i

OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FACED BY SMALLSCALE BROILER

FARMERS IN THE USE OF MARKETING TECHNOLOGIES: A CASE OF BINDURA

DISTRICT.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Bachelor of

Agricultural Science Honours Degree in Agricultural education and extension

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Department of Agricultural Economics, Education and Extension

By

Talent Marimo

B1543007

31 May 2019

ii

RELEASE FORM

Name of Candidate:

Reg Number: B1543007

Degree: Bachelor of Agricultural Science Honors Degree in Agricultural Education and

Extension

Project Title: Opportunities and constraints faced by small-scale broiler farmers in the use

of marketing technologies: A case of Bindura district.

Permission is hereby granted to Bindura University of Science Education Library to produce

a single copy of this dissertation and lend such copy for private, scholarly or scientific research

only.

Signed……………………………….

Permanent Address: Mariele children’s home 149 Beatrice

iii

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certified that they have supervised and recommended to Bindura University of

Science Education for acceptance of dissertation entitled Opportunities and constraints faced

by small-scale broiler farmers in the use of marketing technologies: A case of Bindura

district submitted in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Agricultural Science Honors Degree in

Agricultural Education and Extension.

Name of supervisor:

Signature:

Date:

iv

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the research project entitled OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

FACED BY SMALLSCALE BROILER FARMERS IN THE USE OF MARKETING

TECHNOLOGIES: A CASE OF BINDURA DISTRICTsubmitted to Bindura University of

Science Education, Department of Agricultural Economics, Education and Extension is a record

of an original work done by me under the guidance and supervision of ……………………. and

this work is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of

Agricultural Science Honours Degree in Agricultural Education and Extension. The results

embodied in this thesis have not been submitted to any University or Institute for the award of

any degree or diploma.

Author:

Reg Number: B1543007

Signature: ……………………………….

Date:

v

DEDICATION

I dedicate this research project to my late parents, my guardian Sr Magdalene Valadez, Franco

Passerini, my brother Dominic and my lovely sister Constance.

vi

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to Bindura University of Science Education for granting me

the opportunity to carry out the research study as part of the Degree study Programme. The

university’s assistance in provision of literature and technical resources for my research is highly

appreciated. My special thanks to my academic supervisor for his guidance, positive criticism,

patience and encouragement throughout the research period, my sincere gratitude.

To all my classmates, the journey was long but the end summoned us. It was not easy to get to

the finishing line. Thank you for the words of encouragement, and the moral support l managed

to receive from you in the entire time of my studies. I would also like to thank all individuals

whose help and support contributed to the realization of this document, thank you very much and

God bless you all.

viii

ABSTRACT

The research sought to explore opportunities and constraints faced by small-scale broiler farmers

in the use of marketing technologies in marketing their broilers inBindura, Zimbabwe. The

specific objectives of the study were to identify existing marketing technologies used by the

target population, marketing challenges faced and to identify available factors which influence

adoption of marketing technologies within the studied group. Data was collected from individual

interviews using a pre-tested, semi-structured questionnaire and checklist as well as focus

groups.

The logit model was also used to examine the causal relationship between social economic

factors and marketing technology adoption .the study revealed marketing technologies which

existed within the study group, they include mobile phone technology, EcoFarmer, radio gate

posters and television. The marketing challenges that were being faced by the small-scale broiler

farmers include price fluctuations, poor access to credit, poor road networks and lack of market

information. Social economic factors such as gender of the household head, educational level,

access to extension, farming experience of the household head significantly affect farmers’

decisions to adopt modern marketing technologies, while Family size, age and access to credit

had a negative relationship with adoption of modern marketing technologies.

Therefore there is need to improve extension service so as to improve farmers knowledge on the

use of marketing technologies so as to improve marketing of their broilers, the government and

the private sector must collaborate and foster a deal with banks to support the provision of

extension services on the marking of broilers in Bindura .

Keywords: Opportunities, Constraints, Broiler farming, Logit, Marketing technologies

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

ICT Information and communication technology

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

MIS Marketing Information System/Services

PAZ Poultry association of Zimbabwe

SMS Short Messaging Service

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientist

ADMARC Agriculture Development and Marketing Corporation

MAMID Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development

SADC Southern African Development Committee

LPD Livestock Production Department

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

RELEASE FORM ........................................................................................................................................ ii

APPROVAL FORM ................................................................................................................................... iii

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................................ iv

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................ v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... vii

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICIES ............................................................................................................................. xv

CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.0. Background of the study ............................................................................................................... 1

1.1Problem statement ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Research questions ........................................................................................................................ 3

1.3 Objectives of the study .................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.1. Mainobjective ........................................................................................................................ 4

1.3.2 Specific objectives .................................................................................................................. 4

1.4 Research hypothesis ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................................ 4

1.6 Organisation of the study ............................................................................................................... 5

LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................................ 6

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Common marketing technologies used by broiler farmers.............................................................. 6

2.2.1Mobile technology ................................................................................................................... 6

2.2.2 Gate posters ............................................................................................................................ 7

2.2.3 Radio ...................................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.4 Television ............................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.5 EcoFarmer .............................................................................................................................. 8

xi

2.2.6 Social media ........................................................................................................................... 8

2.3. The marketing challenges faced by smallholder broiler farmers .................................................... 9

2.3.1 Lack of organized market. ....................................................................................................... 9

2.3.2 Poor marketing channels. ........................................................................................................ 9

2.3.3 Price Instability (price fluctuation) .......................................................................................... 9

2.3.4 Market Intelligence ............................................................................................................... 10

2.3.5 Grading and packaging (standardisation). .............................................................................. 10

2.3.6 Lack of Technical Knowledge and Skills ............................................................................... 10

2.3.7 Lack of market information ................................................................................................... 11

2.3.8 Poor Road and Transport System........................................................................................... 11

2.3.9 Accessibility of marketing (Market access)............................................................................ 11

2.3.10 Value Chain Development ................................................................................................... 12

2.4. Technology adoption .................................................................................................................. 13

2.5 Socio-economic factors affecting modern marketing technology adoption................................... 13

2.5.1Availability and amount of family labor ................................................................................. 13

2.5.2Age ........................................................................................................................................ 14

2.5.3 Farm size .............................................................................................................................. 14

2.5.4. Off-farm income .................................................................................................................. 14

2.5.5. Access to extension services ................................................................................................. 15

2.5.6. Educational level .................................................................................................................. 16

2.5.7. Gender ................................................................................................................................. 17

2.5.8. Access to credit .................................................................................................................... 17

2.6 opportunities and constraints of using modern marketing technologies....................................... 18

CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 21

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 21

3.2 Description of Study area ............................................................................................................. 21

3.3Research design ............................................................................................................................ 21

3.4 Sampling size and sampling procedure. ........................................................................................ 22

3.5. Data collection methods. ............................................................................................................ 23

3.5.1Questionnaires ....................................................................................................................... 23

3.5.2 Interview ............................................................................................................................... 24

3.5.3Focus group discussion .......................................................................................................... 25

xii

3.6 Data analysis methods ................................................................................................................. 25

3 .7 Model specification ..................................................................................................................... 27

3.7.1 The Logit Model ................................................................................................................... 27

3.8.1 Adoption status (ado) ............................................................................................................ 29

3.8.2 Age of household head (age) ................................................................................................. 29

3.8.3 Education (edn) ..................................................................................................................... 29

3.8.4 Gender (gen) ......................................................................................................................... 30

3.8.5 Farming experience (exp) ...................................................................................................... 30

3.8.6 Access to extension (ext) ....................................................................................................... 30

3.8.7 Farm size (fsize) .................................................................................................................... 30

3.8.8 Household size (hsize) .......................................................................................................... 31

3.8.9 off farm employment (employ) .............................................................................................. 31

3.9. Limitations of the study .............................................................................................................. 31

3.10 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 33

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................... 33

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 33

4.2 Socio economic characteristics of respondents ............................................................................ 33

4.2.1 Distribution of respondents by sex. ........................................................................................ 33

4.2.2 Distribution of respondents by age ........................................................................................ 34

4.2.3 Distribution of respondents by level of education .................................................................. 35

4.2.4 Distribution of respondents by marital status ......................................................................... 35

4.2.5 Distribution of respondents by family size ............................................................................. 35

4.2.6 Distribution of respondents by source of income ................................................................... 36

4.3 Existing marketing technologies used in Bindura district. ............................................................. 36

4.3.1 Gate posters .......................................................................................................................... 37

4.3.2 Mobile phone technology ...................................................................................................... 37

4.3.3 Social media ......................................................................................................................... 37

4.3.4 Ecofarmer ............................................................................................................................. 37

4.3.5 Radio and television .............................................................................................................. 38

4.4 Marketing challenges faced by broiler farmers in Bindura district. ............................................... 38

4.4.1 Price fluctuations .................................................................................................................. 39

4.4.2Poor marketing technologies and skills ................................................................................... 39

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4.4.3 Poor grading and standardization ........................................................................................... 39

4.4.4 Poor transport infrastructure .................................................................................................. 39

4.4.5 Predators and disease ............................................................................................................ 40

4.4.6 Lack of market information ................................................................................................... 40

4.4.7 Lack of organized markets .................................................................................................... 40

4.5 Diagnostic tests............................................................................................................................ 40

4.5.1 Multicollinearity Test ............................................................................................................ 40

4.5.2 Model Test ............................................................................................................................ 41

4.5.3 Heteroskedasticity Test ......................................................................................................... 41

4.6 Discussion of Logit Model Results ................................................................................................ 41

4.6.1 Unrestricted Logit Model Results .......................................................................................... 41

4.6.2 Restricted Logit Model Results ............................................................................................. 42

4.6.3 Post Estimation Diagnostic Tests ........................................................................................... 43

4.7 Factors affecting the adoption of marketing technologies in Bindura district. ............................... 44

4.7.1 Marginal Effects Results ....................................................................................................... 44

4.7.2 Interpretation of the marginal effects results .......................................................................... 44

4.8. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 47

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 47

5.1 Summary of the main findings ..................................................................................................... 47

5.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 48

5.3. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 48

5.4 Areas of further study .................................................................................................................. 48

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 50

APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 58

APPENDIX 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 59

APPENDIX 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 60

APPENDIX 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 61

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Operational definition of variables ........................................................................................... 27

Table 2. Socio economic and demographic characteristics of respondents .............................................. 34

Table 3. Summary of socio-economic factors ......................................................................................... 36

Table 4. Results showing existing marketing technologies in the study area ........................................... 36

Table 5. Results of marketing challenges faced by small-scale broiler farmers in the study area ............. 38

Table 6. Logit unrestricted model results ............................................................................................... 42

Table 7. Regression results for the restricted logit model........................................................................ 43

Table 8. Marginal effects after logit ....................................................................................................... 44

xv

LIST OF APPENDICIES

Appendix 1. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................... 55

Appendix 2. CORRELATION MATRIX FOR MARKETING TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION STATUS ...................... 58

Appendix 3. MODEL TEST RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 59

Appendix 4. HETEROSKEDASTICITY TEST RESULTS .................................................................................. 60

Appendix 5. INTERVIEW GUIDE .............................................................................................................. 61

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0. Background of the study

Agriculture is the major backbone of Zimbabwe, contributing close to 16% towards the GDP in

2010 (FAO, 2010). Agriculture remains the mainstay of Zimbabwe’s economy. Providing

income for about 70 percent of the population and contributing over 40 percent of national

earnings from exports and providing 60 percent raw materials for agro-industries. Both

commercial and subsistence farming are being practiced to produce various crops and animals

(FAO, 2012). Livestock commodity outputs contributes 25% of total agricultural outputs from

all farming sectors (FAO, 2012). Zimbabwe’s livestock commodities include an estimated 5.2

million cattle, 397 thousand sheep, 3.2 million goats, 202 thousand pigs, 38 thousand dairy cattle

and several millions of poultry (LPD, 2011). Land reform had an impact on the outlook of the

smallholder livestock supply chains in Zimbabwe (Mujeyi, 2010). Hence the implementation of

new polices under the land reform programme ushered a new era in terms of livestock markets,

market relations and opportunities and marketing channels for agricultural services, livestock

inputs and outputs.

The Zimbabwean Poultry industry production relies on both indigenous and imported poultry

strains for breeding stock (Faranisi 1995). The poultry industry in Zimbabwe recorded a 22%

growth in the first quarter of 2015 after producing 17 million broiler day old chicks (poultry cite

2014). Chicken production in Zimbabwe is like in other developing countries, it has a dual

nature, comprising large and small scale producers (ZPA, 2013). Large scale production is

characterized by intensive management, mechanization and specialization and dominated by

large companies, while small scale production includes semi intensive and extensive farming.

Small-scale producers, produce between 50 and up to 1500 broilers. It is important to note the

growing importance of the small-scale sector which was estimated to contribute two thirds of

total production in 2012 (Zimbabwe Poultry Association 2012). Smallholder farmers produce

about 80 percent of the developing world’s food. These women and men are key contributors to

global food security, custodians of vital natural resources and biodiversity, and central to climate

2

change mitigation and adaptation (Sukume, 2013). High productivity and access to efficient and

better paying markets are important in enhancing the livelihood of the rural poor (Ncube, 2014).

However agricultural markets do not work efficiently for smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

(Jayne et. al., 2008).

Small holder broiler farmers in Bindura use various marketing technologies such as whatsApp,

phone calls, text messages, and notice boards in form of gate posters which are hanged on their

gates. However they face many marketing challenges and to help them manage and alleviate

some of these challenges, Broiler farming is one of the important businesses in the area being a

common source of income and employment. Therefore the study was initiated to identify the real

marketing issues impeding the development of the industry and suggest their appropriate

solutions. Therefore to manage those marketing challenges, they should adopt some of the

modern marketing technologies. Use of modern technology is a critical component of Modern

Marketing, because it enables marketers to establish a system of record. Hence Without it,

marketers don’t have the tools necessary to design, implement, track, and report on effective

marketing efforts. It is essential that farmers access advisory services and market information for

both inputs and produce for them to make informed decisions. Therefore it is essential to raise

awareness and promote the use of this ICT platform among small holder farmers to keep them up

to date on weather, farming advice and markets for informed decision, better planning and

improved production.

Challenges faced by smallholder broiler farmers including lack of access to markets, high costs

of production and poor quality of finished products in packaging and standards make it difficult

for the smallholder broiler farmers in Zimbabwe to meet the local market demand and export the

broiler products. Korombo (2016) argued that Zimbabwean chicken producers would be affected

by illegal imports from neighboring trading partners, since the products are cheaper than the

local chicken. Therefore, efforts need to be intensified to overcome these constraints through

research, policy formulations, assistance from the public sector and other stakeholders. These

and many more gave rise to the need to carry out this study and find means of assisting

smallholder broiler farmers in their production and marketing of their products .

3

1.1Problem statement

Agriculture plays a critical role both at macro and micro levels in Zimbabwe. High productivity

and access to efficient and better paying markets are important in enhancing the livelihood of the

rural poor (Mukhebi et. al., 2007).However agricultural markets do not work efficiently for

smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe (Jayne et. al.2008).

The agricultural sector is facing challenges in marketing their produce. Farmers are used to old

methods of marketing which are sometimes very expensive in terms of transporting and many

other marketing costs which are incurred during the marketing process. Therefore farmers

should adopt modern marketing technologies so as to improve their marketing. Agriculture is an

important activity in rural areas and smallholder farmers which contributes a lot to production.

Though smallholder farmers do their best to produce more so as to increase income as well as

improving their stands of living, they facing challenges in marketing their produce (Ncube,

2014).

However though smallholder farmers are trying to produce for their needs as well as for selling.

They are troubling a lot in trying to market their produce. Their produce will be of good quality

but marketing is becoming a serious problem to smallholder farmers. As a result they will be

forced to give out their produce at low prices hence becoming more like price takers. Since they

usually sell produce at give-away prices it shows that marketing is a real challenge leading to

underdevelopment. Therefore this research seeks to address some modern marketing

technologies which can be used by smallholder farmers especially the broiler produces for

effective marketing as well as try by all means to address constraints of using those various

modern marketing technologies

1.2 Research questions

What are the modern technologies used by smallholder farmers in marketing their

produce?

What are the marketing challenges faced by smallholder broiler farmers?

What are the factors influencing adoption of marketing technologies by smallholder

broiler farmers?

4

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1. Mainobjective

To determine constraints and opportunities of using marketing technologies in the

marketing process by small-scale broiler producers.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

To identify existing various marketing technologies used by broiler farmers in marketing

their produce.

To identify other marketing challenges faced by the smallholder broiler farmers

To determine factors that influence the adoption of marketing technologies by small scale

broiler farmers.

1.4 Research hypothesis

i. Socioeconomic factors (such as education, age, extension visits, access to credit and distance to

market place) do not influence technology adoption.

ii. There are no existing modern marketing technologies for small scale broiler farmers in

Bindura

1.5 Significance of the study

Livestock rearing is an important subsidiary occupation that supplements the income of

smallholder farm families and rural households in most developing countries. Broiler production

particularly in Zimbabwe is a very important source of meat proteins, vitamins, amino acids and

other nutrients. Broiler chickens are also a cheap source of the aforementioned compared to beef

and pork as it supplies over 60% of the country's meat requirement (PAZ 2012).

Broiler production can be very important in curbing poverty, improving livelihoods and reducing

unemployment and thus improving the living standards of the farmers involved generally,

signalling the importance of broiler production as a viable enterprise for income generation..

Poultry production, as one segment of livestock production, has a peculiar privilege to contribute

to the sector. This is mainly due to their small size and fast reproduction compared to most other

livestock and its well fitness with the concept of small-scale agricultural development

5

Use of modern marketing technologies has the potential to improve the livelihoods of small-scale

farmers and the efficiency of the agricultural sector in developing countries. This includes the

use of computers, internet, geographical information systems, mobile phones, as well as

traditional media such as radio or television in dissemination of information to the farmers and

buyers. It improves awareness of up-to-date market information on prices for commodities,

inputs and consumer trends can improve farmer’s livelihoods substantially and have a dramatic

impact on their negotiating position. Such information is instrumental in making decisions about

future crops and commodities and about the best time and place to sell and buy goods.

1.6 Organisation of the study

This study will be structured as follows, chapter 2, will review related literature in relation to the

study. Literature review will be followed by research methodology in chapter 3 which focuses on

econometric methods and procedures to be used in the study. Estimation and interpretation of

results will be provided in chapter 4 while chapter 5 summarizes and concludes with

recommendations and areas for further study.

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews literature which is available concerning the project title. It had been broken

down into subtopics which enables to make the research easier and understandable. There are

various technologies which can be used by broiler farmers to market their chickens, they can use

cell phones where they can text messages to their clients or they can also text messages via

WhatsApp, posters are the major marketing technologies used by smallholder broiler farmers

because they are easy to asses and are cheap. Also television and radio can also be used. Despite

the availability of all these marketing technologies small scale broiler farmers still face some

changes in marketing their broilers. Hence broiler farmers are called to adopt the use of modern

marketing technologies; however their adoption is affected by several factors which are

highlighted in this chapter.

2.2 Common marketing technologies used by broiler farmers

2.2.1Mobile technology

Mobile phones have been spreading fast among farmers and they are exchanging their marketing,

weather and business information among each other. Farmers directly contact markets brokers

and near cities for sell their product. Similarly farmers focus, search useful and up-to-date market

information from social and business networks (Sharma, 2016). It is proven that mobile phone is

very powerful tool in providing basic information about agriculture. For instance in Zimbabwe

mobile line companies such as Econet, Netone and Telecel, can provide new direction and

approach to farmers for communicating with market and agriculture extension officers.

7

Smartphones and tablets are the fastest growing consumer technologies in history of marketing.

Mobile technology is increasingly and seen as having huge potential in agricultural development

(Samson, 2011), with SMS-based information services such as Nokia Life Tools and Reuters

Market Light are now available to millions of farmers all over the world. Burrell (2015) states

that, mobile marketing is multi-channel online marketing technique focused at reaching a

specific audience on their smartphones, tablets, or any other related devices through websites, E

mail, SMS and MMS, social media or mobile applications. SMS can be sent and reach audients

or customers within 5 to 10 minutes. (Abdul et al 2013) also says, mobile phone enables the

customer to monitor the progress of the delivery of his product via mobile device.

2.2.2 Gate posters

Gate posters useful tools to communicate with new or existing customers(Yankson,et al 2016).

They are printed sheets meant to be distributed in a public place. They are most often used to

support a promotion such as a new product or service, special sale or an upcoming event. Their

function is the same as many other marketing materials, as they should grab a reader’s attention,

make an offer which focuses on benefits affecting the reader and then motivate them to take

action(Guoying , 2013).

2.2.3 Radio

It is used extensively as a communication medium in developing countries to support educational

programmes in teaching, health, literacy training, nutrition education, and the promotion of

Changes in farming practices to improve agricultural production (While other communication

media like television remain in the hands of a small percentage of people, low-cost transistor

radios run on batteries are now affordable for the poorer sections of the population. Furthermore,

radio as a communication medium does not require literacy. Hence anyone can make use of it.

The increasing shift to local radio program production and broadcasting is also removing barriers

of language and dialect. As a result, radio has become a valuable medium of communication and

dissemination of information, as well as for training and education for broad segments of rural

communities.

2.2.4 Television

The success of agricultural development programmes in developing countries largely

depends on the nature and extent in the use of mass media in mobilization of people for

8

development. Television is acknowledged as the most important medium for communicating

with the rural populations of developing countries (FAO, 2001).According to Morden (1991)

the basic function of television advertising is to create basic awareness about the product, service

and idea so that the consumers can take rational decision from their mind and not from their

heart. To build up knowledge about anything advertising helps the potential customers a lot.

2.2.5 EcoFarmer

EcoFarmer is Econet’s own mobile farming platform, which was launched in 2013 as a weather

indexed insurance business, its overall goal is to deliver agriculture services to smallholder

farmers via USSD (Unstructured Supplementary Service Data) and SMS (Short Message

Service). Currently, farmers who are signed up to Econet can contact a toll-free call center to

learn more about agriculture inputs and market prices. Farmers can also subscribe to EcoFarmer

to receive agronomic SMS messages, and eventually access additional mobile based financial

services.

2.2.6 Social media

From all walks of life lots of people use social media sites for both work and pleasure. The most

visited online social network is Facebook, founded in 2004 and with over 600 million users and

presence in over 70 countries (Carlson, 2011) According to research done by Ofcom in 2012, six

in ten of all adult Internet users had their own social networking profile. Social media is surely

altering the way people engage in conversations and exchange knowledge about the kind of

service they get the quality of the products they buy and how they generally want to be treated as

consumers, citizens and as employees. Businesses are increasingly recognizing the influence

social media can have on their businesses and are aligning their marketing approaches and

investing resources accordingly.

Social media implementation within organizations the world over is occurring at a rapid pace

(Hanna et al 2011). In Zimbabwe firms are scrambling for this media which has seen the current

young generation becoming highly techno savvy. Nevertheless regardless of the augmented

adoption of social media by firms, the connotations of these new technologies for organizational

processes are not so far well understood by the business people (Jeffrey et al 2012). Across the

Globe different academics have suggested that social media adoption in organizations is

outpacing practical understanding of the use of these technologies.

9

2.3. The marketing challenges faced by smallholder broiler farmers

The important problems in marketing include the following,

2.3.1 Lack of organized market.

Even though chicken meat is relatively cheap and affordable source of animal protein (Alemu

and Tadelle, 1997), lack of organized marketing system and the seasonal fluctuation of price are

the main constraints of broiler market in Bindura. Variation in price mainly attributed to high

demand for chickens during special occasions and holidays such as Christmas, New Year,

Easterand other national holidays. Although local consumers wants broilers, the high

consumption is associated only with holy days resulted in the largest off take rates from the flock

to occur particularly during holidays and festivals and during the onset of disease outbreaks

(Tadelle and peter, 2003). In such circumstances, prices fall dramatically due to the high supply

compare to demand which ultimately, affect the smallholder producers.Purchasing of chickens is

also partly influenced by weight, age of chickens and its availability.

2.3.2 Poor marketing channels.

Market outlets or channels which are available to producers are diverse at all markets, although

their importance differs across markets. The major channels through which producers/farmers

sell their chicken in the markets are direct sold to consumers and or to small retails that take the

chicken to large urban centers (Kena et al, 2002). However, the smallholder farmers have little

knowledge on how the market works and why price fluctuates and have virtually no information

on market conditions (Sonaiya, 2000). Thus, most farmers sell chickens within their vicinity.

This can attribute to the small number of chickens offered for sale, long distance to the high

demanding urban and pier urban markets and that selling of chickens is occasional and based on

prevalent pressing needs of the family (Kena et al, 2002).

2.3.3 Price Instability (price fluctuation)

Agricultural prices are very unstable and fluctuate violently. These prices fall in the postharvest

month and increase later in the year. The instability in prices adversely affects the income of

farmers. There is the need to reduce the price instability. Several steps may be taken for farmers

to get a better share in the consumer's income. Some of the steps to check price instability are:

Fixation of minimum support prices of the broilers by the government; and purchase of the

commodities if market prices fall below that level; and development of warehousing facilities to

10

check post-harvest sales among the farmers. Especially refrigerators for storing of broilers are of

paramount important

2.3.4 Market Intelligence

Market intelligence is another problem, and this is an important adjunct of orderly marketing.

The importance of market intelligence increases with increased marketed surplus. Some farmers

market their products in the village and nearby less developed small markets out of their

ignorance of the price prevailing in the nearby primary wholesale, secondary wholesale and

terminal markets. Traders take advantage of the ignorance of the farmer because they have full

knowledge of the price prevailing in the other markets. This places traders in a superior and

advantageous bargaining position. Availability of accurate information to producers, market

participants and consumers remains a problem. This situation causes uncertainty in the market

leading to unjustified political noise, uneven distribution of income in deficit and surplus areas

and wide disparities between open market prices in deficit and surplus areas (Singhal, 1989).

2.3.5 Grading and packaging (standardisation).

The grading of chickens requires a lot of labour as well as packaging materials has assumed

importance in recent years because of the introduction of many choices and preferences of

customers. In the absence of grading, both the producers and consumers suffer(Singhal, 1989).

The producers suffer in the absence of grading because they get the same price for the best

quality of the produce and for a fair average quality. Grading ensures that producers receive a

price which is commensurate with the quality of the produce. At the same time, grading protects

consumers against adulteration (contamination).

2.3.6 Lack of Technical Knowledge and Skills

The use of traditional technologies is widespread and continues to constrain this sector of

smallholder farmers (Kena, 2002). Although farmers have a background in chicken production,

they still use traditional management practices and are not familiar with modern farming

methods. The level of schooling is low and there is a high rate of illiteracy particularly in rural

areas. These affect the ability and skills of farmers to adopt new technologies and innovations.

There is no extension service to assist farmers to improve their technical skills as well as

disseminate market information.

11

2.3.7 Lack of market information

This is often quoted as a major reason why farmers are not realising better prices for their

produce. Lack of information needs on the part of small-scale poultry farmers, inadequate access

to market, poor processing facilities, and high rates of perishability (Ntuli, 2013).There is no

extension service nor market information system to arm farmers with knowledge of prices and

potential markets. Often, their main source of price information apart from the buyers are other

farmers or friends who have just returned from the market that day. Moreover, farmers have very

little or no power of arbitrage in the market and have limited choice as to which markets they can

sell into. Consequently, as previously mentioned, they often receive whatever price they are

offered.

2.3.8 Poor Road and Transport System

Other marketing constraints faced by farmers are the poorly maintained agricultural

infrastructure, such as farm access roads and the poor road infrastructure network from the

district to main market centres (Adam et al, 2012). Rural roads are important for delivering

goods and services required for agricultural production and transporting outputs to markets and

processing facilities. However, the rural roads in Bindura are mostly in bad condition. This

presents a major constraint in improving agricultural productivity in general as it makes the

transaction cost of doing business is high for farmers. The rise in production and marketed

surplus implies that farmers are faced with the problem of adequate and quick means of

transportation of the produce at village level, inter-market level and inter- state level. Farmers

generally transport the produce from the farm or village to the market in their ox-carts. These

take a lot of time and involve a high cost of transportation by reason of their slow speed and low

carrying capacity (Ntuli, 2013). In most cases, traders use public transportation (buses and

minibuses) or hire space in private trucks to transport their chickens to terminal markets. During

transportation, the chickens may be kept along with other bags, sacks of grain, bundles of

firewood or by binding their legs together that can result in considerable lose due to stressful

conditions (Kena, 2002).

2.3.9 Accessibility of marketing (Market access).

Accessibility of marketing is not only about the issue of dilapidated roads and poor road network

but also about accessibility to marketing information.market information is an essential element

12

for small-scale farmers so that they will be able to participate in the market. They do not only

require information about prevailing market prices but needs also information about trade

contacts and technical matters (Kapungu, 2013). Most small scale farmers do not always have

current market information about what they are producing and therefore they end up producing

what is irrelevant for the market and make losses. (Ncube, 2014) have argued that access to

information about markets is very important and for farmers and ranchers to continue to prosper

they must continually evaluate the needs of their customers and pay closer attention to their

marketing efforts.Mwanza (2010) reported that, market access by small scale broiler producers is

hindered by their small scale of operations, weak technical capacity, high vulnerability to

diseases and difficulty in obtaining appropriate market information. In addition, small scale

farmers experience difficulties in complying with the high quality standards required by high-end

markets such as supermarkets, big butcheries and top class hotels. In most instances, small scale

producers have little bargaining power hence they are always price takers.

They sometimes lack enough market information which is mostly vested in the hands of buyers

who have information about market conditions, better negotiation skills and often better assets.

In the Kenya broiler sector small scale farmers rely on middlemen for market information. These

have a tendency of giving unreliable information which helps them to negotiate for lower prices

which will be at the disadvantage to the farmers (Mugo et al, 2012).

2.3.10 Value Chain Development

Value chain development involves product upgrading which seeks to meet the needs of the

market, by changing the form of the product for improved quality like organic production so as

to establish a niche market (Mugo et al, 2012). Accompanied with this is the process upgrading,

which seeks to improve the efficiency of the chain by increasing the output in an economic way

by applying good agricultural practices to meet the volumes and quality required by the buyers.

Compliance with hygiene standards is a major challenge for small scale poultry producers. There

farmers cannot meet the costs required to meet these standards so would rather sell their birds to

middlemen. In Harare it was reported that the Irvine’s requirement by the majority of retailers

was denying small scale producers’ access to the formal market since it was very costly to

produce broilers that meets the Irvine’s requirement (Moreki, 2011).

13

Information is one of the important things in market access, since when farmers knows the needs

of the market, hence they can try to produce products that meets the needs of the market.

According to Mugoet al (2012) information and communication technology tools like mobile

phones, computers, internet services, print and electronic devices were used to access market

cheaply in arid and semi-arid areas for large livestock keepers. Small scale farmers have limited

access to processing facilities that are required to meet standards of the formal chain which is

largely dominated by the poultry processors (the lead firms) and large scale semi-integrated

farmers. The Zimbabwe Poultry Association reported that small to medium scale farmers are

failing to get market for their broilers so most farmers’ are no longer repurchasing day old chicks

resulting in them leaving the sector (ZPA, 2012).

2.4. Technology adoption

Rodger (2003) explains that adoption of innovation is time consuming process and the rate at

which diffusion of innovation takes place becomes significant for individuals or organisations

that are concerned with adoption of innovation. Therefore to understand the actors responsible

for technology adoption, it is important to examine the factors that influence adoption of an

innovation. There are several factors which influence technology adoption which can be

classified into categories such as physical factors, cultural factors, institutional factors and socio

economic factors (Rodger, 1995). However this study is going to focus on socio economic

factors alone.

2.5 Socio-economic factors affecting modern marketing technology adoption

2.5.1Availability and amount of family labor

This plays a vital role in determining adoption and intensity of use of agricultural technologies.

The existence of active work force in rural households usually encourages them to show interest

in trying some agricultural technologies. The influence of labor availability on adoption depends

on the characteristics of the technology to be adopted. When the new technologies in relative to

the older ones are more attractive and labor intensive, farmers with more labor would tend to

adopt those technologies. Some new technologies are relatively labor saving and others are labor

using. For example, when a technology is labor saving like tractors, harvesters, pesticides and the

like, its impact will be negative. Plenty of adoption studies found out a positive impact of family

14

labor on technology adoption such as (Solomon 2014). The reviewer argues that higher family

labors increase the probability to adopt agricultural new technologies

2.5.2Age

Age of the household head is another variable in explaining farmers’ technology adoption

behavior which plays an important role through influencing farmers’ information access and

shaping their ability to change the available information into action. Older farmers may have

experience and resource that would allow them more possibilities for trying a new

technology,(Martey, 2014). On the other hand, younger farmers are more likely to adopt new

technology because they have had more schooling than the older generation. Different

agricultural technology adoption studies revealed conflicting results on the influence of age in

adoption. Some of the findings confirmed that age negatively influencing adoption behavior of

farmer’s agricultural new technologies, (Emmanuel, 2016). The reason might be due to their

exposure to access to information than older farmers.

2.5.3 Farm size

It plays a critical role in the adoption process of a new technology and can in turn affect other

factors which influence technology adoption. Some technologies are named as scale-dependant

because of the great importance of farm size in their adoption (Bonabana- Wabbi 2002). Many

studies have reported a positive relation between farm size and adoption of agricultural

technology (Mignouna, 2011). Usually Farmers with large farm size are more likely to adopt a

new technology since they can afford to devote part of their land to try new technology. Unlike

those which acquire less farm size (Uaiene et al., 2009). Small farm size may provide an

incentive to adopt a technology especially in the case of an input-intensive innovation such as a

labor-intensive or land-saving technology. Farmers with small land may adopt land-saving

technologies as an alternative to increased agricultural production (Emmanuel, 2016). Therefore

total farm size has an overall effect on adoption.

2.5.4. Off-farm income

Off-farm income has shown to have a positive impact on the adoption of technology. This is due

to the fact that it acts as an important strategy for overcoming credit constraints faced by the

rural households in many developing countries (Reardon et al, 2007). Off-farm income acts as a

substitute for borrowed capital in rural economies where credit markets are either missing or

15

dysfunctional (Diiro, 2013). According to Diiro (2013) off- farm income is said to provide

farmers with liquid capital for purchasing production inputs for any given enterprise. Her study

which was on analyzing the impact of off-farm earnings on the intensity of adoption of improved

maize varieties and the productivity of maize farming in Uganda, she reported a significantly

higher adoption intensity and expenditure on purchased inputs among households with off-farm

income compared to their counterparts without off- farm income. However not all technologies

can show a positive relationship between off-farm income and their adoption. Other studies on

technologies that are labor intensive have shown negative relationship between off-farm income

and adoption. According to Goodwin and Mishra (2004) they pursue that off-farm income owned

by farmers may undermine their adoption of modern technology by reducing the amount of

household labor allocated to farming enterprises.

2.5.5. Access to extension services

This has been found to be a key aspect in technology adoption. Farmers who are usually well

informed about the existence as well as the effective use and benefit of new technology through

extension agents are said to adopt more than those who does not have access to information and

extension services. . Information reduces the uncertainty about a technology’s performance

hence may change individual’s assessment from purely subjective to objective over time

(Caswell et al., 2001). Exposure to information about new technologies as such significantly

affects farmers’ choices about it. Extension agent acts as a link between the innovators

(Researchers) of the technology and users of that technology. This helps to reduce transaction

cost incurred when passing the information on that new technology. Extension agents usually

target specific farmers who are recognized as peers (farmers with whom a particular farmer

interacts) exerting a direct or indirect influence on the whole population of farmers in their

respective areas (Genius et al., 2010).

Many authors have reported a positive relationship between extension services and technology

adoption. A good example include; Adoption of Imazapyr-Resistant Maize Technologies (IRM)

by Mignouna et al. (2011), This is due to the fact that exposing farmers to information based

upon innovation-diffusion theory is usually expected to stimulate adoption. In fact, the influence

of extension agents can counter balance the negative effect of lack of years of formal education

in the overall decision to adopt some technologies (Yaron, 2002). Information is acquired

16

through informal sources like the media, extension personnel, visits, meetings, and farm

organizations and through formal education. It is important that this information be reliable,

consistent and accurate. Thus, the right mix of information properties for a particular technology

is needed for effectiveness in its impact on adoption (Ntuli 2013). Good extension programs and

contacts with producers are a key aspect in technology dissemination and adoption. Good

extension programs and contacts with producers are a key aspect in technology dissemination

and adoption.

2.5.6. Educational level

Education status of the household head is the most common and important variable that is found

to explain farmers’ agricultural technology adoption behavior. Educated household heads may

have enhanced practical awareness and understanding of a technology. This is due to the fact that

education has the power to change the knowledge, skill and attitude of the farmer. Education also

enhances the analytical and problem-solving skills of farmers (Muzariet al, 2012). In addition,

Education enhances a locative ability of decision makers by enabling them to think critically and

use information sources efficiently. Farmers with more education are aware of more sources of

information, and more efficient in evaluating and interpreting information about new agricultural

technologies than those with less education. Therefore it can be agreed that those farmers who

have better education status have higher probability to adopt agricultural new technology than

those we do not have.

Education of the farmer had reported to have a positive influence on farmers’ decision to adopt

new technology. Education level of a farmer increases his ability to obtain; process and use

information relevant to adoption of a new technology (Lavison 2013; Namara et al., 2013). This

is because higher education influences respondents’ attitudes and thoughts making them more

open, rational and able to analyze the benefits of the new technology (Waller et al., 1998). On

the other hand, some authors have reported insignificant or negative effect of education on the

rate of technology adoption; for example the study done by Ishak and Afrizon, (2011), on the

effect of education on technology adoption, Uematsu and Mishra (2010) also reported a negative

influence of formal education towards adopting genetically modified crops. Since those studies

above (empirical evidence) have shown mixed results on the influence of education and adoption

of new technology, more study need to be done in order to come up with result which are more

17

consistent. Education of the farmer has been assumed to have a positive influence on farmers’

decision to adopt new technology. Education level of a farmer increases his ability to obtain;

process and use information relevant to adoption of a new technology (Namara et al., 2013).

2.5.7. Gender

Gender issues in agricultural technology adoption have been investigated for a very long time

and most studies have shown mixed evidence regarding the different roles men and women play

in technology adoption (kotze, 2016). On the other hand gender may have a significant influence

on some technologies. Gender affects technology adoption since the head of the household is the

primary decision maker and men have more access to and control over vital production resources

than women due to socio-cultural values and norms (Lavison, 2013). For instance, a study

carried out by Obisesan (2014) on adoption of technology found that, gender had a significant

and positive influence on adoption of improved cassava production in Nigeria. His result

conquered with that of Lavison (2013) which indicated male farmers were more likely to adopt

organic fertilizer unlike their female counterparts.

2.5.8. Access to credit

It has been reported to stimulate technology adoption (Mohamed & Temu, 2008). It is believed

that access to credit promotes the adoption of risky technologies through relaxation of the

liquidity constraint as well as through the boosting of household’s-risk bearing ability (Mane,

2014). This is because with an option of borrowing, a household can do away with risk reducing

but inefficient income diversification strategies and concentrate on more risky but efficient

investments (Simtowe and Zeller, 2006). However access to credit has been found to be gender

biased in some countries where female-headed households are discriminated against by credit

institutions, and as such they are unable to finance yield-raising technologies, leading to low

adoption rates (Muzari et al., 2013). There is therefore need for policy makers to improve current

smallholder credit systems to ensure that a wider spectrum of smallholders are able to have

access to credit, more especially female-headed households (Simtowe & Zeller, 2006). This may,

in certain cases, necessitate designing credit packages that are tailored to meet the needs of

specific target groups (Muzari et al., 2013). For instance these days in Zimbabwe, the

government has established women banks where women can access cheap loans .This will help

18

empower women and enable them to adopt agricultural technologies hence enhancing economic

growth

2.6 opportunities and constraints of using modern marketing technologies

Modern marketing uses Digital marketing. It could be explained as a marketing that makes use of

electronic devices such as personal computers, smartphones, and cellphones, tablets Television

sets TV and game consoles to engage with stakeholders. Digital Marketing can be through Non-

internet channels also like TV, Radio, SMS, or through Internet channels like Social Media, E-

mails ads, Banner ads. Social Media Marketing is a component of digital marketing, (Leiner,

2012). According to Kate et al, (2013), Digital Marketing is the use of digital channels to

promote or market products and services to consumers and businesses.

It can help people in creating a unique voice. Social media allows the consumer to learn more

about who you are and what you do Kane, (2015). This can help you stand out among the

competition and build brand awareness. Social media is a great way to provide consumers with

transparency and more information about what happens in your operation on a daily basis.it also

helps connections with new consumers and improve relationships with existing customers that

you would not have encountered otherwise. According Kaplan, (2010) if you have a website for

your farm, social media can be an excellent way to drive new people to your website or blog.

Social media can provide a digital way to connect with other producers in your area, or even

abroad (Stone, 2014).

It can help educate the public about your business. If you raise broilers, for example, it can allow

you to explain to a larger audience why you think pastured poultry is beneficial. If you are

passionate about certain aspects of food production, like organics, you can use it to educate the

population about organics and to establish yourself as an authority on the subject, (Holliman,

2014). The caveat here is to make sure that you are providing accurate information in an

appropriate tone. Technologies, such as the Internet, mobile phones, social media, and customer

relationship management systems greatly affect the way companies communicate with

prospective customers (Weckler,2015).. These new forms of communication are changing the

media landscape and the type of messaging strategy organizations use. Many of the consumers

and business professionals seek information and connect with other people and businesses from

their computers and phones

19

With access to many sources of information and an interest in interactive media, consumers may

collect more product information on their own. Work environments are also changing, with more

people having virtual offices, texting on their cell phones, or communicating through social

media sites such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Pinterest, and Twitter, (Weckler,2015).. As the media

landscape changes, the money that organizations spend on different types of communication and

technology will change as well. Once companies have developed products and services, they

must communicate the values and benefits of the offerings to current and potential customers

(Taiminen, 2014). For businesses, online reviews have worked really well as part of their overall

strategic marketing strategy (Zhang, 2013). Online services tools are more influencing than

traditional methods of communication (Helm, Moller, Mauroner, Conrad, 2013). As part of

study, it is proven that users experience increase in self-esteem and enjoyment when they adapt

to social media which itself is a motivating sign for businesses and marketing professional

(Arnott, 2013

Even though modern marketing technologies shows that they are very effective when it comes to

marketing of agricultural produce or products, however it is also associated with problems and

challenges which hindered their use by farmers. Although, Internet marketing allows a wider

reach, the start-up costs of a website can be high (Stokes, 2011). This includes the cost of the

required software and hardware, and maintenance costs.

The rules of the trade change rapidly in Internet marketing, and it requires constant attention and

monitoring to ensure that your marketing strategy does not look out-of-date. The biggest

disadvantage of Internet marketing is its vulnerability to fraudulent activities. There are a lot of

illegitimate websites out there which look similar to original websites and rob the customers of

their money. Spamming is also one of the biggest challenges for Internet marketing (Shandrow,

2014) and confidential data can be easily stolen by hackers. Internet marketing lacks the human

touch that is involved when a customer buys a product from a salesperson (Chisita et al, 2014).

This hampers the prospects of relationship building which plays an important part in repeat sales

and word-of mouth publicity. Also internet marketing depends heavily on technology, which is

vulnerable to technical faults. For example, if a customer clicks on your advertisement but due to

a technical glitch, is unable to buy the product, he may easily become irate and take his business

somewhere else. Slow internet connections can cause difficulties. If the companies build too

20

complex or too large websites, it will take too long for users to check them or download them

and they will get bored eventually, (Qualman, 2013).

The e-commerce doesn’t allow the user “to touch” the merchandise before purchasing it Ryan,

(2012). Because of this, some salesmen are starting to guarantee the possibility of returning the

product. One of the major disadvantages may be the lack of trust of the users because of the

constant virtual promotions that appear to be frauds. This is an aspect that deteriorates the image

and reputation of quality and honest companies. While on the one hand globalization and

liberalization have brought down geographical barriers, technological advancement has made the

world a smaller place. This has opened up immense business opportunities in the shape of the

entire globe being one huge market, it has also posed threats to existing market share (Edelm,

2010) with the entry of foreign giants in the domestic markets.

Although, there are some challenges involved in Internet marketing, it can be safely said that

Internet marketing has led to increased transparency and ease of buying products. The need of

the hour is to counter the challenges so that Internet marketing proves to be truly beneficial for

all.

2.7 Summary

The chapter has examined the relevant literature to be reviewed by the research, including the

relationship between variable, the conceptual framework and some empirical evidences in the

industry. All the above material was trying to give a summary on the detailed frameworks about

the topic concurring with the available evidence from a number of different authors.

21

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the methodology that was followed in conducting the research. This

includes a description of the data collection and analysis procedures are discussed

3.2 Description of Study area

Bindura is one of seven districts in the Mashonaland central province of Zimbabwe. The district

capital city is the town of Bindura. It is located in the Mazowe valley about 88 km north-east

of Harare. According to the 1982 Population Census, the town had a population of 18,243. This

rose to 21,167 in the 1992 census and in the 2012 census it had reached 46,275. It is the

administrative capital of the province. Cotton and maize are grown intensely in the region. The

perennial Mazowe River runs around Bindura and through the north-eastern perimeter. The

average temperature is 19.4 degrees Celsius and the rainfall averages to 850mm per

annum.Agricultural enterprises practiced in the district include poultry production, vegetable

production, livestock production, fodder grazing and production of other crops (Zim statistics).

The district is located approximately 90 km from Harare. The area mainly concentrates in crop

cultivation although it has some commercial farms which specialize in animal husbandry. The

main focus was on the smallholder farmers who practice broiler production in the District.

3.3Research design

A research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and analysing

measures of the variables specified in the research problem. The design of a study defines the

study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and

sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent

and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a

statistical analysis plan.

22

A research design is a framework that has been created to find answers to research questions.

This study is going to use descriptive research which consist of qualitative research. Surveys

were also implemented in this research.

3.4 Sampling size and sampling procedure.

Primary and secondary data were collected for the study. A huge amount of farm level primary

data was collected from the study area individual farmers through personal interview using a

well-defined- structured questionnaire with close and open ended questions. Secondary data were

obtained from different published research journals, books and unpublished theses, CSA

Agricultural sample survey, various reports of FAO and World Bank publications. For the sake

of this research a sample size of 45 farmers was used. Those 45 farmers were chosen

purposively. Individual households were sampled randomly to ensure a good representative of

the target population.

Judgmental sampling technique, also called purposive sampling was used to select respondents

(small-scale broiler farmers). The judgmental sampling allowed the researcher to select units to

be sampled based on his knowledge, professional judgment and skills. When using this sampling

method, the sample members who were selected had special relationship with the phenomenon

under investigation, sufficient and relevant work experience in the field of agricultural

marketing, active involvement in several broiler initiatives and partnerships, as well as proven

research background and understanding of raw data concerning broiler production(Freedman et

al., 2007).

Some of the advantages of using judgmental sampling are lower cost of sampling, lesser time

involved in the process, a select number of people who are known to be related to the topic are

part of the study. The major weakness, however is that it can be subject to the researchers biases

and stereotypes that may distort the results since respondents were not scientifically selected.

After purposively selecting the respondents through the use of a database which had a list of

broiler farmers in Bindura, the list of these small-scale broiler farmers was obtained from

AGRITEX office in Bindura. Basing on that list the simple random was done to sample the

whole group, hence giving everyone equal chance of being selected.

The sample size was calculated using the following formula:

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n= z2.p.q/ e2

Where:

n= sample size, z= confidence interval (z-value, 1.80 at 95%) p= 0.5% (the expected proportion

of the population) q= 1-0.5 e=28% (the allowable margin of error)

Therefore: n = ((1, 80)2 × 0, 5 × 0, 5) ÷ (0.28)2

n = 0, 4536

n = 45 approximately

3.5. Data collection methods.

As far as data collection tools were concerned, questionnaires were the most main tool used and

also through interviews, personal observations, and focus discussion with broiler farmers in the

study area.

3.5.1Questionnaires

The conduction of the research involved the use of semi-structured questionnaire .which

comprise of both closed and open questions. They are commonly used in market research where

there is a need to accommodate a large range of different responses from the people. The use of

semi-structured questionnaires enables a mix of qualitative and quantitative information to be

gathered.

After preparing the questionnaires, they were edited by carefully going through them to detect

possible inconsistencies. Errors that were detected were corrected accordingly. In all, 45

questionnaires were prepared and all of them were distributed to the respondents for one week.

Piloting of these questioners was done to allow correction of mistakes as well as editing. It often

makes use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and quantify people's

behaviour’s and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviour’s, characteristics, or other entities that

the researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether

each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa.

24

3.5.1.1Advantages of Questionnaires

• The responses are gathered in a standardized way, so questionnaires are more objective;

certainly more so than interviews.

• Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. However in some

situations they can take a long time not only to design but also to apply and analyse.

• Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group within a short period

of time (Cooper and Schindler, 2006).

3.5.1.2 Disadvantages of Questionnaire

• Questionnaires are usually done at the end of an event so respondents may have left out

important information when responding to them.

• Participants might misinterpret information on the questionnaire, since questionnaires are

standardized a researcher cannot explain any detail to the respondents.

• Respondents may not answer some of the questions well, especially if the questionnaire is too

long to complete (Cooper and Schindler, 2006).

3.5.2 Interview

Interview was another main source of data collection. An interview is a conversation aimed to

collect relevant information and data for a research. Generally, interviews are conducted either in

person or by telephone, (Yin, 2011).

For the purposes of this thesis, interviews were conducted with small-scale broiler farmers in

Bindura, There are three different ways of conducting an interview, in-depth interview, focused

interview, and structured interview (Yin, 2011). I used focused interview in this research.

The interviews conducted were focused on investigating how people market their broilers and

the major problems encountered during their marketing process. The focused interviews are not

as structured as the structured interviews. The focused interviews contain a number of broad and

open-ended questions, but the respondents are allowed to speak freely (Yin, 2011). Due to risk of

biases, I asked the same interview questions to all the broiler farmers. I assumed the information

collected from interviews is trustworthy for the scientific research.

25

The purpose of key informant interviews is to collect information from a wide range of people

including community leaders, professionals, or residents who have firsthand knowledge about

the community. These community experts, with their particular knowledge and understanding,

can provide insight on the nature of problems and give recommendations for solutions.

Interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential

participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These interviews yield highest response rates in

survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when

appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples

are involved time consuming and expensive.

3.5.3Focus group discussion

A focus group is a gathering of deliberately selected people who participate in a planned

discussion that is intended to elicit consumer perceptions about a particular topic or area of

interest in an environment that is non-threatening and receptive. The focus group is a collective

on purpose. Unlike an interview, which usually occurs with an individual, the focus group

method allows members of the group to interact and influence each other during the discussion

and consideration of ideas and perspectives. Focus groups are used for generating information on

collective views, and the meanings that lie behind those views. They are also useful in generating

a rich understanding of participants’ experiences and beliefs.

3.6 Data analysis methods

The study used both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods to give clear

understanding about the issues. Therefore, qualitative data was analysed through description,

narrating and interpreting the situations deeply and contextually. Similarly quantitative data

was analysed using descriptive statistics such as tables, frequency, mean and percentages to give

clear understanding of the issues.

The process of analyzing data begins with preparation of data first. This is a process that

guarantees the accuracy of data and their change from raw forms into classified suitable data, this

will make it easy for data analysis purposes. A Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS)

version 20.0 was used for data analysis. SPSS is a computer application system that provides

26

statistical analysis of the data. SPSS application has the capability to turn raw data into

meaningful inferences that one can interpret easily. Upon analysis of the data, the researcher then

interpreted the research findings by using tables to make the results easy to understand.

Qualitative data was reported in a descriptive way that is the data was analyzed using descriptive

statistics.Frequency distribution, percentages, and descriptive analysis evaluating the challenges

and prospects of poultry marketing in Bindura were used to examine the research questions.

For objective one, descriptive statistics was used in analyzing data.A descriptive statistic (in the

count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a

collection of information, while descriptive statistics in the mass noun sense is the process of

using and analyzing those statistics.

Some measures that were used to describe a data set were measures of central tendency and

measures of variability or dispersion. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median

and mode, while measures of variability include the standard deviation (or variance), the

minimum and maximum values of the variables, kurtosis and skewness.

27

Table 1. Operational definition of variables

Research objectives Independent variables Dependable variable Statistical tools

1.To identify existing

marketing technologies

used by smallholder

broiler farmers in

Bindura

EcoFarmer

Mobile technology

Posters

Billboards

Radio

Television

Existing marketing

technologies

Descriptive statistics

2.To identify other

(institutional)

marketing challenges

faced by small scale

broiler farmers in

Bindura

Price fluctuations

Transport infrastructure

Market access

Lack of market

information

Lack of organised

markets

Marketing challenges

faced

Descriptive statistics

3.To determine socio-

economic factors that

influence the adoption

of modern marketing

technologies by

smallholder broiler

farmers in Bindura

Age

Gender

Educational level

Availability of labour

Access to extension

Access to credit

Adoption of modern

marketing technologies

Logit model

3 .7 Model specification

3.7.1 The Logit Model

In econometrics literature, analysis of technology adoption had been frequently done using linear

probability model, Probit model, and the logit model. In this study, a logit model was used. The

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dependant variable is taken as a binary choice variable, which takes a value of zero for non-

adopters and one for adopters. This approach has been used by Mutune et al, (2011) and Adeola

(2010). By using the logit model, marginal probability effects can be analysed from the

regression. The model estimates the probability of a household having adopted modern

marketing technology conditional upon a given set of explanatory variables. The functional form

of the model to be estimated is as follows: modern marketing technology adoption = f (age,

gender, farming experience, education, access to extension, farm size, access to credit facilities,

household size).

The model specification is as follows:

Expectation of adoption (dependant variable Y) is a value P (probability of a household having

adopted modern marketing technology) given a set of independent variables (X). The model was

developed as follows;

=

where P(Y=1/X) is the conditional probability of a farmer being a marketing technology adopter

given the values of independent variables X;α is a constant, β represents regression coefficients

and µ is the stochastic error term.

The logistic function above was converted into a logit form by expressing it in terms of odds:

In order to estimate the logit model, the dependent variable was transformed by taking natural

logarithms of both sides to yield a log odds model:

29

The marginal effects for the model are:

3.8 Definition and justification of variables

The variables used in the study were identified and derived from adoption literature. The

reviewed theoretical literature provided a conceptual framework of factors affecting adoption of

modern marketing technology. The empirical literature reviewed also provided insight into

factors which call for investigation as far as their influence on adoption of conservation

agriculture is concerned.

3.8.1 Adoption status (ado)

Farmers’ modern marketing technology adoption status is the dependant variable in the model. It

is a binary choice variable, taking the value of one if farmer has adopted conservation agriculture

or zero otherwise.

3.8.2 Age of household head (age)

This is a continuous variable which captures the age of the overall decision maker in a

household. Age is hypothesized to positively increase the likelihood of adoption of modern

marketing technology (Morriss et al 2000). Younger farmers are more likely than their older

counterparts to be cognitive of and recognize the economic benefits of modern marketing

technologies (Ntuli 2013)

3.8.3 Education (edn)

This is a continuous variable which refers to the number of years of formal schooling by the

household head. In this study, education is hypothesized to increase the probability of adoption

of conservation agriculture. This is because educated farmers tend to be less risk averse and see

change as critical for improvement and hence become less hesitant to try out new innovations.

(Muzari et al 2012). Educated farmers are better able to process information and search for

appropriate innovations in the quest to mitigate their production constraints.

30

3.8.4 Gender (gen)

This refers to the sex of the household head. Gender is coded as a dummy variable where it takes

value of one if the household head is male and zero if female. Male farmers are more likely to be

able to provide the required labour input than their female counterparts who are sometimes

involved in off farm occupations. Therefore, gender is hypothesized to increase the probability of

adoption of modern marketing technology (Obisesan, (2014).

3.8.5 Farming experience (exp)

This is a continuous variable relating to the number of years the farmer has been in farming.

Experienced farmers are more cognitive of conservational benefits and hence are more receptive

to new innovations. (Ntuli 2013) observed that individuals assess the utility of new practices by

relating their perception of the practice to their experience. Consequently, years of farming

experience and exposure are likely to aid adoption.

3.8.6 Access to extension (ext)

This is a continuous variable relating to the number of times a farmer has had contact with

conservation agriculture promoters and extension officers. The respondents would be asked to

recall or refer to farm records the number of times extension officers visited them for the purpose

of helping them with information on conservation agriculture practices. According to Rodgers

(2003), knowledge and awareness of a technology lead to its adoption. Without knowledge of

practices associated with modern marketing technologies through some information channels,

adoption is improbable. Consequently, the degree of contact with extension officers would

highly enhance adoption.

3.8.7 Farm size (fsize)

This a continuous variable measured as the size of land in hectares which is suitable for crop

production. Farmers with a large acreage under crop production have a greater incentive to invest

in conservation agriculture equipment. Also, farmers with big farmlands may have extra land to

try new practices before they decide to switch from conventional practices (Risk Aversion

Theory). Therefore, farm size is hypothesized to positively influence adoption of conservation

agriculture.

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3.8.8 Household size (hsize)

This is also a continuous variable measured as the number of full time family labour available for

farming purposes. The household head would be asked to give the number of household

members who help with labour in the fields. Smallholder farmers have a low propensity to hire

labour outside their families because they are resource constrained. Hence, they rely on family

labour for farm work. In the study area, family labour was scarce due to migration to urban areas

and abroad. The quantity of family labour available is therefore hypothesized to have a positive

influence on the adoption of conservation agriculture practices.

3.8.9 off farm employment (employ)

This is a dummy variable which takes a value of one if a household member is formally

employed off-farm and zero otherwise. Farmers who are involved in off farm and nonfarm

activities have diversified sources of income which help them to buy modern marketing

technologies equipment. (Diiro 2013). Moreover, involvement in off farm activities results in

less variances of total income.Off farm income aids on the acquisition of complex farm

technology and good quality inputs which results in increased farm productivity. Off farm

employment is therefore expected to increase the probability of household adopting conservation

agriculture.

3.9. Limitations of the study

The researcher accepted the following limitation:

Financial constraints, the study was done during the peak of economic hardships therefore there

was higher transport cost which were incurred which was not budgeted for.

Time Constraints, This study was done within a limited period of time since the researcher is a

full time student at Bindura University. Data collection processes consume a lot of time as a

result this had limited the number of participants for the dissertation.

3.10 Summary

This chapter outlined the theoretical and empirical model that were used to create the

researcher’s model to be estimated using logit. The chapter paved way for Chapter 4 as this very

methodology is the one going to be used for data presentation and analysis. Chapter 4 makes an

analysis of the data and the data will be presented in form of tables.

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33

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter shows the results and findings of the study as well as the discussion of the findings.

It shows the findings of the study’s objectives, research questions and the hypothesis. Findings

on existing marketing technologies used by broiler farmers in Bindura. The chapter goes on to

describe socio economic factors affecting marketing technologies adoption by small-scale broiler

farmers, as well as other marketing challenges faced by small-scale broiler farmers in the study

area.

4.2 Socio economic characteristics of respondents

Findings in table 2 shows the respondents socio economic characteristics. These socio economic

variables consist of sex, age, educational level, marital status, family size and source of income.

4.2.1 Distribution of respondents by sex.

Results in table 2 shows that 35.6% of the total respondents were male and 64.4% were female in

the study area. These results corresponds to of Ntuli, (2013)where a large number of women was

recorded on the project of indigenous chickens in Sanyati. Females were the ones with highest

proportion of the total respondents, because most females are involved in farming activities

which requires less labor and simple work. Also women are responsible in taking or keeping of

low value livestock such as poultry (broilers, road runners, guinefolws, ducks, turkeys etc. whilst

men are responsible in looking after higher value livestock such as cattle, pigs, sheep and goats.

34

Table 2. Socio economic and demographic characteristics of respondents

Variable Categories Frequency Percent

Gender Male 16 35.6

Female 29 64.4

Age 18 to 35 20 44.4

36 to 45 12 26.7

46 to 59 9 20.0

60 and above 4 8.9

Educational level Primary 6 13.3

Secondary 30 66.7

Tertiary 7 15.6

Informal 2 4.4

Marital status Married 23 51.1

single 12 26.7

Divorced 4 8.9

Widowed 6 13.3

Family size 3 and below 8 17.8

4 to 6 28 62.2

7 to 9 8 17.8

10 and below 1 2.2

Source of income Cultivation 12 26.7

livestock sales 8 17.8

Poultry 16 35.6

off farm employment 9 20.0

Source: survey result, 2019

4.2.2 Distribution of respondents by age

In accordance to the findings in table 1, the highest proportion of respondents interviewed was

44.4 % which was aged between 36 to 45 years. Followed by 26.7% of respondents which was

interviewed consisted of people aged 18 to 35. The group which followed by 20% of interviewed

was aged 46 to 59. The respondents with the lowest proportion interviewed was aged 60 and

35

above was 8.9%.according to Muzari,(2012) as people age, they are no longer active in sourcing

capital to start any business, therefore aged people lack access to credit facilities since loans are

given to the working class.

Also there were fewer 20% people aged 46 to 59. There were steady number of respondents

between the age of 18 to 35 (26.7%) which implies that age group is still energetic but however

could not take much part because some of them are involved in gold panning and some had

moved to nearby towns in search of employment. However the middle age group 36 to 45 had

the large numbers 44.4% which implies that the middle age group carries much responsibility for

their families were the ones which were more involved in broiler production in Bindura. These

results corresponds with those presented by Anang et al (2013) which shows that the majority

(80%) of farmers were in youthful stage of 21 to 40 years.

4.2.3 Distribution of respondents by level of education

From the findings that is in table 1, the biggest proportion 66.7% of the respondents were those

who have attained secondary education level. While the lowest respondents 4.4% was those who

had attained informal education. This shows that those from the secondary school who could not

continue with their education further were the ones much more involved in broiler production as

a source of income for their upkeep and livelihood.

4.2.4 Distribution of respondents by marital status

The findings show that majority (51.1%) of the respondents are married while a few (8.9%) are

divorced (Table 2). This implies that broiler production is more attractive to married couples

who are engaged in various social and economic commitments. Such commitments include

ensuring food availability for family members, better housing, education for children, clothing

and acquisition of better health services.

4.2.5 Distribution of respondents by family size

The findings show that 28 (62.2%) of the households have between 4 to 6 members, while only

one (2.2%) household has above 10 members. Other household sizes are as presented in Table 1.

Higher family size implies that farm labor is available; however, the amount of labor capable of

executing farm labor depends on the age. Most households with large sizes are forced to look

into more other sources of income which include broiler production and other income sources.

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4.2.6 Distribution of respondents by source of income

From the findings stipulated in (table 2), the highest proportion of respondents was 16 (35.6%)

which regarded on poultry production as their major source of income. The least group 8

(17.8%) of respondents relied on livestock sales as their source of income. However 26.7 %

relied on cultivation of crop as their source of income and 20% of the respondents relied much

on off farm income, meaning they relied much on income from non-agricultural activities for

example they are involved in the mining sector and also relies from incomes from cloths free

markets.

Table 3. Summary of socio-economic factors

Variable N Minimum Maximum Mean

Std.

Deviation

experience in broiler production 45 1 15 5.53 4.026

age of household head 45 18 65 38.62 12.784

family size 45 3 10 5.22 1.77

Valid N (listwise) 45

Source survey 2019

The table above shows that the maximum years experienced in broiler production was 15 years

and the minimum of 1 year whilst the maximum age of household head was 65 years and a

minimum of 18 years, the largest family size was 10 people and the smallest was 3 people.

4.3 Existing marketing technologies used in Bindura district.

The study reviewed six marketing technologies used by broiler farmers in Bindura district. Table

4 shows these existing marketing technologies.

Table 4. Results showing existing marketing technologies in the study area

Marketing technology used Frequency Percentage

Mobile technology 38 84.4

Gate posters 42 93.3

EcoFarmer 9 20.0

Radio 3 6.7

Television 5 11.1

Social media 23 51.1

Source: Survey results

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4.3.1 Gate posters

The major marketing technology existing and most often used is gate posters or gate billboards.

These consist of written cardboard box which are written using pen, might makers or charcoal,

they are usually placed on individuals gates that have broilers which are ready for selling. 42

respondents out of all the respondents (93.3%) indicated that they used these gate posters make

customer aware that they have broilers ready for selling. They said they use these gate posters

because they are cheap and they can be seen quickly

4.3.2 Mobile phone technology

Broiler producers in Bindura used mobile phone technology in marketing their broilers. About 38

people out of total respondents (84.4%) indicated that they use mobile phone technology in

marketing their broilers (Table 4). They highlighted that they use phone calls, text messages or

whatsApp to make their customers aware of broilers available for sell. However they also

highlighted that they mostly use text messages and whatsApp more often as compared to phone

call because they are cheap and only one message can be forwarded to all customers in the

contact list.

4.3.3 Social media

From the survey, 23 respondents out of total respondents (51.1%) show that they make use of

social media to make their customers aware that their broilers are ready for sell. They said they

communicate through social media platforms such whatsApp and sometimes Facebook.

However they also highlighted that social media had some challenges because not all of their

customers are on social media as the result there is need to make use of other marketing

technologies such as gate posters.

4.3.4 Ecofarmer

Broiler farmers in Bindura also highlighted that they also make use of a marketing technology

known as EcoFarmer, 9 people of total respondents (20.0%), indicated that they had joined

EcoFarmer but however only a few indicated that they are using it because the service needs to

be subscribed to make it useful. They also highlighted that the EcoFarmer services are highly

efficient during production rather than during marketing. The survey also shows that on few

people used EcoFarmer meaning the rest had not joined because some says they had not joined

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because the Econet lines face more challenges in network as the result most people are using

NetOne lines because they are a bit cheaper and can access network easily.

4.3.5 Radio and television

Other marketing used in broiler marketing includes radio and television technology, the survey

shows that 3 (6.7%) and 5 (11.1%) respectively of the respondents used these technologies. Very

few are using radios because they said the radio system is becoming absolute and hence many

people are phasing them out. Also a few used television system because of the electricity

problem and also television marketing technologies are only offered once per week by

broadcasting cooperation hence becoming ineffective in marketing.

4.4 Marketing challenges faced by broiler farmers in Bindura district.

The study reviewed various marketing challenges that are faced by broiler producers in Bindura

district. The challenges highlighted by broiler farmers include price fluctuations, poor transport

infrastructure, lack of information, poor grading and standardization, poor marketing

technologies, lack of organized markets, poor marketing channels, lack of marketing

intelligence, poor value chain development, predators and diseases.

Table 5. Results of marketing challenges faced by small-scale broiler farmers in the study area

Challenges Frequency Percentage

price fluctuations 42 93.3

poor transport infrastructure 21 46.7

lack of market information 29 64.4

poor grading and standardization 24 53.3

poor marketing technologies and skills 30 66.7

lack of organized markets 36 80.0

poor marketing channels 15 33.3

lack of market intelligence 10 22.2

poor value chain development 18 40.0

predators and diseases 11 24.4

Source: survey results (2019)

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4.4.1 Price fluctuations

This was highlighted as the major challenge faced by the respondents, 42 respondents out of the

total respondents (93, 3%), and the main reasons for price fluctuations of broilers is that of

current economic instability within the country which is contributing to fluctuation of inputs

mainly feeds and vaccines. These price fluctuations are leading to losses since the production

costs will be higher than selling price

4.4.2Poor marketing technologies and skills

From the above information on the table, broiler producers in the study area also highlighted that

lack of technology and skills was another marketing challenge they were facing. This was

indicated by 30 respondents of the total respondents (66, 7%) shows that they encounter this

marketing problem. They say that those poor marketing technologies and skills were due to lack

of market information. Due to limited extension services they says that they had no one to

consult and therefore they relied on local information which was passed from other local

farmers.

4.4.3 Poor grading and standardization

Respondents also highlighted that poor grading and standardization was also a major marketing

challenge they were facing. 24 out of the total respondents, (53, 3%) indicated that they faced

this marketing problem. They highlighted that their major buyers were local canteens who

usually buy dressed chickens, and some of them could request chicken cuts which are nicely

packed. Therefore due lack of refrigerators and packaging material some could not meet those

customer need and to meet those needs they end up asking local butchers to keep their chickens

in the refrigerators were they would pair extra money for cutting and refrigerating.

4.4.4 Poor transport infrastructure

This was another major problem faced by respondents, 21 respondents out of the total

respondents (46, 7%) indicated that they faced this marketing challenge. They says that their

roads to the local growth pond were most of them sells their chickens are so poor and dilapidated

such that transportation was not easy. They also says that transportation cost these days is very

high to an extent of taking 25% of their total profits.

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4.4.5 Predators and disease

In broiler production system, diseases contributed to poor marketing of broilers contributed 24,

4% as a marketing challenge, infestation of diseases such as new castle contributes a lot in

mortality of poultry especially when they are small at the age below two weeks. As a result due

to those losses farmers were no longer able to meet their customers’ demands hence leading to

inconsistence in supply. However, predation is a number one and accounted for 65.7% of loss of

chicken in the study area. Farmers also highlighted that, diseases are also the major cause for the

loss of chicken, contributing to about 15% of the loss. Above half of respondents confirmed the

presence of dangerous noticeable disease outbreak, which caused severe losses of the flock. The

major diseases reported includes, Newcastle disease, coccidiosis and fowl typhoid.

4.4.6 Lack of market information

More than half of the respondents (64, 4%) do not have any information about the price of the

chicken before they went to markets. Only 35% get price information which either obtains

information from their neighbors (43.3%) or after they reach to market (56.7%). Farmers sale

their chicken mostly when there is an instant cash need in the house (65.6%) , when there is

disease outbreak to occurs (24.4%) and during the major crop planting seasons (10%) usually

occurred from the beginning of the main rainy season.

4.4.7 Lack of organized markets

There is no a well-organized formal poultry and poultry products marketing scheme in the

studied area, therefore this challenge is contributing to 80% of the marketing challenges faced by

broiler farmers in the study area. The problem is more severe for newly established. The place

assigned for selling chicken has no shade. The market places were not good enough to

accommodate the chicken and cause overcrowding and the problem was serious during holidays.

4.5 Diagnostic tests

Before econometrically estimating the regression model, the data is tested to check that variables

are not correlated (multicollinearity) and to check if the regression model is correctly specified.

4.5.1 Multicollinearity Test

To test for multicollinearity, Pearson’s correlation test was carried out for all the variables in the

unrestricted model. Barnes et al., (1978) stated that variables are correlated if the correlation

41

statistic between two variables is more than 0.8 or less than -0.8. In this study, the correlation

statistics were all within the intervals -0.8 to 0.8showing that there was low correlation between

the variables in the model. (See Appendix 2).

4.5.2 Model Test

A model miss-specification test was carried out to check whether the model is correctly

specified. The model does not show any evidence of miss-specification in this study (See

Appendix 3). The Chi-squared statistic for the test is 0.09 with a p-value of 0.7212. This p-value

is above the conventional levels of significant at 5% which shows that the model is correctly

specified.

4.5.3 Heteroskedasticity Test

Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test was carried out on all variables in the unrestricted model to

check for heteroskedasticity. There was no evidence of heteroscedasticity (See Appendix 4). The

Chi squared statistic for the test is 0.01 with a p-value of 0.9013. This p-value is above

theconventional levels of significance at 5% which shows that there is homoskedasticity.

4.6 Discussion of Logit Model Results

4.6.1 Unrestricted Logit Model Results

The estimated unrestricted model shows the results of variables affecting the adoption of

marketing technologies in Bindura district. Of the 8 variables used in the study, 4 variables were

in significant at 5% statistical level and were age of household, income of household head,

access to credit of the household head and household farm size. These insignificant variables

were therefore dropped from the model.

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Table 6. Logit unrestricted model results

Variables Coef. Std. Err Z P>Izl [95% Conf. Interval]

Gender -1.037686 0.7728554 -1.21 0.033 -2.67023 -0.2041435

Age -0.0136815 0.0424005 -1.76 0.84 -0.1416762 -0.0320141

Edulevel 1.2213 0.43256 3.41 0.0003 0.660321 2.032421

Exper 0.136641 0.0622142 2.43 0.012 0.063164 0.251832

Income 6.04321 1.83215 2.69 0.6136 10.0322 2.5439

Famsize 2.4329 1.115231 2.41 0.421 4.2316 0.4382

Extservices 0.216893 0.05492 3.88 0.0046 0.12954 0.3853

Creditacc 3.2351 0.89321 2.53 0.413 3.20121 0.58921

a Dependent Variable: modern marketing technology

Number of obs = 45

Log likelihood = -17.516072

Pseudo R2 = 0.82

Log likelihood = -17.516072

LR Chi 2 (8) = 159.84

Prob>chi 2 = 0.0000

4.6.2 Restricted Logit Model Results

A new regression on the remaining variables showed gender of household head, access to

extension services, years of farming experience of household head and educational level

significantly affect adoption of conservation agriculture. These significant variables were the

independent variables in the restricted model.

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Table 7. Regression results for the restricted logit model

Variables Coef. Std. Err Z P>Izl [95% Conf. Interval]

Gender -1.0256686 0.5506251 -1.83 0.019 -2.34131 -0.324114

Edulevel 1.00324 0.021231 4.23 0.0001 0.510431 2.632451

Exper 0.0336641 0.0031281 2.96 0.002 0.023134 0.451482

Extservices 0.104643 0.002312 4.11 0.0001 0.04264 0.58639

a Dependent Variable: modern marketing technology

Number of obs = 45

Log likelihood = -17.516072

Pseudo R2 = 0.82

Log likelihood = -19.413082

LR Chi 2 (4) = 156.42

Prob>chi 2 = 0.0000

4.6.3 Post Estimation Diagnostic Tests

The restricted model results in table 7, shows that the model converged and iterations stopped at

a level where the Log likelihood was equivalent to -20.364766 which confirms the

appropriateness of the model for the study. The p- value was 0.0000 which is significant at 5%

and the LR Chi-square statistic was 156.42 with six degrees of freedom. We therefore accept the

alternative hypothesis that at least one of the regression coefficients in the model is not equal to

zero. The McFadden’s pseudo R-squared which measures the goodness of fit was found to be

0.82 which is more than zero showing that the model correctly predicts each observation.

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4.7 Factors affecting the adoption of marketing technologies in Bindura

district.

4.7.1 Marginal Effects Results

Marginal effects from the restricted model were computed to show the quantitative effects that

the significant variables have on the adoption of marketing technologies among households in

Bindura district.

Table 8. Marginal effects after logit

y= Pr (modern marketing technology adoption) (predict) = 0.534325(*) dy/dx is for discrete

change of dummy variable from 0 to 1

4.7.2 Interpretation of the marginal effects results

4.7.2.1 Gender of household head (gen)

The gender of the household head is one of the factors that significantly affect adoption of

modern marketing technologies by rural small scale broiler farmers. It has a p-value of 0.06 thus

is statistically significant at 1%. The coefficient for gender was negative and the marginal effects

results shows that being a man decreases the probability of adoption of conservation agriculture

by 47%. The main reason why women seems to be the ones who have accepted use of modern

marketing technologies in Bindura District is that marketing technologies is being promoted

among vulnerable households who are most likely to be female headed. These findings are in

contrast with those of researchers like Mazvimavi and Twomlow (2008) and Chiputwa (2011)

who found that male farmers are more likely to adopt conservation agriculture. This difference

may be attributed to differences in the extensiveness of conservation agriculture in the different

Variable dy/dx

Standard

error z P>lzl Mean

Gender -0.52032 0.0.386 -1.93 0.004 0.56911

Edulevel 0.34104 0.01341 -3.48 0.0014 34.17327

Exper 0.0251 0.01327 2.31 0.0023 33.1942

Extservices 0.062152 0.00326 4.51 0.002 11.3418

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areas. In Bindura district, use of modern marketing technologies is still very limited among the

most vulnerable and poor households.

The females dominated the post-harvest sector in agriculture. If the target beneficiaries are more

of females than the males the adoption rate of postharvest technologies could improve because it

is more relevant to female activities on the farm than the male activities. This agreed with

Olajide, (2012) who stated that women were more involved in food processing, marketing and

maintenance of the home stead farm.

4.7.2.2Access to extension (ext)

As expected from literature, the number of extension visits for a household was found to

positively affect adoption of modern marketing technologies. The p-value from the marginal

effects results was 0.002 which shows that the variable was significant at 5%.The coefficient for

the variable was positive. At the mean score, a unit increase in contact with extension services

increase the probability of adopting modern marketing technology by 7%. These findings were

consistent with most empirical literature. It is also consistent with Rodgers Innovation Diffusion

Theory which says that communication channels are very important in the diffusion and adoption

of an innovation. With access to extension, farmers would get technical backing in terms of

information, farm demonstrations and inputs.According to Ferris et al, (2014), extension services

also help to create awareness to farmers on the benefits of adopting conservation farming

practices.

4.7.2.3 Experience (exp)

Years of broiler production experience were found to positively affect adoption of modern

marketing technologies. As hypothesized the coefficient for experience was positive and

significant at all conventional levels with a p-value of 0.0023. This implies that as farmers gain

more experience, their decision making towards the adoption of modern marketing technologies

are influenced positively (Adesina and Zinnah, 1993). The marginal effect shows that a one year

increase in broiler production experience increases the probability of adopting modern marketing

technologies by 5%.These findings are consistent with the Risk Aversion Theory which says that

farmers become less risk averse as they gain more experience. The results are also consistent

with those of Mutune et al (2007).Experienced farmers are usually more cognitive of the benefits

of innovations in marketing methods and hence would be more receptive to new innovations.

46

4.7.2.4 Educational level

A study carried out by Maumbe and Swinton (2000) in Sanyati in the Mashonaland west

examined the adoption of different cotton pest management practices by smallholders in

transition from conventional calendar-based chemical pest control to Farmer Field School-

Integrated Pest and Production Management (FFS-IPPM) strategy. The study revealed that an

extension approach, FFS influenced adoption of IPPM. Therefore, investment in IPPM farmer

education and literacy programs targeted to non-adopters was anticipated to have long-term

beneficial impact on IPM use. Success of IPM adoption depends on farmer’s knowledge and

awareness of the technology (compatibility). The findings indicated that extension delivery is an

important driver in the adoption process.

Years of formal education (0.0014) was shown to be significant at (P < 0.05). This revealed that

the more educated a respondent is, the easier the adoption of post-harvest technologies could

become. This agreed with Yusuf and Fakayode, (2012) who found that low level of literacy

among the respondents could reduce the adoptability of innovations and effective use of

postharvest technologies

4.8. Summary

This chapter revealed the existence of marketing technologies used by broiler farmers are mobile

technology and gate posters were the most often used though some could make use of social

media, television and radio. The findings from study also revealed that out of all the marketing

challenges faced by broiler farmers, price fluctuations ,poor transport infrastructure, lack of

organized markets, lack of market information, poor marketing technologies and skills as well as

poor grading and standardization were the major marketing problems faced in the study area.

The results on adoption showed that gender of the household head, educational level, access to

extension, farming experience of the household head significantly affect farmers’ decisions to

adopt modern marketing technologies. Family size, age and access to credit had a negative

relationship with adoption of modern marketing technologies.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of the main findings

This study examined the opportunities and constraints faced by small scale broiler farmers in the

use of modern marketing technologies in marketing of their broilers in Bindura District. The

research was stimulated by the desire to identify opportunities and constrains encountered by

small scale broiler farmers in the use of modern marketing technologies. These smallholder

farmers were the target of the study because they are the ones which are more susceptible to

marketing challenges leading to poor quality and quantity of sales and often are trapped in a

vicious cycle of perpetuating poverty. Cross-sectional data was used and it was obtained from a

survey through the use of personally administered questionnaires. The data was collected during

March and April 2019. The study used a logistic regression to identify the significant variables

which influence farmers’ decisions to adopt conservation agriculture. The results showed that

gender of the household head, educational level, access to extension, farming experience of the

household head significantly affect farmers’ decisions to adopt modern marketing technologies.

Family size, age and access to credit had a negative relationship with adoption of modern

marketing technologies

The demographic characteristics of employees cannot be ignored. Interestingly, the results of Li

and Lai (2011) confirm that employees perceive technology to be useful for their own effective

workmanship, although their study also found a non-significant relationship between age and the

behavioral intentions to use technology (Baker et al., 2007). Most of these respondents in this

study reported the adoption patterns based on the business technology adoption and not for

personal use, therefore these results are considered to be appropriate and consistent

The study also found out of all the marketing challenges faced by broiler farmers, price

fluctuations ,poor transport infrastructure, lack of organized markets, lack of market information,

poor marketing technologies and skills as well as poor grading and standardization were the

major marketing problems faced in the study area. Revealed by the study was the existence of

48

marketing technologies used by broiler farmers which are mobile technology and gate posters

were the most often used though some could make use of social media, television and radio.

5.2 Conclusion

Use of modern marketing technologies is an essential strategy for increasing agricultural

productivity, achieving food self-sufficiency and alleviating poverty and food insecurity among

smallholder farmers in Bindura. Several marketing challenges were faced by broiler farmers in

the study area due to poor marketing techniques, therefore, it is needed to further promote

agricultural new technologies by designing based on farmer’s problem and need. The variables

significantly affect the adoption of marketing technologies by broiler farmers are gender,

education level, and extension service provision and farmers experience. To solve problems of

inadequate use of marketing technologies, decision makers have pursued a range of policies and

strategies to boost agricultural production and productivity.

5.3. Recommendations

The study therefore recommends that:

i. Government should recruit extension agents for both research institutes and ADPs so as

to ensure maximum coverage of rural farmers` extension needs

ii. Research/Extension activities should be geared up so that available technologies on

marketing is made known to all end users.

iii. The study also recommend farmers in Bindura to engage in other agricultural production

such as tobacco, and some horticultural crops so as to boost their income

iv. Also broiler farmers in the study area are recommended to properly construct their

brooders so as to protect their chickens from predators and mark their chickens safe and

reduce losses.

5.4 Areas of further study

i. More studies, which focus on the use of marketing technologies in broiler production,

should be done in Zimbabwe. Evidence from literature review disclosed that most

49

studies have done in Africa and other continents with few on the Zimbabwean

context.

ii. In addition, studies focusing on the technical efficiency of marketing technologies should

also be undertaken.

50

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55

APPENDIX 1

Appendix 1. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

I am current a student at Bindura University of Science Education pursuing an undergraduate

degree in Agricultural Education and extension. My research work is to find out the

opportunities and constraints faced by smallholder broiler farmers in the use of modern

marketing technologies in Bindura District area of Zimbabwe. I wish to humbly seek assistance

from you for this research as a respondent. Your information is geared towards improving the

marketing of poultry projects through use of modern marketing technologies among the farmers

particularly in Bindura and Zimbabwe County as well. The information you give will be treated

with utmost confidentiality. Kindly provides the information sought to the bets of your

knowledge and ability.

Please find time to diligently fill in the questionnaire and your endeavour and cooperation will be

highly appreciated.

Thank you

Most sincerely.

Talent Marimo

SECTION A Demographic Data

1 Age of household head ……………………………….. (Years)

2 Gender of household head

Male Female

3 Educational Qualifications

Primary level Secondary level

Tertiary level none informal

4) What is your experience in keeping broilers? Years weeks months

56

Section B use of marketing technologies

5) Are you using any marketing technology in marketing your broilers?

Yes No

6) Do you get the expected market price of birds before selling them? (a) Yes (b) No

7. If yes how do you get the information?

8) How do you market your birds?

(a) Putting signboards (b) Phoning (c) Both

9) Where do you sell your birds?

(a) Open market (b) Farm gate (c) shop outlets (d) middlemen

10) Do you have direct contacts with your consumer? Yes no

11) In what form do you sell your birds? (a)Live (b) slaughtered full chicken (c)

cutlets

12) What services do you get from the supporters?

(a) Credit facilities (b) Market Information (c) Husbandry practices (d) None of

these (e) All of the above

13) Listed below are some of the marketing technologies, I identify the one (s) which you use in

marketing your broilers.

Mobile phone internet EcoFarmer none of the above others

57

14) For the technology stated in question 13 give advantages and disadvantages of using it.

Advantages

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Disadvantages

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………........

15) Which marketing channels do you normally use in marketing your broilers?

Direct to customers Retailers wholesale others specify…….

Section C Challenges

16) Below are some of the marketing challenges faced in broiler marketing, which are the one

(S) are you facing?

i) Poor infrastructure

ii) High transport cost

iii) Price fluctuations

iv) Lack of market information and access

v) Poor packaging and standardisation

vii) Inconsistence supply of broilers

viii) All of the above

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APPENDIX 2

CORRELATION MATRIX FOR MARKETING TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION STATUS

ado gen age edu exp incom famsiz extn crdt

ado 1.000

gen -0.468 1.000

age 0.004 -0.047 1.000

edu 0.703 -0.378 0.052 1.000

exp -0.159 0.086 -0.034 -0.186 1.000

incom -0.182 0.017 0.143 -0.186 0.252 1.000

famsiz 0.712 -0.337 0.146 0.549 -0.098 -0.339 1.000

extn 0.451 -0.238 0.589 0.413 -0.139 -0.147 0.462 1.000

crdt 0.659 -0.388 -0.015 0.569 -0.228 -0.210 0.605 0.361 1.000

59

APPENDIX 3

MODEL TEST RESULTS

.predict yf, xb

.gen yf2=yf^2

.quietly logitgen age hsizelstock employ extexpfsizemloedc yf2

.test yf2=0

Results:

(1) [gen] yf2 = 0

chi2 (1) = 0.08

Prob >chi2 = 0.72

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APPENDIX 4

HETEROSKEDASTICITY TEST RESULTS

Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity

Ho: Constant variance

Variables: fitted values of ado

chi2 (1) = 0.01

Prob>chi2 = 0.9035

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APPENDIX 5

INTERVIEW GUIDE

1) When did you start producing broilers and how many do you normally produce per batch?

2) How do you market your broilers?

3) Where do you market your produce?

4) Have you ever used internet when marketing?

5) Do you have refrigerators to store slaughtered chickens?

6) Which problems are you facing in broiler production?

7) Which marketing problems are you facing?