Online Sources and Credibility

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http://ojphi.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2197/2484

This study investigates teenage attitudes towards unofficial versus mainstream media as a sourceof information. It starts from three unproven premises. First, that young people place more trustin unofficial online news than in mainstream media, because they feel a greater ownership of thecyberworld. Second, due to a perception of authoritarian control over Singapores mainstreammedia, truth and accuracy in unofficial sources are of secondary importance to a feeling of ownership. Third, teenagers need f or accuracy is secondary to their need for ownership anddifferentiation; and, unofficial information sources are a badge of identity worn by the young.The study found that perceived ownership of a medium is secondary to its utilitarian function.

Content is more important than platform. Off line media were preferred for current affairs andsports, where reliability and convenience were important. This went in tandem with greater interest in current affairs among academic high fliers, and a greater interest in entertainmentamong others. Online media were preferred for entertainment and leisure information, whereaccuracy and reliability were secondary to attitude.

Contents

Introduction Aims and objectives Theoretical perspectives

Methodology Results and discussion Conclusions

Introduction

The Internet has revolutionised how people find information. According to the Project for Excellence in Journalism (PEJ, 2006), audiences are moving from print to online sources and asa result they consume news in a different way. They are more likely to go to multiple sourcesand draw their own conclusions from what they find than accept pre packaged, edited versionsof events presented to them by old fashioned reporters.
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This study investigates how teenagers in Singapore consume news and other information,examining the values they place on news based on its provenance, such as why they use certainmedia platforms to access certain types of information.

The imminent death of newspapers has been widely reported; the question is, what niche does

print journalism occupy for the younger generation destined to preside over this supposeddemise? Fifteen year olds of 2005 will be 50 in 2040 when the last newspaper is printed according to media baron Rupert Murdochs (2005) best estimates.

In this s tudy, online information sources refers to the Internet, including electronicnewspapers, search engines and online encyclopaedias. Offline information sources, coversall print (books, newspapers, magazines and other periodicals) and broadcast (radio andtelevision). It classifies information sought by teenagers into five categories:

1. Current affairs (national and international environmental, political, social etc. issues)2. Entertainment (tabloids, music, movies)3. Leisure (travel, hobbies, games)4. Sport (national and international)5. School research (information for school/homework).

Aims and objectives

This study, completed in 2007, hoped to gain a deeper understanding of how teenagers in

Singapore use certain media to access certain types of information. It aimed to investigateteenage trust of unofficial online news versus mainstream off line news; how teenagers consumenews and the value they place on the news based on its provenance; as well as exploring whatinformation Singaporean youths wanted, where they got it, and what factors affected their decisions.

Theoretical perspectives

The uses and gratifications theory of media concerns itself with the principle that utility andneeds are the overriding factors for media consumption (Katz, et al. , 1973). Yet with a newgeneration of digital natives (Prensky, 2001), it may be time to reconsider whether this theorygives a full picture. The use of media by youth has been well studied, but frequently with thedisdainful tone of an adult criticising you ng peoples use of a new media with which the older generation may be less familiar and often more fearful. Many studies concern themselves withonline addiction, pornography, Internet predators to read these studies, one would think that the


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Internet is a terrible place. And yet individuals notably young people flock to the Internet.Just as Jones (2005) challenged the accepted wisdom about video games by asking children whythey liked playing them, the aim of this study was to discover from students themselves their uses of media, and how the Internet fitted into it.

A secondary interest was in their news and current-affairs habits. Newspaper editors seedeclining sales and research reveals that this decline is more notable among younger readers.Overall, circulation has decreased since 1960, although this is not equally apparent acrossdifferent countries (Raeymaekers, 2004). The concern that newspapers face such an uncertainfuture may be linked to the rise of electronic media (Norris, 2000, and others). There is bothmedia displacement and media complementing each other. Use of the Internet seems to havereduced the use of television; 40 percent of youngsters say they watch it less (Mediappro, 2006).There is evidence of substitution between of the Internet for television, both overall and for news, between daily newspapers and broadcast TV news (Waldfogel, 2002).

Some research suggests that young people value news. Gauntlett and Hill (1999) asked young

British respondents to keep a diary of their TV viewing behaviour over five years. Based onthese diaries, Gauntlett and Hill claimed that news programmes increasingly became part of theyoungsters daily routines as they grew older. Young people indicate that they are interested in

particular in shocking, bizarre, funny or abnormal events. The particular relevance of suchinformation is that it provides conversation topics (Meijer, 2006). Knowledge about currentaffairs also seems to be a strong element in prestige in some social groups, at least for 16 to 18 year old Belgian students (Raeymaeckers, 2004).

Most research into childrens information seeking behaviour has been conducted in schools.This study was open to the same strengths and weaknesses identified by Shenton (2004). Heidentifies administrative and contextual reasons among the benefits, and timing, permission and

absenteeism among the weaknesses. But while Shenton valued schools for their diversity, thisstudy valued Singapores schools for the academic similarities within the streamed gro ups.While this study is by no means fully representative of all teens in Singapore, it is relevant tothose who are likely to be affected by changing information habits those who read newspapersand surf the Internet on a regular basis. Another factor is that researchers have tended to ask

parents to report on the use of technology by their chhildren, even though it is central tochildhood to generate tactics to live within or circumvent the strategies adults use to constrainthem (Seiter, 1999). Asian adolescents were chosen because they belong to a wired generationeager to connect to the Internet in a region where Internet penetration is high (Jung, et al. , 2005).

Media use among teens

The bigger picture of online media use shows a difference depending on the ages of respondents.The Pew Internet and American Life Project (Horrigan, 2006) found that there was a distinct biastowards younger people (under 36 in the Pew study) having broadband and getting news online,even though they are generally less news hungry than older online users. It also noted thatspeed was a deciding factor in whether Americans got their news online or in print, with 43

percent of those with high speed broadband turning to the Internet, compared to 26 percent of


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those with slower dial up connections. Another Pew study (2002) also found that teens use theInternet more for communication and entertainment than for research.

Looking more at youth, Kvavik, et al. (2004) found that students used the Internet first for educational purposes, second for communication and third for presentations. Surfing the Internet

for pleasure was only marginally ahead (97.2 percent) of surfing for schoolwork (96.4 percent)and, indeed, students often did both at the same time. Kvavik, et al. (2004) were concerned morewith use than motivation.

Other research has considered childrens use of the Internet generally, rather than their information seeking behaviour (Lai and Tong, 2006). But as they are the next generation of newspaper readers it seemed important to examine what kind of information they value andwhere and why they seek it. In a study of the research habits of children at an English secondaryschool, Madden, et al. (2007) found that the Internet was consistently ranked, in terms of

perception, as the most useful information source. Newspapers and magazines were rankedhighly at the ages of 11 12, and dipped dramatically at the ages of 13 15, before settling

somewhere in the middle of the range for the remaining teenage years. But when it came to use, both Internet and print media languished at the bottom with newspapers and magazines scoringmore highly then the Internet for all but 13 to 14 year olds polled. This suggests a further line of enquiry among Singapore students, looking at real, rather than perceived, research activities.

Teens in Asia

Singapore, with its high Internet penetration rate of 66 percent (IDA, 2006) and distinctstreaming of students, was an interesting test case. This study observed that differences in mediause corresponded to differences in academic achievement and attitude. This is not to assumecausality, as newspaper use and high academic achievement may be coincidental or caused by

separate social, economic and other factors that predispose newspaper readers to academicheights, as well as directing academically inclined students towards the respectability of newspapers. In one study, Danish tweens were observed as being more likely to use mobile

phones and the Internet for interpersonal communication and for enjoyment than Hong Kongtweens, while Hong Kong tweens used the Internet more for educational purposes than Danishtweens (Andersen, et al. , 2007).

Ownership or pragmatism?

While many commentators concentrate on ownership in its physical sense, this research wasmore interested in perceived ownership in a conceptual sense (van der Voort, et al. , 1998). Jiang(2003) questioned whether youths main loyalty was towards content or format. Madden, et al. (2007) was surprised that the use of the Internet was so small for English schoolchildren. But

pragmatic children the world over value speed and convenience above all else, in keeping withuses and gratification theory. They do not prefer the Internet they use it out of convenience,although they find it more convenient as an instrument of research because they tend to go therefor entertainment. Ultimately, this research concurred that the process of appropriation is highlyinfluenced by an individuals profile tastes, psychological and social orientations (Mediappro,2006). Neuberger, et al. (1998) pointed out that online news media lacks portability, but now that


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teens find themselves using a computer for many hours a day, it has become a convenient placeto read news.

Multiplicity of viewpoint

A final consideration is the unusual media model in Singapore, where broadcast and press areeffectively run as monopolies, with significant influence by the government. While not a perfectmatch, a comparison with centrally controlled media systems is instructive. Ithiel de Sola Pool(1973) identified a few consequences for media use in countries governed by authoritariangovernments continuous retreat into privacy; declining political interest and decreasingcredibility of official media. This corresponds to the Singapore experience on two levels. First,where the press is perceived as being government controlled, people will look for alternativesources of information. Second, it is standard teen behaviour to perceive any official voice as

being biased, and therefore they are doubly inclined to find alternative sources.

Meyen and Schwer (2007) identified six types of media consumer in the old German Democratic

Republic, based on the credibility and use of both East and West German media. One group, TheCommitted, had climbed the career ladder within the GDR, graduated from university and wereof above average intelligence and loyal to the system. They understood that political programmes

broadcast on each side of the Berlin Wall were biased, but wanted to see both sides to balancetheir own arguments in discussions. The comparison can be made to the Singapore students whorecognise that no single source is without bias, and want different sources to get a fuller picture.Young people have learned that zapping (that is, switching between multiple channels) is a goodway to get a general impression of a wide variety of information. Objectivity does not exist intheir experience and thus they are not inclined to identify with a single standpoint (Meijer, 2006).

Equally, Singapore is a multicultural society, which has further implications of multiplicity, or at

least an acceptance of complexity. Living in a multicultural society has taught young people thatthere is no single truth. This is why young people have a preference for programmes that showthat multiple stories and realities can exist side by side and which do not force them intoidentifying themselves with one position (Meijer, 2006). Prenskys (2001) digital natives prefer more raw information so they can filter it themselves. Among Dutch teens, the primary need wasa demand for more background information that would enable them to understand the context of news, in order to draw conclusions and finally to understand what an given story was really allabout (Raeymaekers, 2004).

Perhaps the platform itself is less important than content. In the new media environment, itseems that people increasingly engage with content more than forms or channels favourite

bands, soap operas or football teams, wherever they are to be found, in whatever medium or platform (Livingstone, 2004). Possibly the very architecture of the Internet its flexible,hypertextual, networked structure as well as its interactive mode of address and almost anarchicfeel particularly appeals to young people, fitting in with their informal, peer oriented, anti authority approach, making this an environment in which they feel empowered (Livingstone,2007).


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Initial research for this paper involved a literature review, followed by face to face interviewswith 20 Singaporean teenagers to suggest a relevant direction for subsequent surveys and also togive a general idea of how Singaporean teenagers sought information. Next, 150 students fromthree different academic streams (50 from each stream) filled in a questionnaire (Appendix A ) which examined:

Their information needs. Their choice of media to fulfil those needs. What influences their decision of which media to consult for which information. Their attitudes towards the value of online and off line information sources. Their attitudes towards perceived generational ownership of media. Their academic credentials as shown by the PSLE score, the Primary Schools Leaving Exam

which streams them into different secondary schools and is an indicator of future academicsuccess.

The three streams are:

Integrated Programme IP. High academic. Express Stream. Mid academic. Normal (Academic) N(A) stream. Average academic.

A control group of 10 adults was also polled.

The limitations of this study are that the target group may have been too small to provide a morefair and all encompassing point of view. Also, as all survey respondents from the IP stream werefemale, the survey results may have been skewed to a feminine perspective. Yet Livingstone(2003) found that there are few gender differences in motivation for Internet use. Further,Raeymaekers found that gender differences in patterns are not significant. Instead, rather thangender, educational level has a strong influence on interest in political features of news, andyoung respondents with the lowest level of education were more interested in features such astelevision and entertainment (Raeymaekers, 2004). This study adds to this finding. Lauf (2001)found, however, that in 1998, looking across Europe, education was no longer a significant

predictor of daily readership. Rather, age had become the strongest predictor for daily use of newspapers as a source of political infor mation. And following Meijers (2006) use of a peer group to overcome resistance to adults, this study also used students from the same peer group toconduct the surveys.

Results and discussion

The findings are presented first quantitatively, based on the survey responses and thenqualitatively, based on interviews. This research is based on different academic streams.
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Information sought

There is an increase in interest in current affairs with greater academic ability. In the IP stream,42 percent showed a great interest in current affairs, which dropped to 32 percent for those in theExpress stream and just four percent in the N(A) stream. The control group of adults showed an

83 percent interest in current affairs. Mirroring this, the interest in entertainment among the IPstream was its lowest at 46 percent, rising to 54 percent for the Express stream and topping 70 percent for the N(A) students. These students are likely to look for information on entertainment including sports, games, music, movies and TV related information and for informationon current affairs in order to appear knowledgeable for school reports. I read current affairs inthe newspapers to be up to date, as there is a constant competition for who has the mostknowledge, and kno wledge is necessary for survival. (Timothy, 16) This is consistent with

previous findings (Meijer, 2006; Raeymaekers, 2004).

Table 1: Percentage of students who were interested to know or really wanted to know aboutsubject areas on the Internet (N = 150).

Reasons for choice of medium

All three groups agreed that speed was a very important consideration. For IP and Expressstudents, convenience and availability were king, scoring 96 percent and 100 percent


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respectively for IP and 88 percent and 90 percent for Express; while for N(A) students they wereless important, scoring 66percent and 60 percent respectively. But among secondary factors,

popularity with teenagers (which can be linked to a sense of ownership) was highest among the N(A) stream at 42 percent; and lowest among the IP stream at 18 percent. Reliability as acriterion was highest among the IP students, at 54 percent and lowest among the N(A) students at

24 percent. Feelings of ownership towards the Internet were based more on IT literacy levels of their parents. I dont feel the Internet belongs to my generation and the more traditional off linemedia belongs to the older generation. More and more adults are using the Internet for gamingetc. (Amanda, 15) I do feel a sense of ownership of the Internet, because my parents are not ITsavvy. (Joanne, 15)

Respondents preferred online sources for convenience, speed, habit and searchability, whichwere most commonly cited reasons for looking online. Its accessible, because most of the timeIm already at the computer. (Amanda, 15) Convenience and habit were also key: It also letsyou multi task, as you can click around and do more than one thing. (Glenys, 15) I use it tofind things that cannot be found in newspapers and vice versa. (Dawn, 16) It is far reaching

and satisfying. (Naomi, 16) By contrast, they prefer off line because it is reliable, and it is habitual. I get tired of doingthings on the computer, so I want a change and hence read newspapers and magazines. (Natalie,16) Off line is more reliable according to Dawn (16) and others. It is portable, and healthier

because it does not harm your eyes. (Liyoung, 16). Off line news is more reliable as comparedto online sites such as Wikipedia where anyone can edit the information. Off line news is alsomore reader friendly as it is all summarised in a days/weeks copy. (Natalie, 16)


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Table 2: Percentage of students motivation for choosing media for research (N = 150).

Trust in sources

Kvavik, et al. (2004) found that a students major was a good indicator of use of technology,especially in the classroom. This study found that trust in the Internet went up slightly asacademic ability went down, although there was minimal difference between the student groupsin trust in the Internet based on the idea that it appeals to my generation. Valuing the Internetfor entertainment was consistent across all three groups. Trustworthiness was a major consideration among the IP students (72 percent), dropping to 50 percent for the Express streamand 46 percent for the N(A) stream. Being written for their generation was unimportant for the IPstream ( four percent), slightly more so for the Express stream (10 percent) and even more so for the N(A) stream (28 percent). Similarly, entertainment value differed between groups, with IPand Express students matching at 22 percent saying it was valued, and 38 percent of N(A)students ascribing value to it. But in all cases, these were not significant factors.

Respondents valued online information for its speed, frequency of updates and variety of viewpoints. Off line news is not trustworthy as it is biased and is used to spread propaganda,especially the Straits Times . (Zeslene, 16) There is a whole range of opinions. That isimportant as the more ideas, the better, so that you know whether your ideas are solid, after youve sieved out the useful contributions. (Zackary, 18) And they valued off line informationfor its reliability, dependabil ity and credibility: You can be sure it gives more accurateinformation. (Tami, 16) Others, though, found there was no difference in credibility between


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online and off line. They are equally valuable, as they both cover very different areas. Newspapers cover current affairs, while online is for entertainment purposes. (Dawn, 16) Therewere more comments that a friendly tone of voice was important (26) than neutral comments(20). Friendliness appears to boost credibility for entertainment information, but weaken it for news.

Table 3: What students consider very important or somewhat important in choosing a source of information (percentage; N = 150).

Different streams

Integrated Programme (IP) stream

When searching for information, 46 percent of students from the IP stream the mostacademically inclined group ranked school research as their first priority. The next most

popular choices, current affairs and entertainment, could reflect students desire to be wellinformed. Sports and leisure were not popular choices. In the IP group, 90 percent of thoseseeking information on current affairs turned to newspapers and magazines, and 46 percent to theInternet. For the same group, 64 percent seeking information on sports looked off line and 42

percent online. IP students interested in current affairs and sports preferred off line media, suchas newspapers and magazines and TV or radio, over online media, because they place more


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weight on credibility and trustworthiness of sources relative to these topics. Off line sourceswere generally perceived to be more accurate as they involve expert opinion and coverage. Onthe other hand, respondents searching for information on entertainment and leisure which areconsidered less serious topics demonstrated a preference for the Internet. Hence, an emphasison certain requirements such as reliability and speed varied with the nature of information

sought.

Availability (100 percent), convenience (96 percent) and speed (86 percent) proved to be mostimportant all were 100 percent among the control group. The regularity of updates was also animportant criteria, as the students want to be informed of the most updated news in order to avoid

being out of the loop. Only slightly more than half of the respondents felt that reliability wasimportant, which suggests they are willing to discount reliability in favour of speed andconvenience. Factors such as humour and popularity with teenagers were not important to the IPstream. However, 65 percent preferred the Internet as it is more entertaining, and almost half agreed that the Internet was more appealing to their generation. Even so, 48 percent felt thatwhether the news source was for their generation was the least important factor.

Express stream

In the mid range of academic ability represented by the Express stream, more than half of therespondents listed leisure, entertainment and current affairs as areas they wanted to know aboutthe most. School research was the least popular choice, with 66 percent of respondents citing itas something they least wanted to know about. The Internet was the most popular mode of finding information (except current affairs), because it is easily available, convenient and fast. Atleast, 80 percent of the respondents felt that those factors are the most important criteria.

Newspapers and magazines were the preferred choice for current affairs, because they wereconsidered more reliable. However, only 42 percent of Express stream respondents cited

reliability as an important factor in information seeking. That suggests that convenience reports are edited and compiled is important to this group. Certainly, 88 percent of therespondents felt that convenience was an important factor.

Some felt that friendliness was essential for entertainment and leisure information seeking, sothey could relate to it. Hence, the Internet is the preferred choice for information onentertainment, as style appears more important than substance. In other words, they can forgivesome inaccuracies in entertainment news which is considered less serious and important if itis appealingly written. Speed is important, as print media may not be updated with moviescreening times, for example.

Unexpectedly, newspapers and magazines were the preferred choice for sports information (52 percent), despite being slower than the Internet, possibly because everything is more condensed.Also, sport may be a topic where professional opinions are more valued, and newspapers provideexpert commentaries. This trend was also identified in the N(A) stream.

The Internet is the preferred choice for school research (74 percent) due its convenience, as manystudents usually find themselves already at the computer. Searchability was also key. Although


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the Internet may be less reliable compared to newspapers or TV, this is not a great deterrent only a few in this group (42 percent) said reliability of information was important.

Humour and being theirs also ranked low across all sources of information. However, most of them preferred the Internet as it appealed to their generation and is more entertaining. This

suggests that the entertainment value of a source is not a main or deciding factor, but a bonus.

Most of the Express respondents trust newspapers more than the Internet as they are run byexperts, and listed trustworthiness as the most important factor. Half of them also likednewspapers for summing things up. Overall, the respondents appear to use the Internet for entertainment rather than as an information source.

Normal Academic N(A) stream

Among the least academically advanced group polled, the most popular choices wereentertainment, leisure, and sports. The least popular choice was current affairs. They use the

Internet more than off line sources, which reflects their content interests. They also attributetheir greater use of the Internet to the fact that it is more informal, and more in their idiom. TheInternet is more searchable, containing a large database of information, accessible at any time.

In the N(A) stream, 56 percent of respondents preferred the Internet for school research, possibly because it is fast and convenient and easily searchable. The top three most important factorswhen the respondents are looking for information were speed, regular updates, and convenience.This was reaffirmed by 52 percent of the respondents who preferred television and newspapersas they sum things up quickly. Almost half of the N(A) students also stated humour and appeal toteenagers as factors when they search for information. In this group, 40 percent trusted theInternet more than newspapers. It also reflected higher Internet use because their interests were

aimed more at leisure. For a majority of these respondents (52 percent), the Internet seemed torelate to their generation and perhaps was a contributing factor for their preference of the Internetover newspapers.

Conclusions

1. Content was more important than platform in terms of information needs. Students valued

utility above any idea of generational media. Academic ability was a good indicator of the typeof content sought, and hence of platform used.

2. Off line media were preferred when searching for information on current affairs and sports,where reliability and convenience were important. Online media were preferred for searches onentertainment and leisure, where reliability and accuracy took a back seat to speed andconvenience.


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