high HOMO levels and can easily donate electrons.

Such organic materials are good candidates for p-type semiconductors. Pentacene is one of the

most investigated conjugated organic molecules due to its potential application in organic

electronics with its high hole mobility in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) of up to 5.5

cm2/(V.s) [129, 130]. Its poor solubility limits the processability of devices. Due to fast photo-

degradation in the presence of air, pentance needs extra care while processing. Design and

synthesis of functionalized [131-136] pentacenes with enhanced solubility and solution stability

potentially allow for low cost fabrication of thin film devices [137-141] by solution process

methods such as spin coating, spray coating, ink-jet printing and doctor blading etc.

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92

Figure 45: Chemical structure of water soluble pentacene or Potassium 3,3’-[(pentacene-6,13-

diyl)bis(sulfanediyl)]dipropanoate [142]

WSP is a derivative of a pentacene containing COOK- (potassium salt of carboxylic) groups as

shown in Figure 45, and its chemical name is Potassium 3,3’-[(pentacene-6,13-

diyl)bis(sulfanediyl)]dipropanoate. The synthesis steps for WSP are briefly summarized in

Figure 46 along with the optical image of its water solution in a flask [142]. Its high HOMO

level of -5.16 eV makes it a good donor material (p-type) and the HOMO-LUMO gap is about

1.95 eV. The half-life of WSP in an aqueous buffer solution with exposure to light and air is

approximately four days (96 hours) making it one of the most solution-stable pentacene

derivatives known [131]. UV-Vis absorption spectra of WSP in water, methanol and a buffer

solution of pH 10 are shown in Figure 47. It shows a good absorption between green and red

light.

In a bulk heterojunction OPV, a solution of donor and acceptor materials are used for coating of

active layer via such as spin method where a common organic solvent like chlorobenzene (CB),

dichlorobenzene (DCB) toluene etc. is used. These organic solvents are toxic and environmental

unfriendly. A solution of WSP in water or a much less harmful solvent like ethanol can be used

for spin coating the donor active layer and the acceptor of C60 can be thermally evaporated. In a

bilayer solar cell, orthogonal solvents for the donor and the acceptor are needed in order not to

dissolve or damage the first active layer while the second active layer is spin coated using another

solvent. Since WSP is not soluble in organic solvents such as CB or DCB, it is safe for spin

coating a solution of fullerene in CB or DCB on the donor layer of WSP.

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93

Figure 46: Left: Synthesis of the first water soluble pentacene; Right: WSP dissolved in water

Figure 47: UV-Vis absorbance spectra for WSP in water, methanol and a buffer solution of pH

10[142]

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94

4.2 Substrate Coating with WSP

WSP is very soluble in polar solvents such as dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), ethanol, methanol

and water. For the fabrication of bilayer OPV cell, it’s important to make thin and continuous

films of donor and acceptor active materials for the efficient exciton generation and charge

transport. However, spin coating of solutions of WSP in solvents mentioned above resulted in

with crystal formation on the substrate. We are discussing the substrate coating with WSP in

above solutions and a method to achieve the WSP film is described.

(a) WSP in DMSO

DMSO is a colorless, polar solvent that dissolves both polar and nonpolar compounds and

miscible in a wide range of organic solvents as well as water. The methyl groups of DMSO are

somewhat acidic and hence supposedly do not harm the slightly acidic PEDOT: PSS film on ITO.

A solution of crystalline WSP (10mg) in DMSO (1ml) was prepared and filtered with 0.45μ filter.

The solution was spin coated on a PEDOT: PSS film and baked on a hot plate at 120℃ for 2min.

Micron-size crystals of WSP were formed over the surface and convex rings were observed

where most of the crystals were located. Optical images are shown at 100X and 1000X

magnification in Figure 48. The Dektak Profilometer measurement shows WSP crystals as thick

as 200 nm were formed on 70-80 nm thin films of PEDOT: PSS, as shown in Figure 49.

Figure 48: Crystalline WSP solution in DMSO spin coated on PEDOT: PSS film. Micron size crystals

were found all over the surface of PEDOT: PSS film

100X 1000X

25m35m

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95

Figure 49: Dektak profilometry: WSP crystals of as tall as 200nm were observed on a 70-80 nm thick

PEDOT: PSS film; inset: Optical image of ITO surface and WSP on PEDOT: PSS film

(b) WSP in DI water

Solutions of WSP (10mg) in DI water (1ml) were filtered (0.45μ pore size) and spin coated on

PEDOT: PSS films on ITO substrates and also directly on ITO coated glass. The optical image in

Figure 50(a) shows some randomly deposited pilled out films of existing PEDOT: PSS film. It is

observed that PEDOT: PSS film is damaged when WSP solution, which is basic in DI water, is

spin coated on it. WSP crystals were found all over the ITO surface, shown in Figure 50(b).

These crystals were so loosely attached to ITO that they were displaced while making DekTak

measurements. A preliminary device was made of WSP without any acceptor with structure

ITO/PEDOT: PSS/WSP/Al. WSP was dissolved in DI water and spin-coated on PEDOT: PSS

film. The detail of the fabrication is described in Section 4.3. The device was active and showed

WSP Crystals

Top view

ITO

ITO

WSP on PEDOT: PSS

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Distance (m)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Hei

ght

(nm

)

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96

a short-circuit current of 1.7 A/cm2 and open circuit voltage of 0.3V. Several circular

boundaries of WSP crystals of micron sizes were found, Figure 51.

Figure 50: For DI water as solvent, Left: (a) WSP on PEDOT: PSS - broken or pilled out films of

PEDOT: PSS were found re-deposited randomly on WSP film; Right: (b) WSP on ITO coated glass –

crystals were found on the surface and were quite loosely attached to ITO that DekTak measurement

was not possible

Figure 51: Optical image of the first fabricated OPV cell using WSP, showed a photovoltaic effect.

(VOC = 0.3V, ISC = 1.7μA/cm2). Many circular boundaries of WSP crystals of micron sizes were

observed. WSP coating in a solid circular pattern of about 2-4 mm diameter at the center of the chip

was also found

(c) WSP in Ethanol and Methanol

A WSP solution in ethanol or methanol, unlike DI water, when spin coated on a PEDOT: PSS

film does not seem to damage the film. However, the coating is quite non uniform and

WSP/C60

boundariesAluminum

5mm

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97

discontinuous. The optical images demonstrate the micron size crystal formations on the surface

when a solution of WSP in ethanol Figure 52(a) or methanol Figure 52(b) is spin coated.

Figure 52: Optical images of WSP spin coated on PEDOT: PSS film when; Left: (a) WSP solution in

ethanol; Right: (b) WSP solution in methanol. In both the cases micron size crystals were found on

whole substrate

(d) Spin Coating of WSP in Ethanol at Raised Temperature

WSP solution in ethanol did not damage the PEDOT: PSS film. The crystallite formation

described above was almost completely overcome using infrared (IR) heating of the substrate and

the solution during the coating process. 1 wt% of WSP (10mg) solution in ethanol (1ml) is

filtered through 0.45μ pore size filter. The substrate and the solution are heated using IR lamp to

60-80℃ just prior to and during the spin coating process. The spin speed was set to 2000 rpm for

1 min and the film was baked at 80℃ for 2 min. This yielded a much more uniform film

compared to previous WSP coating processes. Optical images of the film in the middle of the

substrate and near the corner are shown in Figure 53.

Figure 53: WSP solution in ethanol spin coated on a PEDOT: PSS film while substrate and solution

were heated with IR lamp. Left: WSP film in the middle of the substrate and Right: Image near the

corner showing WSP film and crystals separated by a boundary

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98

4.3 Fabrication

Below is the schematic of the OPV cell made of active layers WSP/C60, Figure 54(a). The device

has a simple structure ITO/PEDOT: PSS (80nm)/WSP (55nm)/C60 (25nm)/Al (110nm). Dektak

Profilometer measurements are shown for the active layers combined (PEDOT: PSS/WSP/C60)

and aluminum cathode, Figure 54(b). The main fabrication steps are shown pictorially in Figure

55. A run sheet for the fabrication is given in the Appendix.

Figure 54: (a) Schematic of WSP based OPV cell with electron blocking layer (b) Dektak

Profilometer reading of various layers

Materials Used

ITO coated glass (1.1mm with 120nm thick ITO) – Delta Technologies.

PEDOT: PSS (high conductive grate) and ethanol (99.5%) – Sigma-Aldrich.

WSP (crystalline) – Prof. Glen’s group at University of New Hamphshire, Durham.

C60 (fullerene 99.95%) – SES Research.

Al (99.99%) – Sigma-Aldrich.

(a) Dicing and First Cleaning

An ITO coated glass sheet is diced into square chips (15mm X 15mm X 1.1mm) using the Micro

Automation Dicing Saw (Model # 1006), where the ITO thickness was 120 nm. Chips were first

Glass

ITO

PEDOT:PSS

WSP

C60

Al

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Ve

rtic

al m

eas

ure

me

nt

(nm

)

Distance (m)

Al

PEDOT:PSS/WSP/C60ITO

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99

cleaned using the acetone gun to remove oil and big particles. Ultrasonication of the chips for 10

min in soap, 3 min in acetone, and 1 min in IPA followed by a 3 min DI water overflow rinse was

performed at each step and dried by N2 blow.

(b) ITO Etch

ITO coated glass was partially masked using Kapton Polyimide tape and 1813 PR was spin

coated (4000 rpm, 1min) and baked at 115℃ for 1min. The tape was then removed and the

exposed ITO was chemically etched in HCl (37%) for 6 min at room temperature and rinsed in DI

water for 3 min.

(c) Substrate Clean

The PR on the chips was removed using the acetone gun and then ultrasonicated for 10 min in

acetone, and 3 min in IPA followed by a 3 min DI water dump rinse at each step. Finally the

chips were dried using N2.

(d) Substrate Bake and Plasma Clean

Substrates were baked on hotplate for 1 hour at 150℃ to remove any absorbed moisture and

organic contamination on the surface. Oxygen plasma cleaning for 1 min was then performed in

ICP Plasma Therm 7900 to get rid of any residual organics on the ITO surface. A DC bias of

about 30 V and a RF plasma power of 300W were maintained. A base pressure of 50 mTorr and

an oxygen flow of 50 sccm (standard cubic centimeters per min) were maintained.

(e) Spin Coat the Electron Blocking Layer

High conductive grade PEDOT: PSS solution was first filtered through 0.45μm pores of PVDF

filters. The filtered solution was then spin coated (4000 rpm, 1min) on the plasma cleaned

substrates to make a thin film of electron blocking layer. Substrates are baked on a hot plate for

20 min at 120℃ and moved immediately into the nitrogen filled glove box (H2O < 1ppm, O2 <

1ppm).

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100

(f) Spin Coat the Donor Layer

1 wt% of WSP solution in ethanol (10mg/ml) was prepared and filtered through PVDF 0.45μm

filters. An infrared (IR) lamp (250W) was used inside the glove box to heat both the substrate

and the solution of WSP for spin coating using the method is described before to obtain uniform

and smoother film of WSP.

(g) Evaporation of the Acceptor Material and Cathode

At a base pressure of 5x10-7

torr in the Veeco Thermal Evaporator, a 25 nm film of C60 as an

acceptor was evaporated at a rate of 1~2 Å/s. Using a shadow mask, 110 nm of aluminum as a

cathode was evaporated at a rate of ~10 Å/s.

Figure 55: Fabrication steps for WSP based OPV. The actual fabricated device is in center

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4.4 Measurement and Characterization

A Keithley 2410 source-meter and a 4155A HP Semiconductor analyzer were used for I-V

measurements under the illumination of a calibrated halogen lamp (Dolan Jener Fiber-lite). The

calibration was done by comparing the short-circuit current under sunlight of known intensity and

also the halogen light source. The short-circuit current from the device under test was 0.382

times the short circuit current with the sunlight of 83.5mW/cm2 intensity. The spectral irradiance

of sunlight is significantly different than halogen light and therefore the photon absorption by the

device in these two conditions will be different. However, calibration of halogen light equivalent

to sunlight as power input can be calculated by 0.382×83.5 = 31.9mW/cm2. The LabVIEW

program was used for generating I-V characteristics of the OPV cell. Table 3 shows the

performance of five samples of WSP based cells. Figure 56 corresponds to the J-V characteristics

of the best performing cell.

Table 3: WSP based OPV cell performance for five samples. Tested under the halogen light

calibrated to generate 0.382 times the short-circuit current with sunlight of 83.5mW/cm2 (AM2)

intensity. Halogen light equivalent sunlight input = 0.382×83.5 = 31.9 mW/cm2

Sample

Pin

(mW/cm2)

Jsc

(mA/cm2)

Voc

(V) FF

PCE

(%)

1 31.9 0.181 0.525 0.446 0.132

2 31.9 0.202 0.525 0.432 0.144

3 31.9 0.191 0.515 0.415 0.125

4 31.9 0.193 0.482 0.431 0.125

5 31.9 0.153 0.485 0.352 0.082

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102

Figure 56: J-V characteristics of WSP based OPV cell under dark and illumination

4.5 Results and Discussion

WSP spin coating using DMSO resulted in micro crystals scattered all over the substrate as

shown in Figure 48. DMSO has a high boiling point and evaporation of the solvent is quite slow

during the spin process and hence crystal formation was faster than the solution could evaporate.

Dektak Profilometer measurements showed that the crystals were as tall as 200 nm and the base

of the crystals was at the height of about 70-80nm which was the thickness of PEDOT: PSS,

Figure 49. This means there was almost no film of WSP after the spin coating, only crystals.

The basic solution of WSP in DI water had damaging effects on the slightly acidic PEDOT: PSS

film. Micro crystals of WSP in circular patterns and a much bigger solid circle at the center were

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Cu

rre

nt

de

nsi

ty (

mA

/cm

2)

Voltage (V)

Under Illumination Dark Current

Jsc = 0.202mA/cm2, Voc = 0.525, FF = 0.432 Pin = 31.9mW/cm2, Efficiency = 0.144%

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103

found. Crystallization occurs if the diffusion rate of WSP is faster than the solvent evaporation

rate. The rotational speed during spin coating is higher as we move away from the center of the

chip. Therefore, DI water starts drying farthest from the center first and approaching towards the

center of the chip at last. This causes more crystallization at the center, Figure 51. The same

WSP solution was also spin coated on ITO coated glass and again micro crystals were observed,

possibly due to slower evaporation than the rate of crystal diffusion, Figure 50.

In case of ethanolic and methanolic solution of WSP, crystallite formation (Figure 52) on the

PEDOT: PSS surface can be explained as before, i.e. a possible faster diffusion of the material

than solution’s evaporation rate.

A thin, continuous and uniform film of WSP as a donor layer is required in order for OPV solar

cell to work effectively. To obtain a continuous film, the solution’s evaporation rate was

increased by heating it and the substrate while spin coating. An IR lamp was used to heat the

solution and the substrate to 60-80℃ during the spin coating process. We believe that heating the

solution increases the evaporation rate more than the diffusion rate, inhibiting crystal formation,

and resulting in a continuous film, shown in Figure 53. This explanation is supported by the fact

that dense crystal formation is seen near the corners (Figure 53) where more solution is stuck due

to the surface tension interacting with the corner of the chip. With the greater volume of solution,

it appears that evaporation was slow enough to form crystallites.

Applied voltages and corresponding current densities under light illumination and darkness were

recorded and plotted, Figure 56. The short-circuit current JSC was 0.202mA/cm2, the open circuit

voltage VOC was 0.525V, the fill-factor was 0.432, at an equivalent solar power input of 31.9

mW/cm2 leading to an overall power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 0.144%.

Incorporating the absorption spectra of WSP and C60 into our simulation model (Section 3.3), we

show that the OPV cell performance can be optimized for parameters such as layer thicknesses

and mobilities. The optimal power conversion efficiency is found to be about 0.67% whereas the

actual PCE for WSP based cell was found to be 0.145% which is in the same order. The

discrepancy could be due to assumptions of non-measured constants such as exciton diffusion

lengths, effective density of states (Nc, Nv), D-A interface width, band modification at electrode

contacts due to charge transfer, chemical reactions or material degradation due chemical reactions

etc. The layer thicknesses of donor and acceptor both have been chosen to be 50 nm in the

fabricated device which is almost same as the optimal donor (WSP) and acceptor (C60) thickness.

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104

5. OPV Based on TTPO

In this chapter, we have studied the photovoltaic effect of a new and robust pentacene derivative

5,6,7-trithiapentacene-13-one (TTPO) molecule synthesized by Prof. Miller’s group at University

of New Hampshire, Durham. This pentacene is a small molecule semiconductor, (Figure 57)

simple to synthesize and purify, that readily crystallizes, and sublimates in air at about 3900C

without decomposition. It is very stable against degradation in acid-free solutions.

Figure 57: Chemical structure of 5,6,7-(trithia)pentacene-13-one (TTPO)

5.1 Introduction

Among acene groups which contain linearly connected benzene rings, pentacenes are the most

widely studied class of organic semiconductor compounds having five benzene rings. They have

been utilized as the active layers in organic field effect transistors (OFETs), organic photovoltaics

(OPVs) and organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). However, pentacene and most of its

derivatives have photo-instability issues. Pentacenes functionalized with silylethynyl[143, 144]

and organothio[145] groups are less prone to photo-degradation compared with unfunctionalized

pentacene. In the presence of air and light these are still not very stable at higher temperature.

Very few organic semiconductor based devices operating at temperature in excess of 100℃ were

known. An OFET using a thin film of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS-

pentacene) suffers degradation above 120℃[146]. OFET constructed using 5,5-bis(2-

O

SS S

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105

anthracenyl)-2,2-bithiophene and 5,5-bis(2-tetracenyl)-2,2-bithiophene continued to show an

increased mobilities up to temperatures of 125℃ and 225℃, respectively and then started

decreasing[147].

The newly synthesized small molecule TTPO shows excellent photo-oxidative and thermal

stabilities. It is prepared from sulphur and pentacene-6,13-diol or 6(13H)-pentacenone. TTPO

melts in air at about 390℃ without decomposition and it has optical and electrochemical LUMO-

HOMO gaps of 1.9 eV and 1.71 eV respectively. It shows an excellent solid state thermal

stability (>400℃) and can be thermally evaporated to obtain uniform thin films. A preliminary

study of a FET device fabricated from this material by Erfan Kheirkhahi in our research group

showed very small but increasing mobility up to 150 °C temperature.

5.2 Fabrication of TTPO based OPV

We fabricated a bilayer OPV cell using TTPO as the donor and C60 as the acceptor active layers.

A schematic of the cell with a structure ITO/PEDOT: PSS/TTPO/C60/Al, is shown in Figure 58.

The process of cleaning of ITO coated glass substrates, partial etching of ITO, plasma cleaning

and then coating of PEDOT: PSS as the electron blocking layer were followed as for fabrication

of the WSP based cell mentioned in the previous chapter.

Figure 58: Structure of a TTPO based OPV cell

TTPO (20nm) as a donor layer and C60 (80nm) as an acceptor layer was thermally evaporated on

top of the PEDOT: PSS layer using the Thermal Evaporator in two sessions with base pressure of

5x10-7

torr each. In order to not have TTPO and C60 coatings on inner wall of the Thermal

C60

ITO

Glass

PEDOT: PSS

TTPO

Al

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106

Evaporator’s chamber, aluminum foil was used. This would help to avoid a secondary

evaporation of TTPO and C60 during the next evaporation session. Finally, the cathode layer of

Al (120nm) was evaporated on the C60 substrate using the shadow mask.

5.3 Results and Discussion

A calibrated incandescent halogen lamp described in Section 4.4 was used for light input which

was 33.3 mW/cm2 sunlight equivalents. I-V curves were recorded using a 4155 HP Parameter

Analyzer and a LabVIEW program. For taking electrical measurements at higher temperatures,

the halogen lamp was shone from the transparent window side of the device while at the same

time an IR lamp of 250W was placed nearly 4 inch away from the device to heat it up. Table 4

presents the performance of four TTPO cells at room temperature under halogen light and also

light with IR heating. Device performances have been recorded at three different temperatures,

i.e. room temperature (23℃), 80℃ and 130℃ At room temperature, PCE of cells was found to

be varied in three orders (1.3×10-6

% to 1.3×10-3

%). Upon heating devices with IR lamp at 80℃

along with halogen light illumination, all cells were found delivering increased short circuit

currents but decreased open circuit voltages. Fill factors were slightly improved. Devices at

nearly 130℃ showed even further improvement in short circuit currents and slight improvement

in fill-factors but decremented open circuit voltages. Three devices showed lower PCE and one

showed higher PCE at 130℃ compared it with at 80℃. Overall power conversion efficiencies

were found to be increased in all four cells by factor of 3.33, 22.1, 1.1, and 153, respectively

when comparing PCEs at room temperature. The best performing cell at room temperature

showed a short-circuit current of 7.78μA/cm2, an open-circuit voltage 0.45V, and a fill-factor of

0.12 rendering a PCE of 1.3x10-3

%. The same cell was found to deliver the maximum PCE upon

heating the device with IR lamp at 130℃ along with halogen light illumination. In this case, the

short circuit current was increased 3.2 times to 25μA/cm2 but open circuit voltage decreased to

0.08 V and PCE with slight improvement of 1.5x10-3

%.

While keeping light input intensity constant, the device showed an increased photocurrent at

raised temperatures possibly because increase in mobilities in TTPO at higher temperatures. In

disordered systems, the hopping transport is improved at higher temperatures as barrier created by

energetic disorder in an organic semiconductor is overcome as previously discussed in Section

2.5.5 [103]. The mobility of such materials vary exponentially fitted curve with inverse

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107

temperature as e(–Δ/T)

where Δ is the activation energy relating the amount of disorder in the

system. The same can also be explained by multiple trap and release (MTR) model where charge

carriers in localized or trap states thermally activated into band states, i.e. thermal energy kBT >

trap energy, and mobility is increased [99, 103].

Table 4: Performance of TTPO based cells under light only and light with IR heating

Light illumination only

(Room temperature)

Illumination + IR heating

(~80℃)

Illumination + IR heating

(~130℃)

VOC

(V)

JSC

(A/cm2)

FF PCE (%) VOC

(V)

JSC

(A/cm2)

FF PCE (%) VOC

(V)

JSC

(A/cm2)

FF PCE (%)

0.30 1.50 0.20 2.7×10-4

0.25 6.00 0.20 9.0×10-4

0.11 8.21 0.25 6.8×10-4

0.19 0.14 0.18 1.4×10-5

0.18 2.88 0.20 3.1×10-4

0.10 4.50 0.22 3.0×10-4

0.45 7.78 0.12 1.3×10-3

0.20 11.7 0.20 1.4×10-3

0.08 25.6 0.25 1.5×10-3

0.25 0.015 0.23 1.3×10-6

0.13 2.12 0.25 2.0×10-4

0.09 3.11 0.22 1.8×10-4

The best performing cell had a PCE of 1.5×10-3

% which is about 1000 times less than

conventional OPV made of pentacene/C60 bilayer. A reason for such poor performance is its very

low mobility in the order of 10-9

cm2/V/s which is measured by Erfan Kheirkhahi in our research

group.

Although, mobility was found to be increasing with temperature up to 150℃, OPV cells had

reduced PCE at 130℃ compared with 80℃ mainly due to sharp decrease in open circuit voltages.

Such loss of open circuit voltages at higher temperatures could have been the result of

degradation of either TTPO or C60 or both changing the HOMO-LUMO levels or chemical

reactions at interfaces changing the band alignment etc.

In our simulation results (Section 3.3), we have shown that PCE start decreasing fast for

mobilities below 10-5

cm2/V/s. For TTPO hole mobility and C60 electron mobility [10

-7 cm

2/V/s,

10-4

cm2/V/s], simulated PCE is 0.018% and this is mainly because of a low hole mobility. We

had difficulty with simulating the model for lower mobilities (<10-7

cm2/V/s) due to convergence

issues as charge carrier concentration and electric field at interfaces changes very sharply.

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108

6. BHJ OPV Cell using BC60DTP

A new organic semiconductor material, a [60]fullerene adduct of 6,13-bis(decylthio)pentacene or

BC60DTP has been synthesized by the research group of Prof. Glen Miller at University of New

Hampshire, Durham. In this chapter, we will study the photovoltaic effect of BC60DTP. The

fabrication procedure and the cell’s characteristics for different photoactive layer widths will also

be discussed.

6.1 Introduction

Recently, Kaur et. al. has found that thio-substituted pentacene has a half-life time of 750 min is

considerably more stable than many other available functionalized pentacenes [131]. Cyclo-

addition of [60]fullerene with 6,13-bis(decylthio)pentacene or DTP to form BC60DTP is done in

either solution form at room temperature or refluxing in solid form at higher temperature (>

100℃)[Prof. Miller group’s unpublished data]. The chemical structure of BC60DTP is shown in

Figure 59. The material carries two fullerene molecules and it acts as an acceptor. BHJ solar cells

have advantages over planar or bilayer structures as its three dimensional donor-acceptor

intermixed domains causing increased interfacial area that is much more efficient in exciton

generation. Properly fabricated and optimized BHJ devices with bi-continuous path to its

respective electrodes make them more efficient compared to planar cells. Solution processable

donors or acceptors are ideal choice for OPV as it requires much less time to spin coat the layer

compared with evaporation method. A slow drying after spin coating the material results in phase

segregation that is important for percolated paths for charge transport. Since BC60DTP is well

soluble in organic solvents like toluene, carbon disulphide and o-dichlorobenzene (o-DCB) etc., a

BHJ solar cell fabrication is possible coupled with donor such as P3HT which is also soluble in

toluene, CB or o-DCB.

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109

Figure 59: Chemical structure of BC60DTP acceptor [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished result]

6.1.1 Electronic Properties of BC60DTP

UV-Vis and Cyclic voltammetry (CV) studies were done in o-DCB solution and compared with

C60 acceptor [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished result]. Absorption spectrum of BC60DTP was

found to be superior to that of C60 between 350nm and 750nm range, shown in Figure 60. CV

results for HOMO-LUMO energy levels and optical gap for BC60DTP and C60 are shown in Table

5 below. LUMO for both materials is same but HOMO for BC60DTP varies between -5.64 eV

and -5.44 eV [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished result].

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110

Figure 60: UV-Vis spectra of BC60DTP and C60 in o-DCB [Prof. Miller group’s unpublished result]

Table 5: LUMO-HOMO energy and optical band gap for [60]fullerene and BC60DTP

Materials LUMO (eV) HOMO (eV) Optical bandgap (eV)

C60 -3.74 -5.66 1.92

BC60DTP -3.74 -5.44 to -5.64 1.7 – 1.9

6.2 Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cell Fabrication

and Characterization

The basic device structure of BC60DTP based OPV cell is shown in Figure 61. Glass substrate

coated with ITO acts as a transparent anode and PEDOT: PSS as an electron blocking layer.

Aluminum cathode is on the top of the layer of P3HT: BC60DTP blend.

400 500 600 700 800 900

0

1

2

3 BisC

60DTP adduct

C60

Inte

nsity (

a.u

.)

Wavelength (nm)

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111

Figure 61: Schematic of BC60DTP based OPV device

The fabrication steps of dicing, cleaning, etching and spin coating of the electron blocking layer

(PEDOT: PSS) are the same as the fabrication steps followed in Chapter 4. The step which

differs here in fabricated a bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cell (Figure 62) is coating the film of

the active layer.

Figure 62: Fabrication steps of BC60DTP based OPV device

Al

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112

We used two different concentrations of P3HT and BC60DTP and dissolved in 1ml of o-DCB as

both are well soluble in CB or o-DCB. Two blends of P3HT: BC60DTP (10mg: 9.5mg and 20mg:

18mg) in 1 ml of o-DCB are prepared by using a hot plate at 60℃ and magnetic stirring for

30min. The solution is then filtered using a PVDF filter with 0.45μm pores. To get different

thicknesses of the active layer, three spin speeds (1000 rpm, 1500 rpm and 2000 rpm) were used

for 1 min using a Laurell WS-400 Spinner. The substrates were baked for 2 min on a hotplate at

120℃.

At a base pressure of 5x10-7

torr in the Veeco Thermal Evaporator, a 110 nm of aluminum as a

cathode layer was evaporated at the rate of ~10 Å/s, using a shadow mask.

Post fabrication baking of devices was done for 1 min on the hotplate at 100℃ before electrical

characterization of OPV cells. Post fabrication bake is a standard process to achieve a better

phase segregation BHJ devices.

4155A HP Semiconductor analyzer was used for I-V measurements under the illumination of

calibrated halogen lamp (Dolan Jener Fiber-lite). The calibration was done by comparing the

short-circuit current under the sunlight of known intensity and also the halogen light source, as

discussed in Section 4.4. The halogen light sunlight equivalent intensity is 32mW/cm2. A

LabVIEW program was used for generating I-V characteristics of the OPV cell. Table 6 and Table

7 show the fabrication parameters and device electrical measurements for two different blends of

P3HT: BC60DTP (10mg: 9.5mg)/ml and (20mg: 18mg)/ml, respectively in o-DCB solvent.

6.3 Results and Discussion

P3HT as a donor and BC60DTP as acceptor material are blended (10mg: 9.5mg)/ml in o-DCB to

make a BHJ active layer film on PEDOT: PSS substrate. Three different spin speeds were chosen.

Spin coating at 2000 rpm yielded a film of 45nm. Similarly, lower spin speeds (1500 and 1000

rpm) gave thicker films (65nm and 85nm respectively). It is observed that the short circuit

current was the least in case of 45nm thick film and the highest for 85nm film. This concludes

that 85nm thick film was able to absorb more light and generate more useful charge carriers.

The fill-factor was found to be less than 0.25 for all samples. Using the halogen lamp equivalent

power input of 32mW/cm2, the power conversion efficiency was found to be quite low (45nm:

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113

0.002%, 65nm: 0.034%, 85nm: 0.055%). This is mainly because of cells suffered from quite low

short circuit (SC) current and also low fill-factor.

We approximately doubled the concentration of P3HT and BC60DTP both almost twice than

before, i.e. 20mg: 18mg dissolved in 1ml of o-DCB to increase the thickness of the active layer.

Cells fabricated from this blend are characterized under the same condition as before. The

fabrication parameters and electrical output characteristics of the cells made from this blend are

shown in Table 7. These samples were spin coated at 1500 rpm.

In sample 8, the electron blocking layer (PEDOT: PSS) coating was skipped to see the cell

performance in absence of it. The short circuit current was found to be very low (0.9A/cm2).

This confirms that excitons are being quenched and also dissociated electrons being recombined

with holes at anode-active layer interface.

Table 6: Fabrication parameters and electrical output results of OPV cell with blend of P3HT:

BC60DTP (10mg: 9.5mg)/ml in o-DCB

Sample # 1 2 3

Spin speed (rpm) 2000 1500 1000

Active layer thickness (nm) 45 65 85

Post spin-coat baking (℃, min) 120℃, 2m 120℃, 2m 120℃, 2m

Post fabrication bake (℃, min) 100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m

JSC (A/cm2) 16 120 162

VOC (V) 0.22 0.50 0.47

FF 0.19 0.18 0.23

% PCE 0.002 0.034 0.055

The thickness of the active layer for other samples (4-7) was found to be between 115-140nm.

Samples with 130nm and 140nm thin film showed much larger short circuit currents (0.356 and

0.417mA/cm2, respectively) and this is possibly due to thicker active layers that could absorb

more of sunlight to convert into useful current. Interestingly, samples with 115nm and 120nm

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114

thin film, on the other hand, showed much poorer performance, especially the SC currents (1.7

and 2 mA/cm2, respectively). The only difference in these two cases is that samples of 130nm

and 140nm films were baked after spin coating whereas samples of 115nm and 120nm films were

not. Since the solvent o-DCB was still trapped inside the thick active layer of the blend in case of

115nm and 120nm film samples which were not baked after the spin coating, the acceptor

material BC60DTP might have degraded in non-solid state phase during the span of rest of the

fabrication processes.

Table 7: Fabrication parameters and electrical output results of OPV cell with blend of P3HT:

BC60DTP (20mg: 18mg)/ml in o-DCB

Sample # 4 5 6 7 8

Spin speed (rpm) 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500

(no EBL)

Active layer thickness

(nm)

140 130 115 120 50

Post spin-coat baking

(℃, min)

120℃, 2m 120℃, 2m No bake No bake 120℃, 2m

Post fabrication bake

(℃, min)

100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m 100℃, 1m

ISC (A/cm2) 356 417 1.7 2 0.9

VOC (V) 0.24 0.40 0.10 0.31 0.28

FF 0.19 0.222 0.19 0.12 0.13

% PCE 0.05 0.115 1×10-4

2×10-4

3.3×10-4

I-V characteristics of the best performing BHJ solar cell with 130nm thick active layer film of

P3HT: BC60DTP blend is shown in Figure 63. Maximum efficiency recorded was 0.116% which

is about 40-50 times lower than the standard P3HT: PCBM based OPV cells.

Although absorption spectrum of BC60DTP is very much similar to that of PCBM, it fails to

deliver a comparable performance of P3HT: PCBM based bulk heterojunction device. The low

fill-factor (high series resistance) and low short circuit current indicates BC60DTP has possibly a

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115

very low hole mobility, i.e. much lower than electron mobility in P3HT (~10-4

cm2/V/s). In such a

case, lower mobile charge carriers mainly decide the performance of the cell as after dissociation

the higher mobile carriers (electrons) have to wait for the lower mobile carriers (holes) to

recombine. Another reason could be that we used the blend of only 1:1 weight ratio and

BC60DTP sample has two fullerene molecules where more appropriate blend ratio could have

been about 2:1 (P3HT: BC60DTP).

Vertical gradient of phase has been found during spin cast method where PCBM-rich phase near

the anode and P3HT-rich phase is near cathode due to difference in surface energy differences

between P3HT and PCBM. Such vertical gradient has been reported by X-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy [113]. Such kind of reverse phase segregation could be more pronounced in P3HT

and BC60DTP system where hole diffusion towards cathode will directly reduce the short circuit

current. Hence, an XPS study could be a right approach to confirm this.

Figure 63: J-V characteristics of BC60DTP based BHJ solar cell

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Cu

rre

nt

de

nsi

ty (

mA

/cm

2)

Voltage (V)

Under illumination Dark current

Jsc = 0.417 mA/cm2, Voc = 0.4 V, FF = 0.222, Pin = 32mW/cm2, Efficiency = 0.116%

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116

7. Conclusions and Future Work

We built OPV cells based on three new organic semiconductor materials synthesized by Prof.

Glen Miller’s group at UNH, Durham.

Water Soluble Pentacene (WSP), a new derivative of pentacene is environmental friendly as it

can be dissolved in water and does not need harmful organic solvents like chlorobenzene. It can

be solution processed whereas most of the pentacenes need more expensive evaporation

techniques to make the thin film. Forming a thin and continuous film coating from this new

pentacene molecule was a challenge as it formed crystals during the spin coating process. A

method of infrared heating while spin coating the WSP solution, was found to solve the problem.

Bilayer solar cells were successfully fabricated to achieve an efficiency of 0.145%. A fill factor

of 0.432 which is still low compared to other pentacene based OPV cells (FF = 0.6-0.65) suggests

that the cell has a high series resistance. Low mobility is a likely cause for low FF and low short

circuit current, given that the layer thicknesses are optimized.

A new pentacene derivative, TTPO is very stable up to the temperature of 400℃ and yields a

nice, controllable thin film by sublimation in thermal evaporator. TTPO behaves as a donor when

coupled with the acceptor C60. The active layers were coated by evaporation of TTPO and C60 in

the thermal evaporator and a bilayer OPV cell was fabricated. Characterization at three

temperatures was done and showed that the photovoltaic performance increased with increasing

temperature up to 80℃. Since the mobility was recorded to be quite low (10-9

cm2/V/s) (measured

by Erfan Kheirkhahi, PhD candidate from our research group), we believe this may be the reason

for the low efficiency (1.5×10-3

%). From our simulation results, it shows that for pentacene/C60

bilayer system power conversion efficiency decreases sharply for hole or electron (or both)

mobilities below 10-5

cm2/V-s.

BC60DTP, another newly synthesized pentacene derivative is fullerene adduct that acts as an

acceptor. Because of its solubility in chlorobenzene or similar solvents and its very good stability

in the solution form, it is a good candidate for solution processed OPVs. A bulk heterojunction

solar cell was successfully fabricated with P3HT as a donor and characterized. A maximum

efficiency of 0.115% was measured with a fill factor of 0.22. Since hole mobility in the donor

(P3HT) is about 10-3

cm2/V/s, a much lower electron mobility in BC60DTP could be the reason for

low short-circuit current and fill factor.

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OPV device modeling and simulation for a bilayer structure was performed for

ITO/pentacene/C60/Al system to investigate the effect of cell parameters on electrical

performances such as short circuit current, open circuit voltage, fill-factor and power conversion

efficiency. A very simple model of exciton generation was taken from a literature source and

utilized in standard drift-diffusion equation to formulate the problem. The model was modified to

calculate electric field at the donor-acceptor interface more accurately. This was done by

minimizing the error between calculated anode-to-cathode potential difference and effective

applied voltage, to a tolerance level. Accurate calculation of interface electric field was necessary

to find the more accurate solution of two boundary valued problem. First, keeping hole and

electron mobilities equal, the performance was optimized for donor and acceptor layer

thicknesses and their mobility in a bilayer cell. It was found that for lower mobilities (10-6

and

10-5

cm2/V-s), PCE had maximum values for 30nm thick donor and 10nm thick acceptor. For

higher mobilities (≥10-4

cm2/V-s), 50nm thick donor and 50nm thick acceptor showed the highest

efficiency. Overall highest PCE of 0.67% was found at mobilities of hole and electron both were

10-4

cm2/V-s. We also studied the effect of mobility imbalance and quantified by the ratio of

mobilities of hole and electron or vice versa. It was found that mobility imbalance has adverse

impact on PCE for higher mobility cases (≥10-4

cm2/V-s). But for lower mobilities (<10

-6 cm

2/V-

s), smaller imbalance (up to 100) in mobilities in fact enhances the PCE and larger imbalance

(≥104) causes a reduction in PCE when it is compared with the PCE in balanced mobility case.

Therefore, we state that it’s not pure imbalance in mobilities which cause the drop in PCE but

increase in either hole mobility or electron mobility above 10-4

cm2/V-s decreases the PCE.

PCE rapidly increases with increase in exciton diffusion length in the donor Ldd initially and

showed saturation for Ldd > 50nm. Hence, the efforts can be made to enhance diffusion length up

to 50nm.

Future Work and Suggestions

Pentacene based OPVs in the literature generally show power conversion efficiency (PCE) about

2% whereas the water soluble pentacene (WSP) based OPVs studied here showed PCE up to

0.15%. One reason could be its low mobility. This should be confirmed by measuring it directly.

Knowing the mobility of WSP can give an idea if the material can be used for pursuing further

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research on improving the cell efficiency. Mobility extraction by the time-of-flight method will

be more useful as it measures the mobility of a thin film perpendicular to it (or bulk mobility)

which is the way charge carriers transport to the electrode in OPVs.

A damaging effect of a basic solution of WSP on acidic PEDOT: PSS film has been observed and

presented in this thesis. This effect might have a negative impact on charge carrier transport and

hence the efficiency. Hence, 2-dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE) or ammonium hydroxide can be

used to neutralize the PEDOT: PSS solution before it is spin coated on ITO [148]. Molybdenum

trioxide (MoO3) can also be used as an alternative to PEDOT: PSS as electron blocking layer.

Thin film coating of MoO3 on ITO surface can be sublimated in thermal evaporator above 800℃

temperature.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) can be incorporated in WSP based OPV cell design for following many

reasons – (i) it has LUMO-HOMO levels of 4.4 eV and 6.4 eV, respectively that is an excellent

electron acceptor and its LUMO level perfectly aligns up with aluminum electrode (ii) TiO2 has a

good mobility (~5×10-4

cm2/V-s) near to our calculated optimal value to achieve maximum power

conversion efficiency, (iii) TiO2 nanoparticles can be well suspended in ethanol and WSP being

soluble in ethanol, a bulk heterojunction solar cell with new structure ITO/PEDOT:

PSS/WSP:TiO2/Al can be fabricated. This fabrication will lead to a reduction in fabrication cost

as it does not need expensive and time consuming thermal evaporation of fullerene (C60) as an

acceptor as well as bulk heterojunction structure will be more efficient in exciton dissociation due

to increased donor-acceptor interface area. TiO2 can easily be prepared by hydrolysis of titanium

isopropoxide in ethanol in presence of acetic acid [149].

Absorption profile of BC60DTP is much superior to C60 and hence it has a great potential in

making high efficiency OPV cell given that it has mobility greater than 10-4

cm2/V-s. Hence, we

need to measure its bulk mobility as we discussed for WSP. BC60DTP, a fullerene adduct of

6,13-bis(decylthio)pentacene has two C60 molecules which act as acceptors. We successfully

fabricated and tested BHJ solar cells with a blend of P3HT (as donor) and BC60DTP (as acceptor)

in 1:1 ratio. The blend of P3HT: BC60DTP in a ratio of 2:1 may be a better matching of donor-

acceptor interface for more efficient charge dissociation. We have studied the performance up to

the active layer thickness of 140nm and a thicker layer (>150nm) can also be studied. By spin

coating the blend of P3HT (20mg): BC60DTP (19mg) in 1ml of o-DCB yielded 140nm thick

active layer. In the new design we can use P3HT (30mg): BC60DTP (15mg) in one ml of o-DCB

solvent. The phase segregation is important for effective charge transport and PCE is very

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sensitive to the amount of segregation which is dependent on pre/post baking of devices. Hence,

the effect of baking (temperature and bake time) on phase segregation of active layer must be

studied via AFM phase imaging or SEM contrast imaging.

Based on our simulation results for pentacene (50nm)/C60 (50nm) bilayer system in a typical case

of exciton diffusion lengths (pentacene: 20nm, C60: 5nm), we found that ratio of exciton flux

density at the D-A interface due to donor and acceptor is about 26:1. The contribution of C60 in

exciton generation is very low due to its narrow absorption spectrum and smaller diffusion length.

Hence, we should look for alternative acceptor materials having larger diffusion length and

suitable absorption profile that compliments the absorption spectrum of the front active layer or

donor material for absorbing sunlight more efficiently.

Organic semiconductors and polymers are known for degradation under oxygen, moisture and

UV light. Parylene, an inexpensive material has excellent physical and chemical properties such

as high tensile and yield strength, conformal and tension free coating, excellent transparency in

visible light and great UV light absorbent outstanding barrier or very low permeability to

moisture and gases. We can coat the parylene C by CVD process as protective layer for OPV

cells and evaluate the time dependent device performance [150].

The ITO, used as an anode in OPVs, has a planner form. Cihan et al [151] at Center for High Rate

Nanomanufacturing, NEU Boston are able to assemble gold nanoparticles in the form of

nanopillars. They are also able to make nanopillars from other conducting nanoparticles. Having

nanopillars of (~100 nm diameter) ITO equally spaced by submicron length on ITO substrate can

dramatically increase the surface area. Spin coat with WSP followed by thermal evaporation of

C60 will make three dimensional bilayer structures. Such WSP cells with much enhanced

interface area will improve exciton dissociation that may deliver the higher photocurrent and

hence the PCE. Having the ITO nanopillars on ITO substrate might also be able to trap and

collect more light leading to further increased photogeneration.

Bilayer OPV cells show maximum efficiency for hole and electron mobility at about 10-4

cm2/V-s

according to our simulation finding. We need to focus on exploring new organic semiconductors

having mobilities about this value. A similar attempt of optimizing the design parameters

(mobilities, layer thicknesses and diffusion lengths) for bulk heterojunction cells can be done.

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8. Appendix

8.1 Measurement Setup

Input light power to the solar cell is needed for efficiency calculation. I-V characteristics of the

solar cells are plotted using HP Parameter Analyzer 4155A and also Keithley 2410 with the help

of LabVIEW program. Portable Keithley 2410 is used for the OPV cell characterization under

the actual direct sunlight with known intensity and the data is used for calibrating the intensity of

the halogen light source we used for cell characterization with HP Parameter Analyzer 4155A.

Figure 64: OPV device test under sunlight

Depending on the sun’s inclination or zenith angle, date and location of the I-V measurement, air

mass is estimated which is used for calculating direct and/or global incident or input power

needed for efficiency calculation. A description about air mass is given in the following section.

Keithley 2410 Source Meter

OPV device

under sunlight GPIB-USB

interface cable

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8.1.1 Solar Radiation

8.1.1.1 Solar Spectrum and Air Mass

Solar spectrum closely matches the radiation of a black body at about 5777 K [152]. As sunlight

travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it is attenuated due to absorption and scattering, Figure

65. Ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs the major part of the ultraviolet and small

wavelength light. Water vapor attenuates many separate bands of wavelengths. Similarly, gases

like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide contribute to this process. Scattering of higher

frequency lights results in reduced intensity of such lights reaching to earth basically causes the

sky to appear blue and sun having yellowish tinges. Greater the distance the light travels, the

more the absorption and scattering.

Figure 65: Solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of the Earth's atmosphere and at

sea level. (The curve is based on American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Terrestial

Reference Spectra)

Air mass is a unit-less quantity defined as the ratio of direct sunlight path length through the

Earth’s atmosphere to path length vertically upward or shorted path length. For a path length ‘L’

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through the atmosphere and zenith angle ‘z’ relative to vertical axis to the Earth’s surface, the air

mass coefficient is defined by,

Where, ‘Lo’ is the vertical path length from the Earth’s surface at sea level, Figure 66. Air mass is

approximated by the inverse of cosine of zenith angle considering a very large Earth’s curvature

and is reasonably accurate for the zenith angle up to 75°. AM0 means zero atmosphere, is the air

mass coefficient normal to the Earth’s surface outside the atmosphere (in space). AM0 spectrum

is used for space applications. Similarly, AM1.5 and AM2.0 are the air mass coefficients for

zenith angle 48.2° and 60° respectively. AM1.5 is the standard value of air mass based on yearly

average energy received on mid latitude of the Earth’s surface for which solar cells are mostly

characterized.

Figure 66: Representation of path length and zenith angle

From the above formula AM value is infinity for the Sun at horizon, i.e. at zenith angle 90°. But

considering the Earth’s curvature the path length is finite and geometrically it can be derived as

[153],

√( )

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Where, r = RE/Yatm 708. RE is the radius of earth 6371km and Yatm is the effective

atmospheric height 9km. Air mass coefficient calculated from the above equation nearly

equals 38 for the Sun at horizon.

8.1.1.2 Solar Light Intensity

As air mass coefficient increases the solar intensity decreases but not in linear fashion due

nonlinear effect of the atmosphere. For example, AM2.0 is more than half the intensity of AM1.0

and similarly the intensity of the Sun at horizon is greatly attenuated by the lower level of dense

atmosphere. An empirical relation for solar intensity versus air mass is given by [154],

where, Io is the intensity at external to Earth’s atmosphere and AM is air mass value. Intensity for

AM0 = 1353W/m2. The factor 1.1 is multiplied for the reason that the diffused sunlight

contributes additional 10%.

8.1.2 A Cheap Alternative Solar Simulator

A solar simulator also called artificial sun produces light output equivalent to sunlight at earth or

space. Simulators are also capable of producing lights of the sun at various zenith angles such as

0℃ (AM1.0), 48.2℃ (AM1.5), 60℃ (AM2.0).

The lamps used in solar simulators are mainly xenon-arc lamp, metal halide arc lamp and also

quartz tungsten halogen (QTH) lamp. QTH lamps show a low spectral irradiance below 500nm

wavelength. The best suited lamps for solar simulators are xenon-arc type. However, Xenon-arc

lamps and metal halide arc lamps along with its starter electronic kit and high voltage protection

circuitry are expensive and normally they cost more than $10000. We explored a cheaper

alternative for such simulator, is to use xenon light source which is widely used for endoscopy in

hospitals. Such new device cost around $3000 and used ones somewhere between $400 and

$800, Figure 67 and Figure 68. Using fabricated device, the endoscopy lamp can be calibrated

with respect to known sunlight intensity.

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Figure 67: 300 watts xenon light source with fiber cable and surgical headlight used in endoscopy

Figure 68: Left: Xenon lamp module inside the light source; Right: spotlight diamete can be adjusted

between 3/4 inch and 4 inch

Fiber cable

spotlight

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8.2 Process Run Sheet for WSP based OPV

Fabrication

Dicing and first cleaning

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

1 Dicing Micro

Automation

1006 Dicing

Saw

ITO coated glass sheet (1.1 mm

+ 120nm) diced into

15mmx15mm chips)

Kapton Dicing Tape

10000 rpm,

1.25mm/s

Depth=1.1-0.1mm

RESINOID 400 (35

mic)

2 Post-Dice

Clean

Acetone

Gun

-Acetone Gun

Ultrasonication in:

- Soap water

- DI water flow rinse

- Acetone

- IPA

- DI water flow rinse

- N2 blow dry.

5 min

3 min

3 min

1 min

3 min

ITO patterning

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

3 Photoresist

masking

Laurell

spinner WS

400 Lite,

Hot plate

- Partially masked the substrate

with Kapton Polyimide tape

- Spin coated 1818

- Baked on hot plate

- Tape removed

4000 rpm, 1 min

1150C, 1 min

4

HCl etching

Stirrer, N2

gun

- Etched in HCl (37%)

- DI water flow rinse

RT, 6 min while

stirring

5 min

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Substrate cleaning

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

5 PR Strip Acetone

gun,

Sonicator,

N2 Gun

- Acetone gun clean

Ultrasonication in:

- Acetone

- IPA

- DI water dump rinse

- N2 blow dry

10 min

2 min

3 min

Substrate baking and plasma cleaning

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

6

Baking Hotplate Substrate baked 1500C, 1 hour.

7 Oxygen

plasma

ICP Therm

7900

O2 plasma clean Bias - 5W, Plasma - 300W

1min

Active layers coating

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

8

PEDOT: PSS

spin coating

Laurell

Spinner WS

400 Lite,

Hot-plate

- PEDOT: PSS filtered

- Spin coated

- Baked on hot plate

(0.45m) filter

4000 rpm, 1 min

1200C, 20 min

9 Active layer

spin coating

(WSP)

IR Heat

Lamp

- WSP in Ethanol filtered

- WSP spin coated

- Baked on hot plate

10mg/ml (1wt%),

(0.45m) filter,

2000 rpm, 1 min

800C, 1min

11 Thermal

evaporation

(C60)

Thermal

evaporator

Evaporated C60 at slow

rate

Press. < 10-7

torr evap.

rate <2A0/s thickness <

50mg (~60nm)

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Cathode deposition

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

12

Thermal

evaporation

(Al)

Thermal

evaporator

- Evaporated Al on

substrates with shadow

mask

Pressure <10-7

torr

Evaporation rate <10Ao/s

(100nm)

Post baking and measurement

Step Process Equipment Method Parameters

13

Post baking Hot plate Devices baked 800 C - 100

0 C for various

times.

14 Measurements HP Parameter

Analyzer 4155,

Kethley 2400,

Fibre Optic light

I-V characteristics

8.3 MATLAB Code for the Device Simulation

function VaJE = opvsol12(~,q,ep,muh,mue,Dh,De,Jxc,dx,nha,nec,Vbi,d) close all; clear all; Ein = 7.5132e6; j = 1; option = optimset('Display','iter','TolX',1e-3,'DiffMaxChange',1e-3); V1 = 0.0; V2 = 0.0; dV =0.05; % V1,V2 - Init & final voltage applied with dV volt-steps. pts = round((V2-V1)/dV)+1; J = zeros(1,pts); Va = J; Eint = J; for jv = 1:pts V = V1 + (jv-1)*dV; Ein = fzero(@opvsim,Ein,option); Eint(jv) = Ein; sprintf('Va = %.2f%s, J = %.4f%s, Recombination = %.3f%s, Ei = %0.5g%s',V,' V',-jh/10,' mA/cm^2',Rep,'%',Ein,' V/m') end figure; plot(Va,J/10,'k',Va,J/10,'r.','LineWidth',2,'MarkerSize',16); grid xlabel('Voltage (V)'); ylabel('Current density (mA/cm ^{2})'); function delV = opvsim(Ei) if j == 1 muh = 1e-8; mue = 1e-8; % hole and electron mobility(m2/V.s); d = [50e-9 50e-9]; dx = 0.4e-9; Ld = [20e-9 5e-9]; ni = 1e17; % Ld - diffusion lengths in Donor and Accepotor d_l = 5; q = 1.6022e-19; % q_e = 6.03175e-9 = q/(eo*er)=1.602e-19/(8.854e-12*3) (V.m). kT = 0.0256; hc = 1.9864e-25; % kT=0.0256 eV.% h*c = 6.626e-34*3e8 = 1.986e-25 (m3.kg/s2). ep = 2.6562e-11; % ep = eo*er

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Nc = 1e21; phi_c = 3.9; LUMOa = 3.7; % Nc - effective density of states (/cm3). phi_c = cathode WF (eV) Nv = 1e21; phi_a = 4.7; HOMOd = 4.9; % Nv - effective density of states (/cm3). phi_a = anode WF (eV) % nx - excition concentration (/m3) at distance x % a, phi - absorption coefficient (/m), photon flux (/m2.s).. % Ld, d - excition diffusion length(m), layer thickness(m). % h, c, e - plank's const(m2kg/s), light-speed (m/s), electron charge(Q) % Wavelegth lambda (nm) vs Absorption coefficient alpha (/m) lamb = 300:25:750; aa1 = 1e7*[2.5 2.0 1.2 0.4 0.22 0.22 0.16 0.12 0.28 0.56 0.72 1.28 0.84 1.24 0.36 0.12 0.04 0.03 0.02]; aa2 = 1e7*[2.5 2.0 1.2 0.4 0.22 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0]; Lamb = 300:5:750; a1 = spline(lamb,aa1,Lamb); a2 = spline(lamb,aa2,Lamb); load('AM1_5.mat', 'AM1_5'); % 300nm < Lamb < 750nm %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% nl = length(AM1_5); sizeD = floor((nl-1)/d_l+1); SI = zeros(sizeD,1); Lamb = SI; d_W = zeros(sizeD-1,1); d_phi = d_W; a_1 = d_W; a_2 = a_1; d_Jxc1 = d_W; d_Jxc2 = d_Jxc1; Jxc1 = 0; Jxc2 = 0; b = 1./Ld; for i=1:sizeD Lamb(i) = AM1_5((i-1)*d_l+1,1); SI(i) = AM1_5((i-1)*d_l+1,2); % spectral irradiance W/m2.nm if i > 1 d_W(i) = (SI(i)+SI(i-1))/2*d_l; % average spectral power (W/m2). d_phi(i) = d_W(i)*((Lamb(i)+Lamb(i-1))*1e-9/2)/hc; % av. photon flux. a_1(i) = (a1(i)+a1(i-1))/2; % average absorption coefficient. a_2(i) = (a2(i)+a2(i-1))/2; d_Jxc1(i) = d_phi(i)*a_1(i)*exp(-a_1(i)*d(1))*(a_1(i)-b(1)+2*b(1)*(exp(b(1)*d(1))-exp(a_1(i)*d(1)))/... (exp(b(1)*d(1))-exp(-b(1)*d(1))))/(b(1)^2-a_1(i)^2); % exciton flux density (/m2) at the interface due to donor. d_Jxc2(i) = -d_phi(i)*a_2(i)*exp(-a_1(i)*d(1))*(a_2(i)-b(2)-2*b(2)*(exp(-b(2)*d(2))-exp(-a_2(i)*d(2)))/... (exp(b(2)*d(2))-exp(-b(2)*d(2))))/(b(2)^2-a_2(i)^2); % exciton flux density (/m2) at the interface due to acceptor. Jxc1 = Jxc1+d_Jxc1(i); Jxc2 = Jxc2+d_Jxc2(i); end end Jxc = (Jxc1+Jxc2); % total exciton flux at the interface (/m2/s). %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% nec = Nc*exp(-(phi_c-LUMOa)/kT)*1e6; % nec - ne (/m3) at cathode. LUMOa - acceptor LUMO (eV). nha = Nv*exp(-(HOMOd-phi_a)/kT)*1e6; % nha - nh (/m3) at anode. HOMOd - donor HOMO (eV) Dh = kT*muh; De = kT*mue; Vbi = (phi_a-phi_c); % De(h) = kT/q*mu (m2/s) as kT = 0.0256 eV &q = 1e end Jh = q*Jxc; Je = -Jh; % Jxc - exciton flux (/m2.s) nh = 1e23; ne = 1e23; Nh = q*nh; Ne = q*ne; jh = Jh; j = 2; f = 1; Vappl = Vbi-V; %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

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dENJ = @(t,y)[y(2) -(y(3)-y(1)*y(2)*muh/ep)/Dh q*(Jxc/dx-y(2)*y(5)*(muh+mue)/(ep*q))*(t<=dx) -y(5) (-y(3)-y(4)*y(5)*mue/ep)/De]; bcENJ = @(ya,yb)[ya(1)-ep*Ei; yb(2)-q*nha; ya(3); ya(4)+ep*Ei; yb(5)-q*nec]; %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% option1 = bvpset('Stats','off'); solinit = bvpinit(linspace(0,d(1),400),[ep*Ei Nh Jh -ep*Ei Ne]); sol = bvp4c(dENJ,bcENJ,solinit,option1); jh = sol.y(3,end); Rep = (1-jh/Jh)*100; Va(jv) = V; J(jv) = -jh; Xdon = fliplr(sol.x); Xacc = sol.x; Edon = fliplr(sol.y(1,:))/ep; Eacc = sol.y(4,:)/ep; E=[Edon -Eacc]; xx = [-Xdon Xacc]; E1 = [E(2:end) 0]; Eav = (E(1:end-1)+ E1(1:end-1))/2; delx = diff(xx); Vx = cumsum(-Eav.*delx); V21 = -Eav*delx'; delV = V21+Vappl; end VaJE = [Va; J; Eint]; toc; end

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