OPENCOLLEGEOFTHEARTS

DigitalImageandCultureAssignment3:CriticalEssay

Howhastheadventofcitizenjournalismaffectedtheroleofthephotojournalist?

CatherineBanks507005

10thOctober2017

Wordcount:2892:excludingfootnotes:2745

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Assignment3:DigitalImageandCulture

Hasthedigitalrevolutioncreatedmoreproblemsthanopportunitiesfortoday’s

professionalphotographers?Discussthisquestionusingrelevantcasestudiesand/or

specificaspectsofmodernprofessionalphotography.

Howhasthedigitalrevolutionaffectedtheroleofphotojournalists?

Introduction

Itdoesn’tnecessarilymeanharmony,peaceandquietbutitdoesmeanhugeinvolvementin

everybodyelse’saffairs.….Theglobalvillageisasbigasaplanetandassmallasavillage

postoffice

(OurpresentaspredictedhalfacenturyagobyMarshallMcLuhan,2013)

McLuhanfirstsuggestedhisnotionof‘globalvillage’whilstwritingTheGutenbergGalaxy:

TheMakingofTypographicMan(1962)inwhichhefirstbegantoexaminecommunications

andsociety.1Duringthe1990sandintothetwenty-firstcenturytheevolutionofthisglobal

villagewasintensifiedbythecontinuingdevelopmentoftheworld-widewebandthe

growthofdigitaltechnologywhichcouldbeutilisedbyanyone.Accesstoeasytousedigital

camerasandcameraphonesenabledInformationandimagestobespreadaroundthe

worldwiththeclickofabutton.Thisspeedoftransmissiontogetherwiththewidespread

useofdigitalcamerasandcameraphoneslettotheriseofwhathasbeencalled‘citizen

journalists’,amateurphotographersonthesceneofemergingsituationsandsharingmobile

phoneimagesinstantlyonsocialnetworks.

1InthiscaseMcLuhanwasreferringtotheeffectsofelectronicsystemssuchastelevisionsandcomputers,howtheywouldshapewaysofthinkingandcauseprintedbookstodisappear.

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Thespeedofitscaredhimabit.Everyuseofthephotobredahundredmore,eachofthose

hundredspawnedathousand.He’dneverproperlyunderstoodthewordviraltillthen.Ifhis

picturehadbeenadisease,theworldwouldhavebeendead.(C.Robertson,2016:17)

Thisgrowth,combinedwitheverincreasingexpansionofdigitaltechnologyandsocial

medianetworksfurtherthreatenedthestatusofprofessionalphotojournalists.Theywere

alreadyfacingchallengesfromthediminishingproductionanddistributionofprinted

newspapers,journalsandmagazines(S.Allen,2014),increasingchallengestothe

truthfulnessofimages(includingmanipulationinPhotoshop2)andquestionsastowhether

photographsoftragiceventseveractuallychangedanythinganyway–achallengealso

facedbydocumentaryphotographers.(J.Berger1972,1980M.Rosler1975andS.Sontag,

1977.)StuartAllantouchesuponthesestrandsinhisargumentthattheblurringof

boundariesbetweenamateurs(whatheterms‘citizenwitnessing’)andphotojournalists

produces………importantconsequencesforrevisioningtheproclaimedepistemiccertainties

ofphotojournalism’snorms,valuesandprotocols(S.Allen2014:183).

Thisessaywillfocusuponongoingcriticismsfromcommentators/criticswithintheartistic

community,suggestionsastohowchangemightbeachievedandsomecreativeresponses

leadingtocollaborativeprojectsbetweenphotojournalistsandcitizenjournalists.

Pressuresforchangeincontemporaryphotographyasasocialpractice

In1972JohnBergerwroteanessayreflectinguponPhotographsofAgonyandhowwar

photographswerenowinmasscirculationwhichwouldhavebeensupressedinprevious

years.Wasthisbecausereadersnowwantedtobeshownthetruthorthatnewspapers

believedreadershadbecomedesensitizedtoviolentimages?Hisviewwasthatwhatweare

shownhorrifiesusandwefeeleitherindignantordespairing,

Despairtakesonsomeoftheother’ssufferingtonopurpose.Indignationdemandsaction.

Wetrytoemergefromthemomentofthephotographbackintoourlives.Aswedoso,the

2Photoshop1wasformallyintroducedinFebruary1990

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contrastissuchthattheresumptionofourlivesappearstobeahopelesslyinadequate

responsetowhatwehavejustseen.(J.Berger1980:38)

Berger’sanalysiswascomplex,recognisinghowwemayturnthesefeelingsagainst

ourselvesandfeelmorallyinadequatesoshrugourshouldersorperhapsdonatemoneytoa

charity.Whenthishappenswebecome‘depoliticised’andthephotographsoneof‘the

generalhumancondition’.However,thesewarsareoften‘foughtinourname’;whatwe

shouldbedoingistoconfrontourlackofpoliticalfreedom,butthereisnolegalopportunity

todothis.

SusanSontag’sbookOnPhotographywaspublishedin1977,containingacollectionof

essaysthathadbeenwrittenbetween1973and1977.Fromthestandpointof2017itis

interestingtoreadthesentence‘Tocollectphotographsistocollecttheworld[]theimage

isalsoanobject,lightweightcheaptoproduce,easytocarryabout,accumulatestore’

(1971:3)Onewondersifshehadeveryforeseenthatwecannowcarrythewholeworldin

ouriPhone.

Havingwritten,‘Photographingisessentiallyanactofnon-intervention’(ibidp.11)

Sontagrecognisesthepotentialpowerofthephotographtoreinforceamoralpositionbut

statesthatthisdependsupontheexistenceofa‘relevantpoliticalconsciousness’.Her

exampleherewasthe1972photographofasmall,naked,screaminggirlrunningfroma

napalmattackinVietnam.takenbyNickUt,whichSontagthoughtprobably‘didmoreto

increasepublicrevulsionagainstthewaratthattimethanahundredhoursoftelevised

barbarities.However,Sontagalsorecognizedthattheimpactandmeaningofaphotograph

changesastimepassesanexampleofthisbeingphotographsfromtheNaziConcentration

Campsin1945.Herviewwasthatasaturationpointmayhavebeenreachedsothat

‘”concerned”photographyhasdoneatleastasmuchtodeadenconscienceastoarouseit’

(1977:21).3Thisonesentencelaterledtotheterm‘compassionfatigue”.

3SontagreturnedtothistopicinherbookRegardingthePainofOthers(2003).Whilststillrecognisingthesenseofpowerlessnessthatimagesofatrocityevoke,sheconcludesthatitisimportantforwehumanstobeawareofwhatwearecapableof.DavidCampany(2012)providesamuchwiderreviewof‘compassionfatigue’inrespectofimagesconcludingthat

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AnotherearlycriticwasMarthaRosler,theAmericanartist,theorist,writerandeducator.

Amongstotherartisticstrategies,suchasvideoandinstallation,MarthaRoslerused(and

continuestouse)photomontagetoreflectupontheseparationbetweenlifeathomeand

theconductofwarabroad.

Fig.1RedStripeKitchen,fromtheseriesHouseBeautifulBringingtheWarHome

MarthaRosler©1967-72

‘compassionfatigue’is,‘entirelythewrongconceptforthinkingabouthowtheimagesproducedbyphotojournalismwork.Andfortoolongithaspreventedthatthinkingfromprogressing’(p.25)Onesolution,proposedbySusanLinfieldTheCruelRadiance(2010),istolearntoseethepeopleinthem.

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Fig2PointandShoot,fromHouseBeautiful:BringingtheWarHome,NewSeries,2008

©MarthaRosler2008.

In1975Roslerwroteacriticalessayattemptingtodevelopcriteriatodefinecontemporary

photographyasameaningfulsocialpractice.Theessaydescribesahistoryofdocumentary

practicesandherargumentwasthatphotographersnolongerseektoaimtoreformbutto

actas‘witness’.Herviewwasthat

Theexpose,thecompassionandoutrage,ofdocumentaryfuelledbythededicationto

reformhasshadedoverintocombinationsofexoticism,tourism,voyeurism,psychologism

andmetaphysis,trophyhunting–andcareerism.(2006:178)

RoslerwasamemberofaninformalstudygroupinCalifornia,inthemid1970s,alongwith

FredLinidierandAllanSekula,andthethreeofthemweresoonatthecoreofwhatwas

beingcalled

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…..thenewdocumentary,orthenewsocialdocumentary,createdbysophisticated,college-

education,politicallyactiveintellectualswhowantedtousephotographyasanimportant

elementofsocialcritique(M.W.Marien2002:438)

Theiraimwastofindawaytocommentonsocialoppressionwithoutcreating‘victim

photographs’whichevokedpassivesympathyorvoyeurism.Theproblemwasthatthese

newsocialdocumentarianswroteinanintellectual,academicstylecreatinganobstacleto

understandingfromnon-intellectualaudiences.

JohnBergerrespondedtoSusanSontag’s1971essayinUsesofPhotography(1978).In

manyrespectsherepeatedSontag’sviewsregardingthetemporalcontextofphotographs

butexpandedthistosuggestadistinctionbetweenpublicandprivatephotographs.Berger

wascriticalthatpublic,iconicphotographsrepresentedeventsdisconnectedfromthe

experienceofmanyreadersbecausetheyweretornfromthecontextoftheevents

depicted.Hesuggestedthatthetaskofanalternativephotographyshouldbetoincorporate

photographyintosocialandpoliticalmemorysothatthephotographerwouldbe‘nota

reportertotherestoftheworldbutarecorderforthoseinvolvedintheevents

photographed’(1978:56).Inthisway,beinganintegralpartofpeoplecreatingtheirown

history,thephotographswould‘reacquirealivingcontexttheywouldcontinuetoexistin

time,insteadofbeingarrestedmoments’(1978:57).

Takingthesecriticismsandconcernsinaccount,couldthedigitaltechnologyoftheearly

2000s,togetherwiththisnewbreedofcitizenjournalists,providethislivingcontextthat

JohnBergersuggests?Firstthedigital.

Hyperphotography

IntheessayTowardsaHyperphotographyinhisbookAfterPhotography(2008)FredRitchin

arguedthatdigitalphotographywasnotanevolutionbutarevolutionbecauseitisa

differentmediumfromanaloguephotography;andchangeswaysofthinkingandperceiving

theworld.(2008).

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InanarticleinNiemanReports(2010)Ritchinrecollectswritingin1995ofjournalists

enteringanopportunityofpromiseinthenewevolvingdigitalsocietybutfailingtotakethe

dissimilaritiesbetweendigitalandanalogmediaseriously.Insteadtheyhad,‘attemptedto

putwhatwe’dpreviouslydoneontoascreen-basedtemplate’(2010:6),givenworkaway

freebyplacingitonlineandrelyingonbrandingratherthanrecognizingtheneedtobea

pioneer.Ritchinstressedtheneedtouseinteractivedigitalmethodstoengage

viewers/readersandenablemultiplenarratives,thusallowingmultiplepointsofviewto

emerge.Heproposedtheconceptofhyperphotographywherebyhypertextandhyperlinks

couldbeembeddedwithinanimageenablingfurtherinformationtobeaccessed.Ritchin

wrote‘realityhasnosingletruth’(2008:147)andpositstheideaofacontradictory‘double’

imagewhichiscubist,sothatstagedeventsorsimulationscouldbeexposedbyasecond

photograph.

OneofRitchinsexampleswasthewebsiteakaKURDISTAN“aplaceforcollectivememory

andculturalexchange”.Theintroductorypaneldisplaysastorymapwhichquicklychanges

toamapembeddedwithhighlightedyellowspotswhichleadtomanydifferentstories.

.

Fig.3ScreenshotsfromakaKURDISTAN

Thewebsite,constructedin1998,wasoneoftheoutcomesfromworkbythephotographer

SusanMeiselaswhousedMacArthurfoundationfunding(beginningin1992)tocuratea

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photographichistoryofKurdistanwhichresultedinabookaswellasthewebsite.In

conversationwithChrisBootin2014,Meiselascommented‘Nowitwouldhavetohavea

muchmoredynamicframeworkofexchangefromoutsideandwithintheKurdish

community”(Aperture2014:29).ShealsothoughtthatifInstagramhadbeenavailablein

1978shewouldhavewantedtouseitasameansofreportingdirectlyfromthestreets

duringtheinsurrectioninNicaragua.

In1999FredRitchinsetupPixelPressanonlinemagazineaimingtoencouragedocumentary

photographersandotherstoseek,‘anewparadigmofjournalism,onethatencouragesan

activedialoguebetweentheauthorandreaderand,also,thesubject’.Themagazine

featuredsuchprojectsandworkedwithmanyorganisationstocreatesimilarwebsites

whichwouldattempttointegratethemeansforviewersthemselvestohelptoremedy

socialproblemsinsteadofbeingspectators.UponenteringPixelPressandclickingthe

thumbnailfilesitisn’talwayspossibletodiscernwhetheraprojectisongoing,moribundor

completed.ThisisnottosaythattheideaofPixelPressfounderedbutrather,perhaps,to

thinkofonlineprojectsasmediumtermvisualrecordsof,andcommentaryon,current

socialissuesandconcerns.Forexample,DigitalDiary:WitnessingtheWarby

photojournalistsBrianPalmerandChristopherSmithranduringthe2004CampaigninIraq.

ItwastheIraqWarwhichintroducedtheconceptofthe“embedded”reporter–roundthe

clockreportingwhichgavegovernmentscontrolofwarreports,andofjournalists–well,to

someextentastherewasaninternationalgroupofjournalistswhorefusedtobe

‘embedded’.

Whataboutcitizenjournalists,though,wastherearoleforthemaspartnersinnew

initiativestobringaboutsocialchange?

CitizenJournalists

Citizenjournalismgainedwiderecognitionon11thSeptember2001whereeyewitness

accountsappearedontheinternetlessthantenminutesafterthefirstpassengerjetstruck.

Thisparticipationofamateurphotographersgrewalongsidethegrowingavailabilityof

cheaperdigitalcamerasandtherewaswiderrecognitionduringtheaftermathofthe

tsunamiinSouthAsiainDecember2004whenamateurphotographerswereaheadof

televisionnews.Digitalcameraimagesofferedafirst-handviewduringthebombingin

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Londonon7thJuly2005.Victimstrappedinsidetheundergroundtunnelsrecordedthe

scenesontheirmobilephonesandablurrymobileimagetakenbyAlexanderChadwick,a

survivor,wasselectedamongstmanyotherstofeatureonthefrontpages.Itbecamea

globalphenomenon.

Fig.4Evacuatingthroughtubetunnel2©AlexChadwick5July2005

Thiswasconsideredawatershedmomentinjournalismwhenasynergyhadbeencreated

betweennewsimages,cameraphoneusersandthenetworks.Someallianceswereformed,

forexampleduringthe2011LondonriotswhenphotojournalistsusedTwitterontheir

mobilephonestocommunicateimages,whilstotherTwitterusersprovidedinformationon

troublespots.Distinctionsstartedtobemadebetweenthosepeoplewho‘justhappenedto

bethere’andthosewhoidentifiedthemselvesasbeinginajournalisticroleandput

themselvesintoadistributionchainwithnewsorganisations.

Thereweremisgivingsofcourse.Wasrecordingtheextremesofhumanexistenceajobfor

amateurs?Whatifimagesweremisusedorfaked.Therewouldbealossofcredibilityif

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imageswereunabletobeindependentlyconfirmedorverified(StuartAllen,2014)One

mightaddthat,althoughthiswaspossible,itwasalsoflyinginthefaceofcomplaintsand

criticismofimagesfromprofessionals.Certainly,strategieswereputinplacetocheckthe

authenticityofimagesandstories,suchastheUSCHuboftheBBC.Conversely,Allenalso

referstotheimpactoftheJanuary2009videoclipfromanAmericanvisitorthatclearly

contradictedadenialbytheMetropolitanPoliceinLondonthat,duringtheG20Summit

demonstration,oneoftheirpoliceofficershadknockedapasser-by,IanTomlinsontothe

ground.IanTomlinsoncollapsedanddied.

Otherformsofcollaborationbeganbetweenphotojournalistsandthepeopletheywould

normallyhavetreatedas‘subjects’.AsFredRitchinpointsoutphotographerscan

experimentwithdifferentroles,and‘therapidriseofsocialmediamakesphotographsthat

areconceivedfromtheperspectiveof“us”–thecombatantsorthosecaughtinconflict–at

leastascommonasthosemadeof“them”(2014:42).TheBasetrackexperimentalsocial

mediaprojecttracked1000USMarinesduringtheirdeploymenttosouthernAfghanistanin

2010-2011(Aperture2014:118).Theprojectwasfoundedbytwoofthesmallteamof

embeddedphotographers.Mobilephones,togetherwithaFacebookpage,wereusedto

connecttheMarineswiththeirfamiliesandthelargerpublic,withofficialnewsfeedasa

toolforcontenttoberedactedbythemilitary.Awebsitealsoranformorethantwoyears,

withahomepagefeaturinganinterfacewithGooglemaps,buttheneedforconstant

updatingandlackofexperienceddevelopersandresourcescreatedproblemsplusthere

wasthennotificationthattheGooglemapsinterfacecreatedan“operationalsecurity”risk

tothebattalion.ItbecameclearthattheFacebookpageanditsconversationswere“rattling

somenerves”,withanultimatumfromtheMilitarytoshutthepagedownortheembed

arrangementwouldbeterminated.TheFacebookpagestayed(itstillexists)andtravel

orderswerecancelledforthelastembedteam.

Apartfromwarandmilitaryaffairs,thereareothercollaborationsenablingmembersof

communitiestotelltheirownstoriesusingsocialmedia.EverydayAfricacurrentlyhas

367,000followersonInstagram.

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Fig.5EverydayAfricaScreenshotfromInstagrampage07.10.17

PhotographerPeterDiCampoandwriterAustinMerrillinitiatedthisproject,includinga

Tumblrfeed,in2012.Itcameaboutbecausetheywereawarethattheirphotostorieswere

reportingondisplacedpeoplebutnotreallyrepresentingdailylifesotheystartedaTumblr

blogthenwentonInstagram.Theywantedtochallengestereotypesanddevelopvisual

literacyskillstoenablepeopletochangethewaytheyperceivetheworldandhavesetupa

varietyofresourcestodothis,speakinginclassroomsandrunningworkshops.

Summary

Photojournalistswereaffectedbythedigitalrevolutioninseveralwaysasoutlinedinthe

Introduction.WhilstsomehavechangeddirectionintoFineArtandconceptualprojects,

othershavecontinuedtofindnewwaysandstrategiestoenableadialoguebetweenpeople

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fromdifferentculturesandbeliefs,usingphotographyasavisualmedium.Itisdifficultto

formfirmconclusionsinadigitalenvironmentwhichisconstantlychangingandwhere

socialmediariseandthenfallassomethingnewcomesalong.Someprojectsfounderand

websitesdisappear.Whatseemsclearisthatphotojournalismasaprofessionhastakenup

thechallenge,takenonnewtechnologyandfoundnewphotographicstrategiestoenable

andsupportcollaborativeprojectswhereparticipantsarepartnersratherthansubjects.

Where“them”become“us”.

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References

Allen,S(2013)“BlurringBoundaries:professionalandcitizenphotojournalisminadigitalage”In:Lister,M(Ed)ThePhotographicImageinDigitalCulture.Abingdon:Routledge.pp.183-198.Berger,J.(1972)‘PhotographsofAgony’In:Berger,J(1980)UsesofPhotography.NewYork:PantheonBooks.pp37-40.Berger,J.(1978)‘UsesofPhotography’In:Berger,J(1980)inUsesofPhotography.NewYork:PantheonBooks.pp48-63.Berger,J(1980)UsesofPhotography.NewYork:PantheonBooksCampany,D(2012)TheMythofCompassionFatigue(1stdraft)At:http://www.david-campbell.org/wp-content/documents/DC_Myth_of_Compassion_Fatigue_Feb_2012.pdf(Lastaccessedon7October2017)http://www.akakurdistan.com(Lastaccessedon7October2017)http://www.pixelpress.org(Lastaccessedon7October2017)http://www.susanmeiselas.com/archive-projects/kurdistan(LastAccessedon7October2017)Lister,M(Ed)(2013)ThePhotographicImageinDigitalCulture.Abingdon:RoutledgeMcLuhan,M(1962)theGutenbergGalaxy:TheMakingofTypographicMan(2011edition),UniversityofTorontoPressMarien,M.W.(2002)Photography:ACulturalHistory(3rdEd)London:LaurenceKingPublishingLtdMeiselas,S(2014)‘PhotographyExpanded’In:ApertureSpring2014.pp26-32.‘OurPresentaspredictedhalfacenturyagobyMarshallMcLuhan’(2013)[user-generatedcontentonline]Creat.MakerStreetNetwork18April13At:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=viuIKgjLnDE&t=8s(Accessedon07October2017)Ritchin,F(2008)theBestandWorstofTimesAt:http://www.americansuburbx.com/2013/06/interview-fred-ritchin-the-best-and-worst-of-times-2008.html(Accessedon25September2017)

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Ritchin,F(2010)‘FailingtoHarnesstheWeb’sVisualPromise’inNiemanReports/Spring2010.Vol64.1p.6Ritchin,F(2014)‘OfThem,andUs’In:ApertureSpring2014.P.42Robertson,C(2016)Murderabilia.UK:Simon&SchusterUKLtdRosler,M(1975)“In,AroundandAfterthoughts(OnDocumentaryPhotography)”InDecoysandDisruptions:SelectedWritings1975-2001(2004)London:MITPress,pp150-206Rosler,M(2001)‘PostDocumentary.PostPhotography’.In:DecoysandDisruptions:SelectedWritings1975-2001(2004)London:MITPress.pp207-244Rosler,M(2004)DecoysandDisruptions:SelectedWritings1975-2001London:MITPressSontag,S(1978)OnPhotography.London:PenguinBooksSontag,S(2004)RegardingthePainofOthers.London:Penguin