Opn Research Design

7/31/2019 Opn Research Design

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PRESENTATIONPRESENTATION

IntroductionResearch Problem

Strategy Selection

Objectives & Hypotheses

Intervention Description

Operational Definition

Study Design

SamplingData Collection

Tabulation & Analysis of Data


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INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Definition: A process, a way of identifying

and solving program problems:

1) Problem identification & diagnosis,

2) Strategy selection ,

3) Strategy experimentation & evaluation,

4) Information dissemination,

5) Information utilization.


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Introduction,ContdIntroduction,Contd

Focus & Objectives: Focuses on the day-to-day

activities of programs. These are under the control

of mgrs & adm such as trng, log, info & educactivities and delivery systems. Looks at problems

affecting the supply side of programs.

OR yield answers to perceived prog problems.

Provide info to improve existing delivery activitiesand plan future ones.


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Introduction,ContdIntroduction,ContdCategories of OR Studies

1. Exploratory or Diagnostic Studies:

Needed whenever there is a perceived

program problem but the nature of the

problem is simply not known.2. Field Intervention Studies: These test on

an experimental basis, new approaches to

overcoming a program problem.

3. Evaluative Studies: These examine

retrospectively or cross-sectionally the effect

of program activities.


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Introduction, ContdIntroduction, Contd

Methods and Study Design

1.Methods: From Qualitative to

Quantitative.

2. Study Design: From Non-experimental

to True Experimental


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Introduction, ContdIntroduction, Contd

Illustrative Topics:

1. Training Programs

2. IEC

3. Mgt & Info Systems

4. Program Impact5. Adm & Mgt

6. Quality of Service


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RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

A. Problem Identification

A potential research situation arises when 3

conditions exist:1. A perceived discrepancy bet. What is and should

be.

2. A question about why the discrepancy exists.3. At least 2 possible and plausible answers to the

question.


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Research Problem, ContdResearch Problem, Contd

B. Problem Definition: Determine all that is currently

known about the problem and why it exists. Review

relevant literature, examine current servicestatistics, seek educated opinions and obtain

probable reasons for the problem from

social,economic, or health theory. A careful review

of existing sources of info and analysis of data helpthe researcher determine:


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Research Problem,ContdResearch Problem,Contd

1. Incidence and prevalence.

2. Geographic areas affected.

3. Characteristics of population groups.

4. Probable reasons for the problem.

5. Possible solutions.6. Unanswered questions.


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Research Problem, ContdResearch Problem, ContdC. Problem Justification

1. Is the problem a current and timely one? Does itexist now ?

2. How widespread is the problem? Are manyareas and people affected?

3. Does the problem affect special groups , such asmothers, or minorities?

4. Does it relate to ongoing program activities?

5. Does it relate to broad social, economic andhealth issues such as unemployment, incomedistn ?

6. Who else is concerned with the problem ?


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STRATEGY SELECTIONSTRATEGY SELECTIONA. Guidelines:

1. Review the strategies other people have used to solvesimilar problem.

2. Meet with the people who are most affected or mostconcerned with it.

3. Look for strategies that can be implemented without

overburdening the implementing agencies.4. Select strategies that can be sustained over time.

5. Seek strategies that are simple to implement.

6. Develop strategies where the solution is under the

control of the program.7. Avoid strategies where the cost of the field test is higher

than the expected benefits.

8. Avoid strategies that are not consistent with theimplementing agencys goals, objectives, & dev plans.


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Strategy Selection, ContdStrategy Selection, ContdB . What to do:

1. Identify potential strategies that could be used toto solve the problem.

2. Clearly indicate which one or more of thepotential strategies as the most appropriate.

3. Justify your selection by indicating:a. Past success with applying the strategy tosimilar problem situations.

b. The simplicity of implementing the strategyover other strategies that are likely to produce thesame impact.

c. The potential for sustaining the strategy oncethe OR study is completed.


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OBJECTIVES &OBJECTIVES &

HYPOTHESESHYPOTHESESA. Ultimate Objectives: Relate the proposed

research to broad social, economic, and otherconcerns. These are expected and hoped forcontributions.

B. Immediate Objectives: State what willhappen.They indicate the variables that will beexamined and measured. Whenever possible itshould be stated in behavioral terms: who will do,how much of what, to whom, when, where, & forwhat purpose.


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Objectives & Ho:, ContdObjectives & Ho:, Contd

C.Hypotheses: A statement about an expected

relationship between two or more that

permits empirical testing.


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INTERVENTIONINTERVENTION

DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONA. Who will be responsible for implementing

the intervention.

B. Where will the intervention activities take

place.

C. What activities will be initiated.


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OPERATIONALOPERATIONAL

DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONSTwo Essential Purposes:

1. They establish the rules and procedures to

measure variables;

2. They provide unambiguous meaning to

terms that otherwise can be interpreted in

different ways.


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Operational Definitions, ContdOperational Definitions, Contd

B. Operational Definitions of Terms: Just as itis necessary to define variables

operationally, so too is it necessary todefine the terms that indicate the nature ofthe relationship between variables: morethan, greater than, less than, larger than,

higher than, bigger than, lower than, smallerthan, safer, significant, acceptable,expanded, improved, increased.


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Operational Definitions, ContdOperational Definitions, Contd

Each of these terms can have a variety ofmeanings, and thus each requires an

operational definition for the researchproposal. The basic problem with suchterms as more than orincreased is thatthey denote a comparison but do not

indicate the standard of comparison. Weneed to know how much more andincreased by how much.


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STUDY DESIGNSTUDY DESIGN

A. Reliability and Validity:

1. Reliability: Consistency, stability, or

dependability of data. A reliablemeasurement is one that if repeated asecond time will give the same results as itdid the first time.

2. Validity: Refers to data that are notonly reliable but also true and accurate.


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Study Design, ContdStudy Design, Contd

B. Validity Threats

1. History. Sometimes events occur during the life

of the project that tend to either to increase or todecrease the expected outcomes of the project.

2. Selection. Occurs whenever people selected forthe control group differ greatly from the people

selected for the experimental group.3.Testing. Whenever a pretest is given, it tends to

have an effect on the posttest.


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B. Validity Threats, contd

4. Instrumentation. Whenever a measurement

instrument (such as a questionnaire) is changedbetween the pretest and posttest, the change islikely to result in an effect that is independent ofany effect due to a program or project.

5. Maturation: Over time, people (and things)change. In longitudinal studies, it is not unusual tofind that respondents become more experienced ,more knowledgeable, wiser, sometimes moreresistant and older. People mature over time.


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Study Design, contdStudy Design, contd

B.Validity Threats, contd

6. Mortality. In cohort studies (panel studies)

where the same group is followed overtime, there is always some dropout or lossof

cases.


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C. Types of Study Design

1. Non-experimental Designs:

a. Posttest Only Design

Time

Experimental Group X O1


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b. Pretest- Posttest Design

T i m e

Experimental Group O1 X O2

c. Static Group Comparison

T i m e


Control Group O2


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2. Experimental Designs

a. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

T i m e


RAControl Group O3 O4


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2. Experimental Design, contd

b. Posttest Only Control Group Design

T i m e


RAControl Group O2


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3. Quasi-Experimental Design

a. Time Series Design

T i m e

Experimental Group O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6


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b. Nonequivalent Control Group Design

T i m e


Nonequivalent Control Group O3 O4


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c. Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design

T i m e

RA Pretest Group O1 X

RA Posttest Group X O2


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D. Selecting a Study Design

1. Ethical Issues

2. Practical and Administrative Issues

3. Technical Issues


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Study Design, ContdStudy Design, ContdE. Guidelines for a Good Rsch Design

1. An ethical research design2. One that is capable of obtaining the most reliableand valid data possible given the constraints offunds, time, personnel & eqpt.

3. One that is capable of measuring whatever it isthat happens in the field setting , whether theimpact of planned intervention activities or theimpact of unplanned and possibly invalidating

events.4. One that helps an investigator avoid makingmistaken conclusions.


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F. The Principle of Three Multiples

1. Seek multiple data sources to obtain

information on the same variables.

2. Seek multiple measurements over time

of the same variables.

3. Seek multiple replications of the study

intervention in different field settings.


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SAMPLINGSAMPLING

A. Selecting Area & Population

Information refers commonly to

individuals

Referred to subjects, respondents, or cases

Cases need not be individual persons;they

may be aggregations or group of persons.


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Sampling,ContdSampling,Contd

B. Selecting Cases

Population: Composed of elements each of

which is a potential case.

Sample: A subset of the population from

information will be collected.

Basic Types of Samples: Probability and

Non-probability samples.


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Sampling, ContdSampling, Contd

B. Selecting Cases, contd

1. Probability Sample:

a. Simple Random Samplingb. Systematic Sampling

c. Stratified Sampling

d. Cluster Samplinge. Multistage Sampling

f. Probability Proportional to Size


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Sampling, contdSampling, contd

B. Selecting Cases, contd

2. Non-probability Sample

a. Accidental

b. Purposive

c. Quota sampling


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Sampling, contdSampling, contdC. Sample Size Determination

Determined primarily by:-Availability of resources, which sets the upper limit

of the sample size;

- Req. of the proposed plan of analysis, which sets thelower limit.

Must be large :

- To allow for reliable analysis of x-tabs;

- To provide for desired levels of accuracy inestimates of proportions;

- To test for the significance of differences ofproportions.


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Sampling, ContdSampling, Contd

C. Sample Size Determination, contd1. What are the reasonable estimates of key

proportions to be measured in the study ?

2. What degree of accuracy do you want to have in

your study?3. What confidence level do you want to use?

4. What is the population size?

5. What is the minimum difference you expect tofind statistically significant?


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C. Sample Size Determination, contd

n = (z^2) pq

(d^2)

n = ( n )

1 + n/N


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n = (1.96)^2 (.50) (.50) = 384

(.05)^2

n = ( 384 ) = 277

1 + (384/1,000)


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DATA COLLECTIONDATA COLLECTIONA. Quantitative Data

1. Structured Interviews

a. Use simple language;

b. Whenever possible, precode responses to the

questions;c. Avoid embarrassing or painful questions;

d. Avoid asking for more than one item ofinformation in a single question;

e. Watch out for ambiguous wording;

f. Do not overload your interview schedule;

g. Include all questions necessary to provide

sufficient information;


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Data Collection, ContdData Collection, Contd

2. Service Statistics

3. Self-Administered Questionnaires

- Likely to be useful in situations where

literate respondents are already gathered

together in a setting where they can write.


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B. Qualitative Data

1. Unstructured Interviews: The interviewerhas an outline of topics or a set of generalquestions to serve as a guide to the kind of

information required. Probe for details;2. Focus Group Discussion;

3. Direct Observation of Operations;

4. Content Analysis of Written Materials


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C. Data Quality Checks:

1. Include repeat questions that can be used tocheck consistency of response;

2. Have supv monitor the work of the interviewersin the field;

3. Reinterview a % of respondents & look forinconsistencies;

4. Recode a % of the Q to be sure that there are no

coding errors;5. Examine the frequency distn on all variables to

see if there are odd codes or items that are notlogical.


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D. Confidentiality of Information

1. Describe in detail how you plan to

maintain the confidentiality of infocollected.

2. Include a sample of the Informed Consent

Form in your study proposal.


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TABULATION & ANALYSISTABULATION & ANALYSIS

OF DATAOF DATAA. Preparing Tabulations

- Data Coding

- Editing of Coded Data

1) Illegal Codes

2) Omissions

3) Logical Inconsistencies

4) Improbabilities


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Tabulation & Analysis of DataTabulation & Analysis of Data

B. Plan for Analysis of Data

1. Attributes of the data

a. Central Tendency

b.Variance in the Data

c. Differences within the Data

d. Relationship within the Data


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2. Types of Analytical Procedures

a. Variable Transformations: Recodes,

Counts, Scaling, ConditionalTransformations,Others

b. Univariate Analysis: Freq Distn

* Nominal Measurement* Ordinal Measurement

* Interval Measurement


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c.Time Series Analysis

d. Comparisons

e. Bivariate Relationship

f. Multivariate Analysis

g. Cost-Effectiveness Analysish. Use-Effectivenes

C. Dummy Tables

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