Neoplastic and Non-neoplastic Rodent Thyroid Lesions and Their Relevance
Orbital Diseases · 2019-10-12 · Orbital Diseases • Orbital diseases may be vascular,...
Transcript of Orbital Diseases · 2019-10-12 · Orbital Diseases • Orbital diseases may be vascular,...
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Orbital Diseases
• Orbital diseases may be vascular, thyroid-related (Graves' disease), infectious, inflammatory, or neoplastic.
• Despite the number of different tissues present in the orbit, the expression of disease due to different pathologies is often similar.
• Clinical features are:
1. Exophthalmos (Proptosis)
2. Endophthalmos
3. Pain
4. Eyelid and conjunctival changes
5. Diplopia
6. Visual acuity disturbances
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I. Exophthalmus • It is a protrusion of the eye caused
by a space -occupying lesion. , it may be unilateral or bilateral.
• Various other features give a clue to the pathological process involved
1. Intra-conal lesions: the lesion lies within the cone formed by extra-ocular muscles, thus the eye globe is displaced directly forwards, e.g. most commonly dysthyroid eye disease, others like Optic nerve sheath meningioma.
1. Extra-conal lesions: the lesion is outside the cone, so the eye is displaced to one side, e.g. mostly tumors, tumor of the lacrimal gland displaces the globe nasally.
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Exophthalmus - Causes
Causes of exophthalmos: • most common cause is Graves disease, it usually
causes bilateral proptosis.
• Infections (Orbital cellulitis) • Orbital Inflammatory disease
• Vasculitis (wegener’s granulomatosis) • Neoplastic (unilateral): Lacrimal, Lymphoma, Metastatic. • Orbital vascular disease (orbital varices...causes transient
proptosis on valsalva manouver)
• Trauma Pseudoproptosis (pseudoexophthalmos)
• Buphthalmos ( congenital open angle glaucoma) • Contralateral enophthalmos (posterior
displacement of the eye) • Ipsilateral lid retraction
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Exophthalmos - Approach
• History: • duration, rate of onset.
• associated ocular symptoms (pain, decreased
visual acuity or field, diplopia, transient visual
loss).
• complaints of foreign body sensation or dry gritty eyes
• history of trauma
• family history
• Examination: • Full ophthalmic & systemic examination
• Exophthalmometer: normally 14-21 mm, if > 21 mm or a 3 mm difference between the two eyes is abnormal.
• Treatment :depends on the underlying cause.
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Ophthalmometer
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Exophthalmus – Complications
1. Failure of the eyelids
to close, causing corneal ulcerations and damage.
2. Compression on the optic nerve or ophthalmic artery leading to blindness
3. Restriction of eye movements & squint …
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II. Enophthalmos
Definition:Enophthalmos is a backward displacement of
the globe.
• It is a feature of an orbital ‘ blowout fracture ’ , when
blunt injury to the globe and orbit fractures a thin orbital
wall and displaces orbital contents into an adjacent
sinus.
• It was also said to occur in Horner ’ s syndrome, but this
is really a pseudo – enophthalmos due to narrowing of
the palpebral fissure
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Enophthalmous
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Enophthalmos - Complications
• Complications : Long-standing enophthalmos, especially associated with very extensive orbital trauma, may be associated with severe orbital scarring, and correction can be very difficult or impossible.
• Treatment involves reconstruction of the bony orbit with restoration of bony orbital volume and repositioning of the globe
Blow out trauma might lead
to enophthalmos
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Binocular diplopia Binocular diplopia occurs when only one of the two eyes is fi xated on a target.
Thus the image in the second eye does not fall upon the fovea. This can be
due to:
• Direct involvement of the muscles in myositis and dysthyroid eye disease
(Graves ’ disease). The eye appears to be tethered, so that eye movement is
restricted in a direction away from the fi eld of action of the affected muscle
(e.g. if the inferior rectus is thickened in thyroid eye disease there will be
restriction of upgaze).
• Involvement of the nerve supply to the extraocular muscles ( paralytic squint ).
Here, diplopia occurs during gaze into the fi eld of action of the muscle
(e.g. palsy of the right lateral rectus produces diplopia in right horizontal
gaze).
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Visual acuity This may be reduced by:
• exposure keratopathy from severe proptosis, when the
cornea is no longer
protected by the lids and tear fi lm;
• optic nerve involvement by compression or infl ammation;
• distortion of the macula due to compression of the globe
by a posterior,
space - occupying lesion.
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Investigation of orbital disease
1. CT
2. MRI
3. Systemic tests
depending on the
DDx.
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Differential diagnosis of orbital diseases
• Trauma
• Disorders of extra-ocular muscles (Dysthyroid eye
disease and ocular myositis, rhabdomyosacroma)
• Infective disorders (orbital cellulitis and preseptal
cellulitis)
• Inflammatory diseases (Sarcoidosis, orbital pseudo-
tumors caused by lymphofibroblastic disorders)
• Vascular abnormalities (Carotico-Cavernous sinus
fistula, orbital varix, capillary hemangioma)
• Orbital tumors (lacrimal gland tumors, meningioma of
the optic nerve, optic nerve glioma,
rhabdomyosarcoma)
• Dermoid cysts
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Dysthyroid eye disease
pathogenesis
• It is associated with infiltration of the EOM with
lymphocytes and the deposition of
glycoseaminoglycanes .
• proptosis.
• exposure of the globes and limitation
of eye movements
The condition occurs particularly in hyperthyroidism but
also in hyopothyroidism. An immunological process is suspected but not fully
determined
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Dysthyroid eye disease
Symptoms &signs
The patient may sometimes complain of:
• a red painful eye (associated with exposure caused by
proptosis) – if the
redness is limited to part of the eye only it may indicate
active infl ammation
in the adjacent muscle
• double vision
• reduced visual acuity (sometimes associated with optic
neuropathy).
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On examination
• There may be proptosis of the eye
• The conjunctiva may be chemosed and the eye injected
over the muscle insertions.
• The upper lid may be retracted so that sclera is visible
(due in part to increased sympathetic activity stimulating
the sympathetically innervated smooth muscle of
levator). This results in a characteristic stare.
• The upper lid may lag behind the movement of the globe
on downgaze ( lid lag ).
• There may be restricted eye movements or squint (also
termed restrictive thyroid myopathy)
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The inferior rectus is the most commonly affected
muscle. Its movement
becomes restricted and there is mechanical limitation
of the eye in upgaze.
Involvement of the medial rectus causes mechanical
limitation of abduction, thereby mimicking a sixth
nerve palsy. A CT or MRI scan shows enlargement of
the rectus muscles .
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Complications
Dysthyroid eye disease is associated with two serious
acute complications:
1 Excessive exposure of the conjunctiva and cornea with the
formation of chemosis (oedematous swelling of the conjunctiva),
and corneal ulcers due to proptosis and failure of the lids to protect
the cornea. The condition may lead to corneal perforation.
2 Compressive optic neuropathy due to compression and
ischaemia of the optic nerve by the thickened muscles. This leads
to fi eld loss and may cause
blindness.
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Dysthyroid eye disease
treatment
• Corneal exposure and ON compression require urgent
treatment with :
Steroids
Radiotherapy
Orbital decompression
• Diplopia treatment with prisms and surgery once
stabilized .
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Infective disorders
• Orbital cellulitis .
• Perseptal cellulitis
• Orbital mucocele
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Orbital cellulits
• Is a serious condition that may cause blindness
and may spread and cause brain abscess .
• Infection mostly arises from adjacent Para nasal
sinus mostly Ethmoid
• Most common causative organisms are
Staphylococcus and Streptococcu
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Orbital cellulitis
Symptoms & signs
a painful, proptosed eye;
• conjunctival injection;
• periorbital inflammation and swelling;
• reduced eye movements;
• possible visual loss;
• systemic illness and pyrexia
• Investigations may include CT and MRI
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Orbital cellulitis
management
• Admission
• IV antibiotics
• Abscess drainage
• Orbital decompression
• ENT and neurosurgical help
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Preseptal cellulitis
• Involves the tissues anterior to the orbital septum ,mostly
affecting the lid
• Preiorbital inflammation and swelling
• No other ocular features of the orbital cellulitis .
• Eye movement is not impaired
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Orbital mucocele
• Arises from accumulated secretions within any of the
Para nasal sinuses .
• May need surgical treatment.
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Inflammatory diseases
• Sarcoidosis
• Orbital pseudotumours
• Lymphofibrobalstic disorders
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Vascular abnormalities
• Carotid cavernous fistula.
• Orbital varices .
• Capillary hemangioma.
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CAROTICOCAVERNOUS FISTULA
• This is an abnormal connection between the
carotid artery or dural artery and the CS itself,
causing abnormal arteriovenous shunting within the
cavernous sinus, so the veins are exposed to a high
intravascular pressure.
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Presentation
The C-C fistula would lead to venous exposure to a high intravascular pressure:
1. Dilated conjuctival veins & proptosed eyes
2. E.O.M engorgement leading to decreased eye movements
3. Increased pressure in veins draining the eye leading to increased IOP
4. Pulsatile tinnitus
5. Bruit might be heard over the eye
* Diagnosed by: angiography
* Treated by Embolizing and thrombosing the affected vessel using
radiological techniques.
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Gross chemosis in a patient
with a high-flow carotid-
cavernous fistula
Enlargement of the
conjunctival and episcleral
blood vessels in a patient
with a low-flow carotid-
cavernous communication
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Capillary Hemangiomas
• Capillary hemangiomas are one of the most common benign orbital tumors of infancy. They are benign endothelial cell neoplasms that lead to vessle growth stimulation.
• They are typically absent at birth and characteristically have rapid growth in infancy with spontaneous involution in the first 5 years of life.
• Treated by local injections of steroids only when the size & position obstructs the visual axis risking the development of Amblyopia.
• Incisional surgical techniques also have had variable success
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Orbital Varix
• Dilated orbital veins that causes intermittent proptosis when the venous pressure is raised due to a certain position or maneuver.
• Usually unilateral & painless. The patient might complain from tightness across the eye & nose.
• Treatment:
Avoid activities that cause the symptoms.
Surgery is indicated when the symptoms get
worse by emobilizing the affected vein.
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ORBITAL TUMORS
Primary:
• Rhabdomyosarcoma( malignant)
• Optic nerve glioma
• Lacrimal gland tumors
• Meningiomas
• Lymphoma
Secondary (Metastasis)
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RHABDOMYOSARCOMA
• Commonest orbital tumor in children (sarcoma)
• Rapidly growing arises from striated muscles. appears everywhere there is skeletal muscles.
• 90% occurs before the age of 16.
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EYELID
DISORDERS
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Diseases of the eyelids can be
divided into those associated with:
• abnormal lid position;
• inflammation;
• lid lumps;
• abnormalities of the lashes
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ABNORMALITIES OF LID POSITION
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ptosis
This is an abnormally low position of the upper
eyelid.
PATHOGENESIS
It may be caused by:
Mechanical factors:
(a) Large lid lesions pulling down the lid.
(b) Lid oedema.
(c) Tethering of the lid by conjunctival scarring.
(d) Structural abnormalities including a
disinsertion of the aponeurosis of the levator
muscle, usually in elderly patients.
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2.Neurological factors:
(a)Third nerve palsy
(b)Horner’s syndrome, due to a sympathetic nerve
lesion
(c)Marcus–Gunn jaw-winking syndrome.
3.Myogenic factors:
(a)Myasthenia gravis
(b)Some forms of muscular dystrophy.
(c)Chronic external ophthalmoplegia.
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SYMPTOMS
Patients present because:
they object to the cosmetic effect;
vision may be impaired;
there are symptoms and signs associated with the
underlying cause
(e.g. asymmetric pupils in Horner’s syndrome,
diplopia and reduced eye movements in a third
nerve palsy).
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Signs : There is a reduction in size of the interpalpebral
aperture.
The upper lid margin, which usually overlaps the upper limbus by 1–2imm, may be partially covering the pupil.
The function of the levator muscle can be tested by measuring the maximum travel of the upper lid from upgaze to downgaze (normally 15–18imm). Pressure on the brow (frontalis muscle) during this test will prevent its contribution to lid elevation.
If myasthenia is suspected the ptosis should be observed during repeated lid movement. Increasing ptosis after repeated elevation and depression of the lid is suggestive of myasthenia
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MANAGMENT
It is important to exclude an underlying cause
whose treatment could resolve the problem (e.g.
myasthenia gravis). Ptosis otherwise requires
surgical correction
In very young children this is usually deferred but
may be speed up if pupil cover threatens to induce
amblyopia.
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Entropion
- It is an inturning, usually of the lower lid towards the globe.
- Patients present with irritation caused by eyelashes rubbing on the cornea.
- more common in elderly, because orbcularis muscle become spasm.
- it may also caused by Conjuctival scarring distorting the lid (cicatrical entropion)
Treatment:
Short term :include the application of lubricants to
the eye or taping of the eyelid.
Permenant :surgery
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Ectropion
- Eversion of the lid away from the globe. - Causes:- -age related orbicularis muscle laxity. -facial nerve palsy. -scarring of periorbital skin. - initial complaint of watery eye, because the
mal position of the lids everts the puncta and prevents drainge of the tears leading to epiphora(overflow of the tears over the cheeks )
-it also exposes the conjuctiva leading to irratable eye.
- treatment: surgical
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LID INFLAMMATION
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Blepharitis
Inflammation of the eyelid margins.
It is a chronic disease.
Symptoms:
- tired, itchy, sore eye, worse in the morning.
- Crusting of the lid margin.
Classified into: anterior and posterior .
Both forms are strongly associated with
seborrhoeic dermatitis, atopic eczema and acne
rosacea.
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Anterior Blepharitis
Is when the inflammation is located in the outside surface the lid margin, specifically in lash line.
Signs are:
-Redness and scaling of the lid margin.
-Debris in the form of a collarette around the eyelashes.
-Reduction in the number of eyelashes.
-Some lash bases may ulcerated- sign of staphylococcal infection.
In severe diseases the cornea is affected (blepharokeratitis)
Small infiltrate ulcers may form in the peripheral cornea (marginal keratitis)due to immune complex response to staphlococcal exotoxins .
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Posterior blepharitis
Have another name which is meibomian gland
dysfunction.
Signs are:
- Obstruction and plugging of the meibomian orifices.
- Thickened , cloudy, expressed meibomian
secretion.
- Injection of the lid margin and conjuctiva.
- Tear film abnormalities and punctuate keratitis.
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Treatment
Anterior blepharitis:
• Cleaning with a cotton bud wetted with bicarbonate or
diluted baby shampoo to remove squamous debris from
lash line .
• Topical steroid: used infrequently.
• Topical (fusidic acid) +- systemic antibiotic in
staphylococcal lid disease .
Posterior blepharitis:
• Hot compressors and lid massage.
• Oral tetracycline.
• Artificial tears to prevent dryness
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LID LUMPS
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Chalazion
, -It is a granuloma
within the tarsal
plate caused by
obstructed
meibomian gland.
-Painless.
-Symptoms are
unsightly lid
swelling which
resolve within six months if the lesion
persist we remove
it surgically
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Internal hordeolum
, an abscess in
meibomian
gland.
-Painful.
-May respond
to topical
antibiotics but
incision maybe
necessary.
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,
. - It is an abscess
in eyelash follicle.
painful
-Most cases are
self limiting .
-Treatment
requires the
removal of the
associated
eyelash and
application of
hot compresses.
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,
, -Is a viral infection of
the skin or the mucous
membranes, caused by
pox virus.
-Can be presented with
umbilicated lesion
found on the lid margin.
-Cause irritation,
redness, follicular
conjuctivitis(small
elevation of lymphoid
tissue found on tarsal
conjunctiva)
-Treatment requires
excision of the lid lesion.
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Abnormalities of the lashes -Trichiasis
-Distichiasis
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a common condition
Where the eyelashes will be directed backward towards the glob , against the cornea
It’s distinct from entropion.
Complicated by corneal abrasion
Symptoms : The eye becomes red and irritated
, foreign body sensation, tearing , sensitivity
and sometimes pain when exposed to light
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Causes : - Infectious : Trachoma, Herpes zoster - Autoimmune ,Inflammatory - Postsurgical
Lower lid transconjunctival approach for floor fracture repair or blepharoplasty After ectropion repair
- Chemical
Alkali burns to the eye Medical drops (eg, glaucoma drops)
-Thermal burns to face/lids
treatment: -Epilation of the affected eyelashes with electrolysis, cryotherapy . -An underling abnormal lid position is treated surgically
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is a rare disorder defined as the abnormal growth of lashes from the orifices of the meibomian glands on the posterior lamella of the tarsal plate Two types : acquired and congenital. In the acquired form, most cases involve the lower lids. Lashes can be fully formed or very fine, pigmented or nonpigmented , properly oriented or misdirected. The congenital form is autosomal dominant with complete penetrance. It can be isolated or associated with ptosis, strabismus, congenital heart defect, or mandibulofacial dysostosis. This defect may be related to the epithelial germ cells failure to differentiate completely to meibomian glands, instead they become pilosebaceous units, pilo = hair.
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The lacrimal system
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Abnormalities of lacrimal system
• tear flow and evaporation
• Drainage system abnormalities
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Abnormalities in tear flow and
evaporation – dry eye
• Dry eye is a condition of the ocular surface due to a defi ciency of
tear quantity or composition or excessive evaporation
• characterized by hyperosmolarity and leading to ocular surface
damage, inflammation and symptoms of discomfort
and visual loss
An alternative term is keratoconjunctivitis sicca ( KCS ).
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Tear composition abnormalities
• Abnormal aqueous production
• Abnormal mucus production
• Abnormal meibomian secretion
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Aqueous insufficiency
• Deficiency of lacrimal secretions occur with age
and results in KeratoConjuctivitis Sicca (KCS )
• Primary Sjogren syndrome : dry eye and mouth,
is an autoimmune disease
• Secondary Sjogren : when associated with
connective tissue disease with Rheumatoid
Arthritis as the commonest .
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Symptom & Signs
• Non-specific symptoms as FB sensation , tiredness
,grittiness ,burning ,heaviness photophobia and ocular
fatigue .
• These symptoms are worse at the end of the day and
when exposed to dry or windy atmosphere .
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Signs
• In mild cases may show staining of the cornea with fluorescence (punctate staining )
• In severe cases Tags of mucus attached to the corneal surface ( filamentary keratitis )
• Very severe cases may show structural corneal changes .
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Management
• Tear supplementations
• Humidify the surrounding atmosphere
• Occlude the punci to preserve tears .
• Prognosis depend on the severity and the underlying
cause .
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Inadequate mucus production
• Destruction of goblet cells can occur in many
conditions .
• Causes : Cicatricial conjuctival conditions
Chemical burns
Trachoma
Vit. A deficiency (Xerophthalmia )
e.g of cicatricial conj. Disorders is
Steven_Johnson syndrome .
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Management
• Artificial Tear
• Vit A supplement for Xerophthalmia
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Abnormal or inadequate meibomian gland
secretion
• It will cause tear film instability
• Giving symptoms of dry eye
• Treatment is the same .
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Malposition of the eyelid margin
• Causes : Ectropion
Entropion
Facial palsy
Proptosis
All of these will cause unstable pre-ocular tear film .
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Tear drainage disorders
• When tear production exceeds the drainage the tear will overflow on the cheeks
• Can be caused by :
* Ocular surface irritation as in foreign body or infection causing (Lacrimation )
* Occlusion part of the drainage system
(Epiphora)
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NasoLacrimal Duct Obstruction
• Congenital
• Acquired
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Congenital NLD obstruction
• Normally the NLD develops as a solid cord which completes canalization just before birth
• Sometimes incomplete canalization occur specially for the lower part .
• Leading to epiphora ,mucocele formation and sometimes dacrocystitis ( infection of the lacrimal sac )
• Pressure on the sac will cause mucus to be expressed from puncti .
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allert
• When seeing lacrimation in infant do not forget the most
important cause congenital glaucoma
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Congenital NLD obstruction management
• Spontaneous opening occur in most of the cases .
• If not lacrimal sac massage can be tried
• Lacrimal sac syringing and probing can help in resistant
cases .
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Acquired NLD obstruction
• Causes : Infection
Trauma
Tumour
Radiation
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History
• Symptoms of watering eye
• May be aggravated by windy atmosphere
• Eye stickiness
• History of trauma or radiation .
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Examination
• Punctal occlusion can be seen using slit lamp .
• Syringing and saline injection
• Dacrocystogram .
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Management
• Exclude other ocular causes of lacrimation as blepharitis
• Syringing and probing can be tried .
• DacroCystoRhinostomy (DCR) or other modifications ,to create a fistula between the lacrimal sac and nasal mucosa by destroying the intervening bone .
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Infections of the naso-lacrimal system
• Dacryocystitis : infection of the lacrimal sac ,predisposed by closure ,MC organism is the Staph.species
• Presentation with painful medial cantha swelling
• Treatment with systemic AB
• Mucocele : accumulation of mucus in the lacrimal sac ( not infected ) .
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