ROME

Activities and breakdown of the First Triumvirate

Political Developments in the Late Republic

The story of the First TriumvirateThe triumvirate went to work straight away. First up was to support Caesar in his campaign for consulship. With the support of Crassus and Pompey, Caesar won the election and was consul. His colleague for the year was Calpurnius Bibulus

Caesar got straight to business attempting to pass his legislation to support himself, Pompey and Crassus. Unfortunately for Caesar the senate was hostile and Bibulus was prepared to block him at every opportunity.

He tried to be nice to start off with. He would ask the Senate’s opinion and was courteous to Bibulus.

He presented his bill to provide for Pompey’s veterans to the senate – he was trying to compromise – he stated that he was willing to make changes if objections were reasonable.

The Senate refused and continued to block him time after time. Caesar was not willing to be defeated so he presented the land bill to the assembly to attempt to get around the Senate. Unfortunately for Caesar Bibulus vetoed the bill. Caesar demanded that he withdraw the veto but he refused

Caesar realised that the only way available for him to pass this bill was to use his real strengths – his military force. He called on Pompey and Crassus to express their approval. Caesar asked Pompey publically whether he would defend the people’s rights. Caesar replied “if it is a question of swords, he could produce a sword and a shield as well”. Plutarch even says that Pompey “filled the city with his soldiers and held everyone down by force” (though he’s probably exaggerating a little – more likely some of his veterans, who were now private citizens, were brought into the forum.

Coin of Marcus Licinius Crassus

As a result of this use of force some rioting occurred. Bibulus, Cato and Lucullus were threated. Bibulus even had a basket of dung thrown over his head.Bibulus wanted revenge. He realised that he couldn’t do anything to block Caesar in the normal way so he proclaimed that the remaining days of the year were to be regarded as a ‘sacred period’ – meaning that it was legally impossible for the people even to meet in an assembly.Caesar ignored it and declared his land bill passed. Bibulus saw that there was an implicit threat in this and isolated himself in his house for the rest of the year. He saidHe would watch the sky for unfavourable omens (taking the auspices) – with the Intention of making the rest of Caesar’s legislation technically invalid. What it reallydid, however, was to give Caesar the opportunity to govern alone and do what he pleased.

Crassus - Fun Fact: After Crassus’ death, a story later surfaced that the Parthians poured molten gold into Crassus’ mouth as punishment for his greed.

Caesar used the tribune Vatinius and the popular Assembly to pass laws including Pompey’s action in Asia, the Land bill to give land to his veterans, The settlement of Crassus’ tax rebates. Caesar also passed the Lex Vatinius, giving him a command in Gaul for 5 years, after his term as consul.

Caesar was concerned about loyalty. To ensure that Pompey was on his side, he arranged for his daughter Julia to marry Pompey.

Pompey

Pompey had been making statementssaying that he did not approve of Caesars’s use of force, but he couldn’t afford to get Caesar offside by saying no to the marriage.Caesar continued to legislate throughout 59 without any thought for the constitution and used the threat of force to suppress any opposition. The initial alarm felt by the optimates when they learned of the triumvirate’s existence turned to fear. There were even demonstrations against the three at gladiatorial shows and the theatre. Actors made fun of Pompey, no one cheered Caesar when he entered the theatre. Caesar was a little concerned. Pompey was the main target of the oppositions attack – he would have been the most upset as he had always wanted acceptance and respect.

Cicero had refused to join the triumvirate in 60BC. He was friends with Pompey though so he did not fight what they were doing even though he hoped that they would break up. Caesar realised that Cicero might talk Pompey into leaving the group so tried to buy his loyalty by offering him a post on his staff during his governorship of Gaul. Cicero refused again.Caesar wanted to ensure that Rome was in ‘safe hands’ in 58 before he left for his province – he needed a tribune that could keep an eye on Pompey to make sure that Cicero and Cato didn’t convince him to break their allegiance.

In 59BC P. Clodius Pulcher changed his status to that of a plebeian with the help of Caesar so that he could be elected tribune in 58 – he HATED Cicero and wanted revenge (Clodius had been charged with sacrilege and involved in the notorious Bona Dea trial. Cicero had broken his alibi, making his prosecution certain, but he was acquitted after the blatant bribery of the jury by Crassus)Towards the end of 58 Cicero realised the danger. Cicero hoped that Pompey would prevent Clodius from attacking him but was not convinced that Pompey would support him.During his tribunate Clodius proposed a number of measures to gain popularity with the urban masses – free corn, banning the use of omens in order to stop public business, and legalising clubs and associations (which became the basis of the gangs used to undermine law and order used in Rome)

More importantly he introduced a bill to banish any magistrate who had put to death a citizen without trial – this was aimed at Cicero as he had put the Catilinarian conspirators to death in 63) Cicero was in trouble. He tried to find friends but everywhere he went he was accosted by Clodius with a band of insolent ruffians around him.He asked for Pompey’s help, but Pompey failed to support him. He had no choice – he left Rome in fear. Once he had left Clodius passed a law officially exiling him and preventing him from living less than 650kms from Rome. Clodius also managed to remove Cato – by sending him on a special mission to Cyprus.

AU, å , 8.17 gr. Bare head of Sextus Pompey to right. Legend MAG PIVS-IMP ITER (Magnus Pius Imperator Iter). All in oak wreath. Confronted bare heads of Cnaeus Pompey the Great and his son. On sides, a lituus and a tripod . The legend PRAEF/ CLAS.ET.ORAE/MARIT.EX.S.C Minted in Sicily, around 42 BC

At this point Caesar left Rome for the province. He felt that the Triumvirate was safe from threat.Pompey was having a relatively successful year however Clodius was also causing problems for him. He made changings to Pompey’s eastern arrangements, replaced Pompey’s appointee to the high priesthood and freed Pompey’s hostages. They attacked Pompey verbally and instigated a plot to make Pompey believe that his life was threated. Clodius attacked and destroyed Pompey’s house. AT this point Pompey did not show himself in public for the remainder of Clodius’ tribunate. There is a question on whether Clodius was acting on his own or whether Crassus was behind these attacks. The treatment of Pompey by Clodius, together with the belief that his life was in danger, caused Pompey to use his own gang to cause trouble.

The gang warfare at this time highlighted the conflict between Pompey and Crassus.Pompey needed supporters. He wanted Cicero back. At the same time, however, he did not want to upset Caesar so he sent one of the tribunes for 57 to ask permission to bring him back. Caesar grudgingly agreed.This caused more problems for Pompey because Clodius tried to use violence and rioting to stop Pompey’s bill to recall Cicero but Pompey used his own men to give support. The bill was passed and Cicero returned to Rome.

Cicero

Cicero needed to ‘pay back’ Pompey for his support and recall so he spoke in the Senate claiming that Pompey should be given a special command. There had been many riots in Rome due to food shortages. People were hungry. There wasn’t much corn available and the prices were very high. The people wanted Pompey in charge of grain supplies and Cicero spoke in favour of the appointment of Pompey as Curator of the Grain Supply. According to Plutarch this ‘made Pompey once again virtually the master of all Roman possessions by sea and land’. It would also have made Crassus and Caesar very jealous – remember though that Caesar was off in Gaul with his own problems.

Cicero, who was still trying to break up the alliance and to repair his friendship with Pompey and the optimates, again brought up the question of Caesar’s land bill (lex Campania). Cicero wanted it repealed and modified. He believed that Pompey would benefit – Campania was a valuable source of revenue which could help Pompey with his job as grain controller and because it might win Pompey back some senatorial supportThere was a further threat to Caesar when a candidate for consulship for 55, L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, declared that if he were elected for the following year he would immediately initiate a move to have Caesar recalled from Gaul.

So the triumvirate was on rocky ground. All three had their own interests, but needed each other. Other forces were out to encourage their demise. Forces were against them.Despite this Crassus was not keen for the alliance to end – he wanted to use the triumvirate to gain an appointment which would give him the same sort of prestige as that enjoyed by Pompey and Caesar. Caesar needed the triumvirate to continue – if it didn’t he would be recalled to Rome. He wasn’t finished his conquest of Gaul and it would be a political disaster for him to be recalled at this point. Pompey wasn’t sure if the optimates would accept him if he broke from the coalition – and he would continue to be harassed by Clodius and Crassus. He also knew that it was in his best interest to maintain his friendship with Caesar

Crassus from the Series SPARTACUS

Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul for the winter so Crassus travelled out to tell Caesar that the triumvirate was in trouble – especially that Cicero was meddling again. Caesar needed to sort these problems out, especially before he went back to Transalpine Gaul for some more campaigning and before Pompey went to Sardinia to do some organising as Curator of the Grain Supply.Caesar had to take action. He had too much at stake for the triumvirate to collapse. He moved to Luca (a town in his province nearest to Rome). The three men met there and the decisions that they made provided for a public reconciliation between Crassus and Pompey and strengthened the position for all three.

Caesar from the Series SPARTACUS

The three made plans for the future. Pompey and Crassus would stand for their second joint consulship in the following year. During this consulship they would look after Caesar – he wanted an extension for his command in Gaul. They would also make sure that they looked after their own proconsular futures. They also decided that they would impress on Cicero that there was to be no discussion of the lex Campania or of Caesar’s recall. Crassus was told to stop associating with Clodius. He was also asked to try and persuade Clodius to leave Pompey alone.

It wasn’t so easy. Although they decided to run for consulship, they had to convince people to vote for them. They had many powerful enemies including rival candidate Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was a big concern for the triumvirate as he threatened to recall Caesar if he won.Pompey and Crassus knew it was going to be difficult to win the election so they manipulated the system. They could not afford to risk standing at a normal election so they decided to delay submitting their nominations as long as possible but more importantly they worked hard to prevent the current consuls (56BC) from holding an election until the end of their term. They even used violence.

This was sneaky… and smart. By the end of the 56 consulship, no election had been held – so there were no consuls in office to actually hold an election! This meant that an interrex had to be appointed. An interrex was an appointed official with patrician status – he had five days in which to hold an election. If he failed another interrex would be appointed etc.)So… an interrex who was friendly with Pompey was appointed. He only proposed two candidates for the election – Pompey and Crassus! They were elected of course. It wasn’t all so nice and simple however – there was much bribery, violence and fighting during this process. Domitius Ahenobarbus was badly injured.

RRC 458/1Obverse: Head of Venus right, wearing diadem. Border of dots.

Reverse: Aeneas left, carrying palladium in right hand and Anchises on left shoulder; on right, CAESAR downwards. Border of dots.

Once ‘elected’ they got to work quickly. They used a tribune (C.Trebonius) to get their proconsular commands. Crassus was given the province of Syria and he hoped it would give him a chance to invade Parthia and win him military glory. Pompey was granted the two Spain's. He was allowed to stay in Rome though and use his legates to govern his provinces. He used his role as commander of the grain supply as his excuse to stay in Rome – really he wanted to stay to keep an eye on the city and his opponents (and friends!) These were important proconsular commands – they were for 5 years and allowed Pompey and Crassus to make war and peace without prior reference to the senate and the people. Crassus didn’t even wait til the end of his consulship before leaving!

Reverse: Trophy with oval shield and carnyx in right hand and oblong shield and carnyx in left hand; on left, kneeling bearded captive with hands tied behind back; on right, seated female captive resting head in right hand; in exergue, CAESAR. Border of dots.

Once Pompey and Crassus had what they wanted they got to work in helping Caesar. They secured a passage of law extending Caesar’s command in Gaul for a further five years. It looked like everything was back on track for the triumvirate.Pompey remained in Italy, due to the corn supply commission. This made him the strongest. He was in Rome, he wasn’t distracted by attacks or fighting, and he had the ear of his supporters. In the second half of 54BC his wife died in childbirth. Julia was Caesar’s daughter. Her death didn’t immediately cause problems but it gave Pompey the chance to move his support away from Caesar and link himself to another important family

Julia from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum. The inscription reads: "Julia Caesaris; Caesar's daughter; Pompey's wife."

Things were getting very bad in Rome. Anarchy and violence were rife. The elections of 54 were delayed. Even worse, all the candidates for 53 were awaiting prosecution for corruption. A political crisis was developing and Pompey was in a good position to take advantage of any situation which might call for the appointment of someone with exceptional powers. There were rumours of a dictatorship but Pompey did not want it

It appeared that there was much resistance to the triumvirate. The conservatives (the optimates) were still hostile to Pompey and Caesar and attacked their supporters Vatinius and Gabinius in the courts.Then things became even worse for the relationship between Pompey and Caesar – Crassus died! The Roman Army had been defeated by the Parthians and Crassus died at Carrhae. It seriously split Pompey and Caesar. There was no longer anyone to mediate between them and bring them together. Caesar was worried. He even tried to get Pompey to marry another of his family members – his great niece Octavia. He was even prepared to divorce his own wife to marry Pompey’s daughter. Pompey refused.

Roman statue of Pompey, at the Villa Arconati a Castellazzo di Bollate (Milan, Italy). It was brought there from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati.

The violence and anarchy in Rome was getting worse. Pompey realised that he could exploit the situation for his own benefitPompey’s supporter Milo was a candidate for consul in 53BC. Clodius, Pompey’s foe, was standing for the praetorship. These two men had been enemies for a long time. Tensions were high, and combined with the atmosphere of anarchy and violence at the time, armed conflict between the two broke out. Clodius was wounded and carried to a tavern where, on the orders of Milo, he was killed. His body was taken to Rome and placed in the Curia (Senate House) to be cremated The blaze of the funeral pyre burnt out of control, perhaps at the hands of Clodius’ supporters, and the Senate House was burnt down.

Things didn’t end there and Rome continued in it’s spiral to being out of control. Clodius’ wife stirred up the mob and they raided and damaged the houses of Milo and the interrex Lepidus. There were no consuls in Rome. The streets were in anarchy. Violence had become normal. Both Patricians and Plebeians feared for their safety. In this critically desperate situation the senate issued SENATUS CONSULTUM ULTIMUM giving Pompey the authority to raise troops and restore order since he was the only one with imperium.

Rome the Series

Over the next month a series of interreges were appointed but failed to hold any elections. People were demanding that Pompey should be appointed dictator to restore order and control in Rome.Still, the Optimates were not in favour of a dictatorship. The experiences of Sulla were still fresh in their minds. As a compromise they suggested that Pompey should be appointed as a consul without a colleague (SOLE CONSULSHIP). It was expected that once Pompey had dealt with the emergency he would arrange for the election of a colleague, making the return to normal government easier.

This was another extraordinary command. It was only three years since his last consulship – it should have been ten. The most unusual thing, however, was that it was proposed by the conservatives and yet it was a very unconstitutional position.Once he took up the job (52BC), Pompey went to work passing three important pieces of legislation. The first was a law against public violence. It was under these that Milo was prosecuted. This trial caused disturbances in Rome and Pompey was forced to bring troops into the Forum to maintain order. Pompey probably saw Milo as a rival and wanted him convicted. His troops were a way of ensuring this. Despite Cicero’s defence, Milo was condemned for Clodius’ death and sent into exile.

Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem, by Jean Fouquet.

The next two laws had an impact on Caesar though Pompey was not deliberately trying to undermine him. Firstly Pompey passed a law stipulating a five year interval between urban magistracies and provincial commands. The second law stated a candidate had to stand in person. This meant that Caesar had to return in 49BC. He wanted a second consulship in 48BC because this would allow him to leave Rome again in 47BC and avoid prosecution. Pompey arranged for tribunes to pass a law that would exclude Caesar from the laws and he could stand in absentia. In this way he could remain in Gaul as long as possible. However, in a hope to keep Pompey on their side, the senate extended Pompey’s own command over Spain for another five years..

Caesar from ROME HBO

At this stage (52) Pompey maintained a position somewhere between Caesar and the optimates. Caesar had been made aware that his political survival depended on Pompey’s support and the senate was aware that it needed Pompey to preserve law and order. This was a position of power for Pompey that could not last. Caesars enemies would not be stopped from their efforts to have him recalled as soon as possible, which would upset the balance and force Pompey to commit himself openly to one side or the other.

Activities and breakdown of

the First Triumvirate