One Hundred Years of Liberalism: the Venezuela That Chavez Inherited and the Venezuela That Chavez...

8/12/2019 One Hundred Years of Liberalism: the Venezuela That Chavez Inherited and the Venezuela That Chavez Is Re-Maki

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INFORMnN T USER

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8521



OE HUNDRED YEAS OF LmEISM:

VENEZUELA THAT C VEZ INIE D AND

VEEZUELA HA CVEZ IS R-KNG

Manes Foero-Steeve

Subitted to the uty o the Uiveity Grauate Sh

i pi uilet of the requimentsor the degree

Dtor of Phioophyi the Shoo o Pubi d Evirometa Aair d

the Depet o Poitia SieceIdi Uiverity

Jue 202



UMI Numr: 3052

Copght 2002 by

Foeno-Stves, Mas oela

All ghts reseed.

UUM Mcrofo302

Copyight 00 by PoQest Iforato ad Len Copany

ll gts reseed Ts crofo edto s potected gainsnathoized copyg nde le 17 Unte Stes Code

PoQes noao and Le Copy0 o Zeeb Rod

PO Box 1346nn bo MI48106-1346



ccepted the rdt cut Ind est prtet o the requrets or he degre oc o hsoh

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osso tck O'M\ D.

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lCC fmr lke

-sso s

Ha

5, 200

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Ms Foeo-Steees RGS RESER

iii



For L my sect adir.

iv



ACOWNS

I ud t ave e able t cpete m dieati in a fectly beal et.

Peap ne te t at tig that eed e accatel I

ceddurng te pe ding sea and wting my eat tat

ua g ae nt ate uecmd e se-cetee eve en tey

ave e taugt dug te wle ie tat te ppte te [ave e lcky t

nded b pe let d te Lia eld ve e w ave ealzed

tat te Lal way e t te wa t g.

I ud ke t expe y gatitude t te ems cttee te

cent and ugget. But I eca ant t tank Poe Jae G H

a uppo, gace ad ecuageetad r ag a lttle bt vast

klege abut eveg. It a awas a pleau t excage ea t ad

e Ja Lvgst le enjyg geat de at te e.

I ll away gtel t Davd Unded and Ia Petsa ee ve

k t let e ave te cpte. Te made y le eae by pag e lg walk

t te cpte cluste g te cld das wte n de t ty y eati I

wld al lke t tak Cag Ec ndng se i pae te t pve e

t tecca astace ealng wit te "bce de te cpte a t

pa.

T Mte K ad Eic tank yu man e a u

weekend dung tee tee teu mt.

I w awa debt t Mke Pa eng me a wa pace t ta

cc elie b makng e lag t i jke a innte patece eang



with e during some ery stressfu tes I can sitiely sy that without s eesty

I wud not hae en e t cmpete my dssetion on time

My loing appreciation to Humo and Nelly Foerino, my prents wh hae

en the st papi and ami a daughte could ee he Without their guidance ad e

I wud hae ben lost in a sometes difcult and Libal orld

And it is not enugh for e t thank eter Stes coni, whse hep prf

reading and contiuting to aking ths disseatin adale is, without exgertn,

heroc He litally went yond the cal of duty to hlp me. e magcaly ficted

time fter extmely usy days t wrk to d my disseation, make sugestns, nd

sometes "tanslate fr my English nto egula English always keeping y ste and

the eanng of my words intact In sum, h is a enius. But most imantly, the des

in this disseation ae the pruct f yeas of discussions aout Venezuean litics and

cutue wth him foa ng s we hae en maied Putting up with e, redig a t

aout te topc, and sndng year n Venezuea teaching and doing researc, es

him utority on the fed


10/288



TABLE O COENTS

Chapt ISetting the Stage macy and the Venezuea Situati .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 1

Chapter Demacy and Lialis in hey 9. 1. "Deracy: Sme enitins ad Sme Pes

2 1. 1. A Bef Excuin int the Prlem f Repsntatin2. 1.. emracy as Vting?

2 Liaism ithin th aditin f Sia Cntracts.3. Lia and ial Dmracy2.4 macy and th Questin f Elites

Chapt 3Demratic Devepment, Lira Devepent? .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. ... .. .. .. .. . . . . 53. 1. Devlpment h Intuctin

3.1.1. The 1960s and the Cmpatiiity Assumpti3. 1.2. The Cnflict hes f the 1 97s3. 1.3. ecnciliatin icy i the 19s3 1.4. utue and Dvlpment

3.2. Devepment Thery he uture f evepmet3.3. he Ecnmies f Deracy

Chapt 4Venezueas Pitical isty in Cntext. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 4. 1. istrical Backgrund f Venezuelas Petremracy

4.1.. One f the Petr-States? The uesti f Generalizatins4. 1.2. Petleum and Vnezuan Idntity4. 1.3. The Susi as undatin f State Istitutinal Stctus

4. 1.3 1. Juan Vcnt mz, Oi, and th Stat4.1.4. 945-194: Th Begining f Demracy

4. 1.4. 1. Why macy in Venezuea in 194?4. 1.5. The "Dak Panthesis f Venezuea ematic Histry4. 1.5. 1. Dictatship, The Ne Natina Ideal ad evelpment Idelgy

4 1.6. The al f th ictatr and the Cnstitutin f the matic Exrimet4.1.7. The Demratic Ea and Pacts amng Eites

4..7.1. Avidance f Cnict and Destic axatin4. 1.. Phases f Venuan Demracy

4. 1.. 1. Stngthning and Staiizati Demracy ( 195 196)4.1..2.A and COPEI Th Dynamic Du (161988)

viii



4 13 Deening of the Cisis and Attept t Svive (199 to the psent)4 131 ening of te C Te ie o te Retu o Clos

Andrs Prez4132 Atempts to urvive Te e Cvez

Capte 5Chve nd the Possibili of Venezuelan lliral Dey... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545 1 Coption Be i on the il, Confess it to te ie52 isng fm the Ashe of he iitar

51 The Veneuelan Militar and the Venezean ecy522 The ade as avior

53 eeelan Sef-Peception531 Elections53 Repesentation by Eites533 A New (1i Contiuion

5331 A New (lia Contition nd

5332 A New (liral Consiution nd Fai5333 A New (Illil Constiution and the iclitieof Place & Culu

54 Te Qeston of Civil iety55 Cvez's Rheorc and Policies

56 Te oe of Opsiion Against Chvez561 TheAd-Homine ad Bourgeoi Attacks562 Te Mo cholary Attacks fo te eneen Opsition563 Inteational Thats and Criicisms

Capte 6

Conclon: owing te Seed of te Mango....................................... 436 1 Te Qetons Giding te Investigaio6.2. Wt e te Mening o te Tes "Decy" n irlis" and is it te

Cse that the Tes have Been Conaed?63 Is t ossibe to ave a Demacy ithout a La Fonion anda suc

Ilia Deracies giiate?64 Wt is te Reltionship Between Demrac nd Deveopent in Genera and in

eneela in Picuar?65 Do Dferen Cltres Give Rise to Different Fos ac and has this Been

te Cse with Venezuea?

66 How is enezuelas oliical sem Best Descid and is ChvezAdvting a Detic Pah for Venezuela the Reject Lalism as its deologcal

ondtion?6.7 Ated

Bibliogrpy......................................................... . . . .. . 26

x



Chapter

Setting the Stage: Dmracy ad the Veezuelan Situation

his has ben a fase demracy.'

-Hugo Chvez Fras

This statement was eant to descri Venezuea y its cuent Psident Hugo Chv

Fras ut unfounatey the same asseion coud easiy apy to most oitica systems n

the Third Word. As with Chvez's discourse stye in gene it is a d and

straightfoard caim attemtig to exain in a sipe manner the reason why the

pacted2 demratic pay system in Venezuea coased and consequenty how th

country has a faied coup d'tat eader as its demraticay eected president Bt it s

aso possie to hear the echs of such a sentiment in the schoary work y poitica

scientists who are trying to come u with expanations for the faiure of demracy i

genera in Third Word countrs such as Venezuea.

Unti the 1 990s Veezea was not consided a very interesting country to

study U nti ten years ago it was the genera rceptio of schoars that since 1958

the bginning of the ongest asting demratic od in South America Venezuea ws

"deveoping and moving toward meity. In the asence of puar and oody

voutions ce dictatorships often modied y memb of the aed forces dee

economic changes and even natura disasters the vision o Venezuea as a stae and

orng country to study was cotiuay reinforced This henomenon has ben aed

1



y Louis Gan "Venezuean ecetiona ism According to Gan, the

expanaion for the ac of schoary intest in Venezuea is a coiaion of

chaactesicxcepiona and uneciting withou bing a iey el for others [t

was excetiona o inude in uticontry coaraive studies of itca or

econoic deveoen, and i offed insucient atracion as a singe case to u any

sudents.J

Receny he iica situaton has changed, esciay during the ast severa

yeas when any aices were written aout the couny and its new sident (who aso

aids in aking he study of he Venezuean itica syste o apaing due o his

conoveia sonaiy and itica stye). nfounatey, rhaps for Venezueans,

Venezuea is now "intesing.

And yet, gving he situation a second thougt ight i no b agued tha

Venezueans acualyare founate that the truth is fnaly ou the and the is si the

ossiiity of mending isaes and emarking on a ath toward a newly-defnd

osriy?

I rose that one of the epanations of the faiu of deracy in Venezuea

derives from histoca facors and cutura vaues. There are questions of fate.

Venezuea was under Spanish e durng coonia ties and is aed over one of the

agest hydrarn seves in the word. And thea quesions of cuu. These

inude an ehasis on faiy rather than ndividua ighs and the fat ha the counry is

su genes Cathoic Al of these factors eain why a liberal deay has ben just a

faade and utiatey a faiu in Venezuea. This I suggest, is wha ies a he hea of

Chvezs crtique of Venezueas deracy as a "fase deracy: i is librais hat

2



as failed e aion and coped e deac s lalis ha as ade e

deray fal.

he hinkin au demac odels o adop, Veezuelans hae lked o

of he emispe for exapes, foeg a isocally and culually he aliies ca

inomble, ad hefo he applicaon of a el exraced fm a dien

laiude can do o har han go. Ideed e esis of e wok wih follows is a

gien e Veezuelan hisorial and culural eali a lral deracy el is

icompable and inappropriae, and seekng is applicaon could only deeneae io a

"false deray for Venezuela, ulaely poducig apay and disilusione

o subsaniae such a lai, ebak on an nesiaion ino he disincion

ween lirl and illiral fos of demac b lkin o he case of Venezuela as a

fo of e laer, ulimaely n up seeal of e following key quesions for

cosideao. Scially, in wi an analsis of e debae suunding e

uliple fos of deacy, or wa Dd Colle ad See Lsky hae eed

Derac Wi Adjecies, ,,,4 wih scal aeion paid o e geeral caegoes o

liral and illiral fos of demac Hee I will ague a illiral fos of

deracy ae en ufairly demonized. Wile e Unied Saes as in fac pursued a

fo of lial deracy, and while is as coe a seeigly oaie el used

o jude he s of e world, his ds o ea ha e only g deracy is a lial

deacy. I is ssible o hae an illiral deracy ha ss ciizens and

prooes ei geel welfa. is ssibe o ae an illiral deray a is

coied o ain jus insiuions and a jus siey.

Venezuela, ainai, s suc an liral deay. Consequeny, s work

offers an analss of he isory and liica insuionsof mode Veneuela, w

3



pie ateio paid to the rse of ct pesidet go he Fra. Many cta

facos yod he se of Chvez, hogh fo eneea's paica desading and

ipleentaion of dera hese incde the tadiioa oe of e iiay i

eeela liics the ilicatons of eneea's igios ad cal ideniy, the

irtace of oil to eneela litics, ad the stats of civil siey in enezela

Ideed oe of he ain srces of probes fo eneea's deacy, and fo schoars

aepig o aalye enezelas deracy, has en that eeea has e seen as

an ifect iral deray rather han a egiiatey iia deac, and one o

the epaaions of the fal of deac in eneea (by whic schoas ea he

fai of libeal dera deves fom isorical factos ad cal vales I fact

wha scoahip the is on Venezela deacy typicay asses a ia el of

deacy ad ths ses eeela as a fai Hence the eisece of woks sch as

Veezuea Taished Demoa ad Veeuea: Ua democacia enfea [a sick

deacy Icoras, the wok which olows akes a ife appoach: is seeig

he eeean sitaio in geea as iesig and ipoa eog to waa is

eede sy; and secod lking a eeela deacy as a o of egiiaey

iia eacy ahe than a failed, ished o sick o of ia deracy

hapes wo ad three del with he theotia backgod coceig ialism

and deaic eoy haptes fo ad ve he take p he qesio of eneea's

paica o of dea

I capte two, analze the coceps of deacy ad liais, showig ow

he two hae coe conflated in e ties e I also coside aios pobles

with ad caeges o demrac hat will coe imant when ig at hez

and the eezelan sitatin onseqently, wil lk be at he ationship

4



wee epeeaive and picipay demrcy ad he hey o deaic eliism

and he pbe i aies fr demrcy i h applicai ad heoy Ag he way I

will al cmme n ch ahrs as R Dahl and Jeph Sche i he cnex

f hei ene me f he majr cicisms f demraic heoy

hape hee ses n demy and is relaoship o deveopmen his is

an isseof ey imace when lg a he way in which demacy a e

impleeed i Veeela, ad h I gi wih a hisy f deveope heoy,

fsig ecially n he wriig f Samel Hnig He I adde he qein of

whehe devepmen is a prr ideal, wheher "develpig is a po al f nn

wese coes, and he lanhip ween develpme and iaim ha in me

enes paallel he laihip ween demacy and lialim Iveigaing he way

in which devepme heoiss fe asme ha devepmen eai ia

demaiai evera qesi aie. Is i he cae ha a me deaic ae i a

me deved ae? Is demacy a uiversal ideal o is i oly or ly i

ieie? I deveopme eeialy icaed lialiaion? Hee a iilar qein

aries coceig he laihip ween demracy ad ecoomic evepmen i

ypicay een as a ecomic er a leas a iical e wih ecomic

implicaio I demacy ad deveopme a hgh g hadiad wih wha

ecmic yem i demacy asiaed? he cmm asmpi i, f crse,

capialim b haps ny when ne asume he liral demaic del.

Ichape fr I gi he ivesigain f Veneela wih a oveview f he

nain piical hi Saig wih he discovery f oil dig he dicarship f

General Ja Vicee Gme I e he his f Veneela' demacy hgh he

ise f Hgo hve he ie f i wealh, ae-bildig, and he eegece f

5



dmaic emads a arssd a udid as h csie h

unais h mraic a ha gan i 158 Bw 1958 1998.

mracy i Vezua was characrizd b a sn w pay sye Demai

cin (Acci DmocrticarA) a h ia Crisian Pay Cm; d

Ogaiaci Elctoraldpdi COPE ssnay cue ha wr b

iu f a agm ca h Pun Fij Pac his pacd macy gave a

wfu iica i ha was mak by a cpi ad uaccuabiiy ih

his aid cp i 199, Chvz am naina ain pmisig e cpi

s up a t macy ad h mass f p paicipa in ei gve and

n frm h i wah a h faid d wit a gun, h e wih a ba

si yars ae his cap hus skches h hisri cdiis e Cvez's

ascdanc pw ayzing h necessa iica scus a eves ha gav is

an ma psib i ecin h psinc

Chape v h aayzs h cuua cdiis ha mak eeza

dmracy picua paicuay iia) ad h rhic a icie Hug

Cvz I gi by ig sciay n h acrs h e iiay i

nzua piic bh hisicay a i imace Cvez miiary

backgrud); es i which Caicism is i Vzu cu ad hus

is in cnsa in wi a ira ccepin f h sa ud a vueeura

cncpin acciv hs); and h ky ha i has pay i h vpmn

f Vzua mo a ad is paicuar f d mracy Fiay wi k

dicy a Chvz cncpin f mrac and his isin f Veza Chvz

agus a gh agais e "as mcy f nzua ha xie wn 1958

an 1998 ggsig a avag ia icy dr h pe i v r

6



whil a wrul liical i ild psn h pl in an anngu

wa Criiquing prsnai drac n gnrl pac d drac sciicaly and

lrlm ro h ard Ch has apd r h as w ars dic h

Vnulan sa caing r a nw consiuin wn nd nw insiuins

aris. naing Ch wn rhorc and h nw cnsiin o hich h ga bh

I suggs ha i is ssb and appropria ad Chz nw sa as an ap

ha drac wihu liralis Th wrk hus cnclud wih such an ina

and h h ha Chs xrn is in n u rm a scharl rciv

bu igh al lad an ipn in h lis l pl wh piusl ld o

ars undr a gi s cnsdd draic l h asss in h

ajri ciins apahic an dislusnd and h pulac a a whl

disnranchisd

Cnsunl s k sns h lwi ng work a: (1) wha a h

anings h s drac d "irali? (2) i h cas ha dracy

and lirais hav n cnlad? 3) ha is h lainhip wn dac and

dpn nd how has h hior o dlpn hr n d iralis? (4)

d din cus gi is o dn s drc? (5) a lliral s o

drac lgiia?; (6 hw igh h pius cnu Vnlan liic

anald in s h noins dac irlism nd dlopn? and (5) is

Psidn Hug Chz adaing (in his nw cnsiuin laws and hrc a

drac pah or Vnzula ha jcs liis as i idlgical undain?

7



Endnotes

Geore e Geyer, "Pr Rch Venezuea: Mirace i Revee, eWashington Quaerly 2 (Spring 1999 12

2Venezueas demracy has en ased on a series of pacts ented into y the

comting pie The pacts demanded that wer sared y the pes (at east theonesenteng nto the pact), that sults o electons rescted, etc Some see thissystem of estaig a emracy as one marked y excusion of the ople and

collusion of eite the chapters that ollow, the history of these pacts and the liticalpos ad con of uch a fo of demcy wl b deat with some detal

3uis Gma et a,eds, Lssons of the Venezuelan Eeence (WngtonThe Wrow Wilson Center Press, 1995 4.

4David Coler an Steven Lvtsky, Demracy With Adjectves' ConceptualInovation i Compatie Reseah, orkg Par #230 Te Hele Kelogg nstitutefor Inteatona Studies, Universty o Notre Dame, otre Dame, I (August 196).

See Daiel Helger, Vna: Taished Democra (Boulder, COWestview, 1991) ad Antoio Steml Paris, Vneuela Una democracia eea(Caracas Editoria Ateneo, 1 80)

8



Chapter 2

Demracy and Liralism in Try

2.1. ''mracy: Some Defnitions and Some Probe

her is absolutel no agrent on what onstitutes a dera. It s, literall le b

the ople bt uh more nds to sai "emra as vr nearl o an

nteton ratr tan a noun Tat is the eotiv lent of te word has takn ovr

its mag: to all a sstem demratc s to rase tat sstm Barr Hoen s so

far as to sa tat in oe tims the st snonm for "dra has oe

"ua! Tis s not an nipoant fat smp to statd at te outst of a pjet

suh s tis an tn pass ovr on the wa to a mor solarl understanin o te

ter I anting sould aus or a momnt to raliz tat te probm it dfinin

"ra and t sens in wih the wor as o an inttion s a solal

prol It is not tat t masss ave oute an missd t te a it is p to

us-t politia toiststo sav it (This b the wa old a ratr ironi radin

of t sitation "dra as n opt b t asss an it s to an lit to

set it rigt) Rathr thr is no sholarly areement on ow to defne dmra and

n genral te various aaei deftons of "emra var so wiel tat one s

fored to onlue tat t onl reason a theorst alls is or er teor oe of

"dera is to praise it

Lt s bein tn wit te ltera efntio of th or Rul th ople s

often ased out as selfrule Demray onsquentl ol at the ver least not a

9



systm n whch thr ar ovrarchng authrts av h opl as n a monarchy

dctatorshp, a dssm, a thracy, tc Rathr, n a mracy, th pl gov

thmslvs Right away, hugh, a prblm arss. Can thr such a tng, thn as a

rpsntatv dmacy? If dmracy mans, a h vy las, "pla slful

hn s havng pulaly lc a lr wh wll gov wthout cnsultng th masss

prorly t thought f as a mracy?

2... A Brief Excursion into the Poblem of Reption

Th ancnt Athnans who trd ut mracy as arly th fth cntu BCE woul

not hav thught s, thugh thy had h advantag of lmtd sz thus allwng

fact-fac pacpatn In som sns, ts sz was lt naturally by th unar

f th cy-stat; n othr snss, th sz was lmd unnaurally by h Gks' fusal o

allow slavs, wmn, and forgnrs th rgh to pacpat Roussau, , was no frn

rprsnaton, argung ha h momn a opl allows slf t rrsntd, t s

n lngr f; t no lng xss..2 But Russau, unlk Arsl, had th avanag

of wtng n th absract Evn h knw ha hs dmracy could nvr st n h al

worl

John Stua Mll howvr, argus at lngth fr h mral nd fr psnatv

gvmnt as a f f dmracy Fr svral pags n hs Considerations on

Reprstativ Govemet ( 1 86 1 ) Mll saks luntly f th nd f pacpaton

by ctzns n thr gvmnt, bu du o sz cnstrants h fels that resntan s

h nx s thng "I s vdnt, h xplans, "that th only gvmnt whch can

fully sasfy all th xgncs of th sal stat s on n whch th whl pl

pacpa Bu snc all cannLpacpa rsonally n any bu som ve mnor

10



ions of th pubic business it foows tt the ie t of a rfct gomet st

psntati.3 Mi coms to this cocusio cus t st gomnt

according to him must ssibe as we s moa iciption is at but ot

practica due to th siz of the state That ees epsenttion as th nxt st thig:

rhaps this is so but it as unnswed te qestio of whether or not a paicipto

sstm can said to demratic in n meigf w.

Rpsetti dmrtic thor is sppose sns to th incsing sie

of th putio Thus as siz incrass picipation coms ss practica

rpstation is suggestd s th soution. But s size incrass undr a psenttive

dmratic sstm the psntati is incasing ess cpa of psenting of

his or hr constitunts To psnt is in th e to psnt That is th

psnttivs task is to mk psnt the esis the wi of th snt citizns. e o

sh must sak for thes othr op ot in atoritrin or imri manne in ic

w is use as cre ther thn pesettio but i a wa tht as accurt s

possib sks on f of the bset citize Tis is o ssibe whn th

rpsntti kows th sirs an wi of te rso o sh psnts n fct

knowing the ote rson is jst th first tog ecessr stp i prstig Te

nxt stps ivo intting th wi of te oth rso fcting tht wi to ote

tc Th tsks fcd b a psntti a ths mnifod But if th frst stp is not

wefounded if th psntatie ds not een know th rson h or sh is to

pst then th who sstm must c ito qustion H thn is th probem

of siz Ee gi eicatd a just rpesettie the is a imit to th numr of

opo cn com to know and ths psent to othrs Perhaps a psentati can

t know nrstnd th opinions n concs of othr citizn-rhps ee

I



o a smal grop o iiens-and ths, at least n an absact ay le by the

psentatie migh a fo of seebyetension Bt t s impossible or a

representatie to now the ties of hndds thosans and miions of itiens

epsentation omes somehing of a hollow word Hoose, or nstane, a

repsented in Washington C eeryday b ple they eer meet, let alone get to

now so el tha the is a lear nerstanding o the others inions How, then, an

ths , lterally, a emra?

Jane Mansbridge h desrid this probem by reerin to the "lmits of

riendship as the limits of psentation Intestingy, Mansbge ds nt adate a

paipatoy demray either for the same asn As one inal attempts to

psent masses he or she h neer met, psentaton is mssible As etme

arge os of ople ome together to attempt dee on a common g, their

aieaton, the at that the a stngers, maes sh a dscoey mssibe Wth

reerence to Astote, Mansbridge sggests that rienshi s at s neeed to repsen

try or come to a eision wth another, bt riendshp cannot nction as a mel or

oitica organiaton on a large sale ;Frienship, she mantans, "s an eqal ation

t s not grow or maintan itsel e at a distane, and its eression s n nanimty

Inetably, and or a o a tter ateate, Mansbridge sggests a emrati

organiaton based on small paiipator grops with larger esentatie nstittions t

tie them together-the st and wors of both wolds

o Dahls soltion t the qestion o sie is to prose that the me ty

oes the st seting or maiming demray ahls ntrigng theory inldes the

noton that emrati goement s ie a set o "Chinese es, wth eah .e,

se onstrant) qiring ts own ty o demra Dah sggests that the qestion,

2



the s to d the pror size (x) or a paiipatory de Ths e oldes is

the ity. Te ty is ot s large that i des the paipato o ost tzes to

vog or so sall tha s ativties ms trvia6 O oe ths ds ot ed the

debate. asbrdge wold suly aitai tha he e t s othg bt a

alieatg olleo of sangers i hih demray aot trve The qestio of size

ths es ow with the ew proble of aimizg politia pa whle

izg sze the pror sa otex

oter proble ith petaive theories o dey s tat pseatives

aosstetly aed with ihe oits i heir task1.

Rod Pek aitas

that there are at least wo sh fdeal oits The t is twee a dy o

pset oe's ostites and a dty o ps the atio s whole Ths of

ose sses tha the sitets either 1 do ot wish the st o the to or 2) do

ot kow wa s st for he atio The seo oli s wht ek alls the

"Deegte Vess Tstee proble whh the rpresetatve s ed wt a olit

wee wht hs ostituey wat ad what is atally i the st iteest Agai

tere ae te sspios ta the ople ether 1 do o dese wat s ther ow st

test o 2) do ot kow what s their ow s itest

o these varios assptos a based o a ea level o ss gorae

ad Pek s ot hesia to admt tat he lieves his to te ase "ost o the

idvids who opse [the osttey] he wtes ether do ot kow eogh or

do ot e eogh (or t aut te sses to have lear opos o teir ow7 This

sggests tt the proble Pek is voig s ot eessariy oe o psetatve

dery bt o demray of lar selle i geeral Peaps t s the ase that

3



"the ople ae ncapale of self govement bcause they a t apathetc anor

unawa o have opnons on the ssues that should conce them

This s a common contention Joseph Schumter for nstance saks o the

"ordinary citzen's gnorance and lack of judgment maintaining that "the typcal czen

drops down to a lower level of mental foace as sn as he enters the polical

field .. [and exhits an] asence of ational crticsm. All attempts to educae he pulc

fail accordng to Schumter, bcause the average citizen "ds not care to asor he

infoaton or to apply to t the canons of crtcism.. . [consequently, igorance ll

ist n the face of masses of nfoation however complete and coect.

,,8

With a slightly difent twist on the role of communcation and the meda,

authors such as Neil Postman and Rob Howitz suggest that the technologcal meda

destoys the possility of any eal demacy. Horowitz gs so far as to say hat

dematc fedom n he Uned States has ben duced to he "ight to lsen and

watch [elevson,,9 Whver controls he meda 10controls the infoaton and he

agenda. Regadless of the pomses of communty access televsion and cale h ve

hunded channels, elecomuncatons s not a demratic predu The ch and he

powerful nevtaly contol the o and fo of nformation, and the sult s stll an

uninfoed (and manipulated) ctzen.

Dahl s mo hoful for the ssiility of an educated nation though he s

cautious of technology to an extent as well He suggests that telecouncaons can b

used to faclitate paricipato demracy in that

eveyctzen could have nfoaton aut pulic issues almostimmedately accessle n a orm . and at a leveL.appropate to thepacula czen. Telecommunicaons can also provide eve cizen

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2.12 Dmrcya Voting?

Ba Hldn dns dmrac in te ling ann a plitical systm in wic

h whl pl sii r ngativel ake and a nitld t mak, h basic

dining dcisins n iman mattes pblic liy,,14 And in rdr t ulill

is ga, f and fair lctisa t k Dal ecin Mills claim tha h s frm

f gvmnt mus als a pssibl gvemnt, pes t t lahy

"demrac (h larcies n te a ta dmacis) ad sggsts

a h necssa cniins f sc a sstm a cnditins ndr hich citizns

ha nimpaid pnitis '1) t lat tei pfnces; 2) t signif tei

fncs t ir fllw ciins;and 3) t ae tir prfncs weighd qall in

he cndct f thir gmn 15 In e t each ah f tese h als, ahl

mainains a te igt t t is ky Electins t, a th ne ting tha carl tie

tgth paicipat and psnative veins emrac In t rmr, n vts

n t isses; in te latter, n vts a epesentativ wh il vt n ns half n

th isses Vting as a st is ee in a eray. It is spsedl t nl

a least t main ped b hich sele takes plac

Still ting is nt a scint cnditin r a mac Stanle Bnn lains

that th vi tat "a gemnt gt n t initiate lic changes ith pting the

t a v in a gneal elctin is a pactical applicatin h plasignt i

f dmac [b [pplar paicipain cnsists n ml in ving b as in wid

cnsltain it inest grups and in t l pss f pblic cticism and

gvmnal selfjsticatin,,16 As siply taking a t cann cnstitu

datic l On ms as plicily sta a wi dn it t suls f t

te, naly, ta t maji ill is t lld

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29/288



One can see how mjo le ight b thught of s a tyranny r ndr sch a

theory the inoty pinion is n us deng opnin an alteative rsctive-i

is wrong. Mre ianl f t pss of ths prjc however is the act hat the

gh voe, accoding to thi he i nl decided afte eryone els vos The gnerl

will is wh he ajot of pl oe fo thus while h a voing the is not y a

gneral will which to a. Vin not onl bcoes ething of a gss it i alo

sed on acircula soning: in he comon g wi not b decided ntil he

gneral will andats it e f oe the all s no comon g to vote fo

th a o voing ceaes t g nd hus the ssilit of vting in accordac with it

And though this is holess ula i i stll le tha vting is the key to making a

siet trul deti

Lke too saw otng a e t majoaani and ajoritarianism key to a

mracy I is in the nd a siple attr of natural lawsoething ain to physic

A lage rk will ov in the diion most ople a phing it I the op psh

th rk soh and v opl puh the rk noh hen a siple caclation shows tha

th k will ov noh the diion of th atet fo Votes a like pshes And a

siet is lik any oth phyal y it will natll oe in the ditin tha ost

opl psh it Consqentl in a deray the ople l theselvs This mans

that each individal dcides wh con he o she wans e sie to go and his o

hr opinion is eual to vene els He or she vtes puhing th sie one way or

anoth The ree and unetted deatic si will thu ove in the dition of the

majoty's puh Witho the a puhing the ston dsnt ove Withot voting

th wol b n demra 19

18



The probles th Lke's theory, hough, nuerous First ety s ot

natu y It is a sal y As such, it s under the control o oce tht e sil

and no physicl. The e will of huan ings mans that not only natl orces e t

ork. Second, this etaphor of pushing a siey by means o the cultve oce o

votes only woks or ses that bi-dictonal (such as a Yeso eedu o

choice teen Derat or a Republican on th bllo) Any issue tht hs oe than

two sides (which is to ay a issues since all issues inaribly have ient

ies), cnno ollow ths etaphor.2 I the oups of ople push stoe in thee

difent diections, the stone will not go in the diton any group is phing t Les

apal he o physical law would he o b anad using wha physicts call vector

nalysis in which the orces ing applied to the rk transed to cesan gph

yte. Foces at an ale to the our dictons of oh, Soth, East, a West are

oken up nto thei costitutive vectors o Noh, South, East, nd Wet he oces e

e up and geoetry iicates the new vecto, he new orce which oves the k nd

the new direction in hch t wll oe. Wht would this etpho then tslte nto

gven the liicl sitaton? The vot woul sult in pushing the siet dection

no one really wants to go It is har, een, to agine what this ens etphoically

Iagine o city with pulation o 48 ople. If 1 ople in cty vote to

snd suls budget oney on the ciy public park syste, and 2 ople vote to

save h oney o e on tax bks next year, ad 18 ople vote to nd the

oney on ipoving the oads and tc signals, what will hapn? Wht ds the

"vecto analsis pont to? It wold in in a diction difent ro all thee but what

ould that con ? Any sttement o i oud sem ici since thee is not

ledy a aged upon ckdp (like Noth, South, East, nd West). I e sid, then,

19



that the new dition inted to i to nd the oney on the puli h yte how

i th not jut oething opletely ade up? The only way to ole thi proe i to

oe the iue aifially-that i to foe a YeNo reendu fo the ope on

eah o the thre poal But he then i a new plem None of the fendu

would pa A fendu to nd the oney on the park would fai with 3

againt and 10 for. A refendu to nd the oney on tax a would fai with

2 agant and 20 for And a fendu to nd the oney on the treet and

ta light would fail with 30 againt and 1 o Votng woud hae taken

plae and the ity would till at a tandtil. Perhap oe would ay that thi point to

the pole o plurality rathe than ajority But unde ke' etaphor the proe

o plualitie annot dealt with Regardle the i a dee int oting d not

neeaiy unove what the ople want

Still any odem author uy into the lationhip tween deray and

votng Benn argue that alowing the ope to goe theelve qui nding out

what the ople want. Sine there wil neer unaniity the ajority wi e and

the i no uh thing a a ajority without a ote e Benn i arguing on nearly

etaphyia ground. Majoritie do not exit a entitie within iety They

creations of oting e wte: "It raly ake ene to talk o the ajorty exept with

fene to the ult of a paiua eetion r endu toder how the ote

we at. And one again oting i the key to a deay Note in fat the ene

in whih thi i loely lated to Roueau For th the at o voting ate a ajority

a genea will the dei of the ople el pueblo. It i not jut that oting i an

expion o thee thing; oting ate the

20



This is haps ving t muh ower to votig But al of thse authos a

stggling ith t sam polm Thy o ee comnity ad oheess as asi

t o a bing Insta t se idividus. Lking ut at sit he is nl

nal enlss sa f inividals hy l so diffent an so isolatd Somtig

nds to pull thm togth in fo us ay ht the people i chag Most

athos thus t to vong as that magil [ ohe s the ason hat ths

osts having tul ndstandi he atue of dacy is bcaus thy

makng assmptins at th nat of he opl ithin ta dmacasumtions

tat miht v ll mak l dmrcy imssil Ths assumptios, I ill age

libl assmptons An th th x f th pol

22. Libralism w ith in the T radition of Sial Contrac

Libaim is et of assumptins aou hu tu d th y i whih op

ought oehe [ assums tat individus r essentiall isoaed d selfsh e

libalism foud its eatest a i Hos whos assptios ut huma ays

o bing ed hi to si a stat f nau i whih he as the (i)fous "r o ll

gaist Th r s a slt of our idividu au th inaiity to tst oths

and h onstat omtition sca ues Wi v idividul lkig ot nly

f himself, and ith v invial i ssession o a f aa of tual ighs (ights

h incud the igh to ha kll sa ad othis istt all the

iividuls) h sa o ntu as a se of haos and pani Hobs ites

21



Ev man b nat hath gt to all tings tat is to sa to dohatsv h listth to wo listet to possss se ad enjo alltings h will and aBut that right o all mn to all tigs, is ineect no tt than i no an ad igt to ay thing Fo t is littls ad nt o ght a man hath n anoth as stong, orstongr tan ims hath rigt to th se [Mn live tb inta didn ad] th stat o mn in this nata li iste stat o w2

onl wa to ac is thgh a contact in hic evron tansers his natual igts

or olding to a Sovign No longer ing in ssssio o ight to kill ou maks

me ak, bt ou no longr i ssssion o o igt to kill ithr h

Sovign mst then gin at wr to noc th contact and mak s tat no

on acts contrar to his sundd gts. As a sult of th contract (ndakn pl

fo selis asons, o cou), w nall in siet, togter and at ac

Tough Rossea, Lk, Jeerson, Madiso, and Dal old put thir piclar

spins o t sto, t basi ments main the sa: w essentiall isoatd and

sls alon in a hostil wold wh e at eac otrs' toats; t onl pat to

ace and to a ral sit in which te can a "opl, a Oiet and a commnit

is by eans o a contact tat will pll us togete Up o gabs is te degr o

dac w will initiall contract o. Hobs' to is a contact tat lads to a

stog ler, and thog h is oten toght to t gathr o od dspotism as

mc as lialism, it ust md that t Hobsian Soveign's (th stat's)

onl ol is to protct th citizs how w thn liv o lis is p to s h is rm

for t possibilit o dmrac, a ssibilit tat gts wokd ot in dtail i Roussau

and ke suc that th iniial sial contract sts p a dmratic stat in which w

lav t stat o nat onl aftr ing guaranted tat tu dcisions in th nw

sity ill mad "b th opl



The int of this ief angent into the ih of sia ontrat theo is to point

out the deee o which ibals ws inewined with dey fo the seventeenth

cenuy on Te assuption is hat we isolated alone and sesh We need a

conct to ge us togethe bcause couni ds no natua y u. Deacy that

stes f a sial contac en is ald ased on the idea tht the os asic unit in

play is the indvidua It is ased on tying o solve the polem of how to cate a ope

so tha we an then know wa he ople wan This is why Rousseau Benn and ohes

see such we in acts of voing and hus see voting as the key indien in a deracy.

Voting is a wa of ating e ope and hei genea wi

Wha woud hapn ten if one we to bgin with a diffent set of assupions

aut the human individual I one did no uy ino the idea of a state of natu

pulaed y selfsh opef one did no assume tha indivduas pia and

oups must b cated f thewha woud bcoe of demay? Stang fo an

iliba bief hat goups ae piy and individuas o of the them, tat the

omon good is he st god and individual gos onl ake sense in eaion to that

omon go ou undestanding of demacy migh shift adily No onge woud

we need a magal meaphyscal act ike voing to cate the oe,23 And no onge

would we qu deacy to b founded on a conact of isoated, sef-intesed

individuas. We would insead b ae to think of ope as awys and paiy in

ounity, shaing gds and cognizing a life in coon Decy would then b

a way fo the to gulate tha coon fe athe han a eans towad achieving i

Fo instance given he pcupion wih indviduas in ibalis, libal

deacy natually stives to secu as an individua ights fo is citizens as is

possie and copatie with a life in oon If Ia giving up naua ights, I had

23



btte get a g et of civil right to make up fo it Conequently, irl demrcie

tay bqueath ight to their citien: right to vote, to ak feely, t fir tril, etc So

cloel lated ae libr nd deratic notion of individua ty tht ing

gunteed civil ibie/ight i a ign of demcy fo many author the than ign

of ibalim Pehp if we do not t with the auption of the ic unit of poitic

a the individua, ight wil not een bing a imant a they were under the

lib mel. Thi i not to ay that citizen in an ilibal demcy won't hve right

It i rathe to y that the ight the have mght not b thought of a their weapon

againt the encrochment of the tate and others, comnation for having ched in

thei natur ght, as the men f olving ll poe within the iety

Thi iue will b dicued blow But ft it ight b helpful to move from

uch an atct dicuion of political phioophy to a mo cic etion of poitic

teinology in practice Around the word tay, the i an incaing numr of

counte holding comtitive nd uti-py election ( main ingredient, we have

een, in mny ibrl defnition of demcy) nd till thoe ame countie hve vey

"defective and fagile litical ytem tht ring out actual uffering for thei pe.

Perhp getting ce on the te can help on multipe eve

2.3. Libral and Illibral Dmoracy

An influential aicle witten y Faed Zka, he Rie of ibra Demacy, offer

ie theotical and practical expantion of demac akari' nali

conide wh it i poile to have fely d fail eected liticl ledes wh do not

ct aic contitutional libie or c ut the daily wel-bing f citien

24



The ey, accodig to Zaaia can b oud y lg a the histocal eag

of e e demacy" i the Weste tditio I this coex, he agues deacy

alay e o "lberal deacy a liical sysem mked o oly y ee ad ai

eecos, alo y he ule o law a sepaatio o e and he potectio o asic

libie o sec, asemly, igio ad poy,,24

I ohe ods, soe

demacies a illiberal demacies i which the politica pes is chactezed y

e sece of elecios ad ye the asece o a libal ideology and costtutoally

geed ighs. Sch demacies a see as icomplee demacies which

ceai elees o libalism a missig.

Cosequey, i is imat o b scic, caflly placig i t o the ou

demc is deig adjective Ude this ie of asoig, demacy ight b

hough oa a pess u libalis is bte explaied as a govee's ojective ad

ideology, ie, the pectio o idivdal edos achieved though he e o law

Zaaia aais tha libal deacy th ecessaily icludes he cocept o

cosituioal lbais whch adds the eed to have checs o the we o each

ach o goveme, equality ude the law, ipaial cos ad tiuals ad

sepaaio o chuch and state Libalsm he sll ivoves the oio o adical

idividualiy u Zaaia adopts the te to ee to the way i which the goveet

ases ts ojecive o these assumptios aut he idividliy o is citizes.

The histoical heory o illibl demacy Zaaia ofe ses he ac that

.S. policy to pomote deatizatio has tadiioaly had ve laxed quiets

ad he leades of Tid Wold couties e well awa a essetially the oly

codiio to ejoy ieaoal acceptace i the gloal ecoomy was o hold electos

Theo, aaia agues that it is ecessa o vise the U.S. licy o deaizaio

25


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Secod, th s strong spo hogho Zakri' r, infod by

snse by Ma F. Ptter, coceig h theoticl pcic

imssibily of "t mcy ithot the l comne Plte gs o f

s to expin tht sm is ssily drtic dri sic it hs dply

egliri nd mjotn dmnsio,29 nd his fnity mk liim th "t

mch for demrc s cm, d hese mptions, eed o ddsd d

crtiqed

Third, th ccptnc of th fil of US. fo policy concig

dmiztion is dn in s d Pers ps, bt ch emphi is

plced o ch f d o mscocpto-h mscocepio h demrcys

votg ill pmot s i ay siety-in he foltion phe of sch

policy, ad no nton s pd to pbls of iplmtio

Foh, vib ttes exit o lirlsm on a fdmel lve For

example, commnnsm, illiicl philosophy ha qeios h rt

asmpio of ism, is on ible leiv fondaion fo demrcy ht is

xplod by Zk nd Plttr Lilim, hv ggese, i ot ony

commited o h existc of consiuio right, b to metpc viw of he

of he idivid: iw th ees th h ig s ecearily iolatd,

rdiclly ividlizd, comtitve, ad slfiersd W hold add o his li ow

h ide t th lr ndvid is e to chse ny ison of at i gfree o

prsu y et of s-nineced by hisory, trdition, o comity 30

Comntnsm jcts thee smpios nd ovides a alttv bis for

demcy ht y mo ftting o ny Third Word ntons ihn th itrt

ciicizig lilism, commitri ahor Mch Sdel sd o

27



Commuitaian ctics ghtased balsm ay e cao coceveourelve as hly detached m our am ad attachet []hetoy o m lie is aas embdd i he stoy the commuitie

rom hch I deive my idetityhehe mily or cy rb o atiopy ca I the cmnitaia e these toies make a molderece hey stuate us i the or ad ve ou lve her morapaiculat he liban liba deed he pivate ecomy adeatara ibal deed the ela ae comara wry aouthe cocettin e inbt the coate ecoomy ad hereaucratic tate ad the eso o e temediae or o

comut hat have at time sstaie a o vital pulic e3 1

Gve e aly o Veeuela s taditios cote o c as roa

reahp a he udai o plical ac oeth mre ha lip-evce mut

ad o he eed to mve yod lal e eveuall ove ou aas o

he appcao o Veeuelas pacula tuao

u dcult t d aythi i he erare tha aow o he poiliy

coer ral demracy a eimae e or ay ae e Uted Nat

eve roa i hei Human Develoment Repor 2000. re at

demrac s he oy orm o poca eecompae ectal ve categoies ihtscoomc al litica civ ad cutuu ot eouh to etaish eecora demracy Several policervetiosa quid t alie a e o rihts uder dematicovemet I the lial demtc el al dvdual reautoomous disaig pulic lyalt the tate hile ther vaiourivae loyaltieseliious ethic or a iored hi pu the

emphasis on a mait s ght t decide May demaces evehelesa o proect o pmote huma h lthouh the oa rasit oematc gimes is dutedl poss poems o huma hts ao reoved imp bcaue a electoa yem ha replaced aauhtaian gime In etme case illibal majitaia demache huma rits o evea ups have woseed32

28


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dmac shold (to th libal) k actl th sam as ll What fos cou the

b to mak it it o plac fom aoth? Pt aoth a, if th s ot hsto o

clt bfo a cotact catsdmac, th ho cold th bdffet foms of

cltJlcatd dmacis? To jct th ibal assmptio is to jct th a that

clt is ot ol lvat t al I bi it t smptio that th

ops o opl ith paicla hstos ad s that this, ad th macy s

a a of lati that commo lf, dift maifstatios o dmac bcom

ssil.

O of th oas of ths pojct s to sst ho this miht b pla ot

cotma Va, t bfo ca t o atttio to this cas, mst lk

at th latioshp bt dvopmt addmac, o Veuea is sl a

devlopi cot most masus O the a toad doi this, th, o ial

topc must b coved oudscsso o demac ad libalism am, th ole of

ltes a emac Veueas past has sho that ev th a a demac

pac, poeful ltes ha dive th cotth opeto sff. W ed to

cosid ho eits ae lated o demac, ibal ad othes, a the o ths

plas ot sccall tems of velopicoutis th dmacs.

2.4 Dmracy and the Qution of Elit

Th qstio that il cp s coclsio of ths chapt is: Ds ot v

stlibal o illibalha ital stcts sch that som membs

domiat oths? I ts of commcato, is it ot th cas that th f et set

30



te ge n otol ht nd how ople know? An if so c the ople lly ever

b si to b lig theselves?

A teo of dertic elitism oul not hve evolved gues Peter Bhrch

if ecy h not move fro bing thought of s otve iel to liticl

eth. is chge i he hrcteriztion of demry i fct is ht is culir to

emr elitsm tough the my prlems ith this icotoy. Bhrh

explis tt:

Demry coceived solely s litil method .. .is not see sedyig oerridig ojective suh s ehcig the selfesteem nddevelopmet of the iniviul [d thus] the emrti elite theoristfrees hiself fro the hge tht demrti es hve file to chievedemrti eds. He hols oly tht demry must b selftrtigs meth .... [Cosequetly the theory seres s foile defese ofthe elitemss stture of ogoig dertic systems. e chrge for

exmple tht the omo mn is ot give sufiet opuity topicipte i meigful eisio mkin d is tefo deprived of nessetil mens to develop his fulties . s under this onceptieevt.34

Note he the preupton wth the stts of individuls rhps inditive of

the librl slt to the lysis But let us bgin nsted ith question Whoa these

elites? I cein sct hey one possilenswer to Robrt Dhls questio Who

Goves? though this is not tully Dhl's ser The ide is th t i y siety there

will lwys b some ople ith ore wer They will hve ontrol over the soures

of the siey to extet gter thn others thus they ill b le to orol those

others. Elites ise in every ast of siety There ecooic litl

ureurti nd milit elites C Wright Mills one of the founes of e elite

theory eve proposed tht these vrious elites comine to form "poer elite-

3 1


44/288



paiipaio o ving is m ith h ovlming siz of a mod aion-a,

vr ar apahy ss i h pl aliz us ow il pwr hy wild. A

famou mia litical scintst is pud o hav aid a o logr vos

caus h as dtind tastatisially akigh d ar gar hat h ill

di in a autoil accidnt n t ay t vt ha h ill mak any dffnc n ay

r h otr i th lctn and ultmatly, i ovig of i own lif. I th nid

Sta, i viin ns tams hav poji wir i prsidnial ctions,

vor u ou has dcasd n h Wst oa fa i ha wih h im zo

diffc, cin mig vy l didd fo mo Caifoians, for instan,

g out f work and had th lls To hlp lviat uh irumsas, Vnzla

ha utad uh things as rjcins and xit l. is a ising qusin,

hough, whr his linds th pli t h t dph of ir iiica or whthr

i promo dmray Pras th lcio mar is didd y 5:0pmih a third

of h ou o yt havig vd, for ia Wr y kow it or o, tir vo

ar uimpoat fm that mmt n Why woud ayo o kp uh

infomaio from th pl What uld h av o ai?7

Coiud faith in th systm,om aswr i pr a lon a

h opl iv that vig rs h dmrai i ad dmray r h

int of vyon Elis, ndr hi o, ot av y k wha Mils

kno ha if h op ali h rol of lits, hy o hir wil fr

raionally oidd dciion and action; thy lo ir poliia wil, aus hy s

way raliz i,,8 Csqntly, h li mus mak u ha th a of votig tly

vs af a mmon if in dmay, to giv ymoli asuran o h

ma, t d hm a fling hat thy d lay a rol in h ystm and hus [to] i th

33



ma o e y. 39 Again hi bo la in pChez eezula whr

h l we deigned o mak opl enjo eleion nd a fai e m

l ) oig wa andao (mang i a quint gi ipio ha

may ould o b nl eveoe paiipa in i); 2) eleo da wa a

nonoig day wi gomnt hl n ui all loed a o oae

naional aeio o ps o dma a i uod; ad 3) og o u a

"iual a zio-Hal o i) u a iual o gat lrio ad joe

hol pe i li a anea with al pai ad d ad gig ll ao

Vula e opl wold omplain ha litiia all a ad a oe o

thm a e a difn o ll hlp t opl. And et e we pou o hi

dmay ad o i ot.

Ulial o o dmaili uh oraie polial agda

Thi fro fa ha dmaielie oi iall do o offr i

dipio of ow elie ontolling ad goeig th ople orde o i ou

again oe ele ad all o a oluio o e ma o a le fo a rag of i

onioue) ead mo dmaieli ori maiai a ele ul i

nea ad ee go fo dma. T i a uzzlig. How ould le y a

minoi aue d to po if at da i udeood libally? Th

poe alway o b dning dm i a apopriae a

Joep Sum v as an xellet xapl. H maiai ha hi oy

odma elii i ult o mpiial ud and that i deiio of dma

i gad y lkig o e ho dmay aually wo al wold an no

ho i i uppoed o wo i om idal wold. Hioal dmai agu

Shume o ym o maoit le u rae of eli l i

4



cain ditingihng hterti, th frt nd mot imnt of whh ht e e

comt with on nothr for ot. Dmry, thn mt b rdnd t n b

nt in riety of wy. Acoring to Shmt (n hi ommntor)

mcy i "tht inttton angmnt fo ing t it dion n whh

nid i th wr o dcid y mn of comtti tgg for th

o ote And h en of dmy i] th n nnt tgg o gn

oc nd ty in oe [th] imiting th efincy o th eted gomnt t y

th m oken o iit[ng] it . :o A Symor Mn Lit mntn,

mrcy i

poitc ytem whh i g ontttion on forhngng he goeng ofil nd i mchnim whh itth rgt p of th otion to nn mjo deion y

hooing mong ndte for itic ofe42

h ky ment o of thi i th pr tht Shmr h for dmrti

eitm form of poi orgnition hi pri i rootd, rt of , n h

mton ht oe re neher rtionl nor we nford t h

onenty, Shmter mintin tht th op ony ft o h dr ho

i goe thm not o go hem Shmr dd tht rg i a

ony of rg nd impe dciion nd th piito dmry i n

im ity. "]h eeo m h ag "i inc of ton ohr thn

tamd ,03

Ct tht w , we ti omho mng to mot o own bt ntrt.

not throgh ny g effo on o thogh, bc Schmr minin tht th

ytm of cting omtng t, i., dmry romot th g of th o i

35


48/288



nt ck Wlk Citiqu o th Eltt hor o Dmrcy, Dhl (n

tnot:

Ma I t isnt ... I alie ht Poo Walk ha tn thepreon "th itit tho o demrcy om pt.[ut I o oneojct to bing d "litit not nly bcus. t ould b nccut inimplicton n i it e a neutral term ut een more o cue n ourlnu nd in it t undaly, I thnk jorate, n apolemicl ptht

pt uch tt th bl d em to it the ulk o Dhl ok,

ncudin th nlis o mac n New Hen hch i prt o hi ou k

Goves? Dh intns tht "[]umin n could mu the mount th

nunc ech dult in New n e oe dcion n gin uea, [ wuld

nd tht . mn contitnt ha no dect nluenc t all, mot ople h

ittle,..onl tin gup th ld [.e. the lte] exe et nluence Dmrc

mintnd thouh, bc th lte re repone to th citien Mot

citn . po a modt dr o ndct nluenc, o lected le ep th

real o mind pncs o conttunt contntl n mnd in decdn ht poicie

to adopt r rjct7 Th ct tht lit ldercontrol th tt and tht th common

citn h littl o no dict inluenc nt oy mot citn ccordin to th

th liral poiton Th r contnt wth th liht nd indirct nluenc o oting

bca it in thi ntu

h tk om pinn. Dhl t

Cc mn i t h impl man [n a pmdil qt rtcton and l rm pin . he chd, the uddn ccmn dco tht jut othr contan hm n hi o t chie

7



s piay goas h t has rsoues that h can use to nence otesto gan s own ends . ... Youngomo civics eas tat is oices eonstained by aws nfoed by the ce, by cous, and b any oteoias.. [unti nay] aong is souces o nencn toseocias,omo civicus discoes the baot.48

It s easy to see why Dah is citicized fo such conseatve les. Hs s an

een e pctur of huanity than cute has to oe T act that te

coon ctzen ds not goe is not due to s ac o inoation o s apat; t s

due to t act tat s natu s not ltca and s sall spiatons ae led by

votn alone

On te ontay te is noting nata about ths- it s, n act a valid

desipton o the wod. W do not aray disoe voting and el 1 ) tat it s

ulng and 2) tat the outcoe of an electon s inheenty good an gt. Tese

notons ae taugt to us and we indtnated at an ey ae Kennet Pewitt and

Aan Stone ake a convincng case o tis n te citaton o a st o Aean de

soolldenD s young omo wo aeady exbt at in te eleton

pess and a sense o epoweent toug votng. Pewtt and Stone explan

ow ts s not nnate, but eed:

Stues o ey oung chiden show tat voting is oen osen as asy of te goement, and indeed tat dacy is conceptuazedn tes o voting pieges ....To young cdn, votng and elctons ae

poant deatic actiities.... Eections eied as ca to thegoals o te deatic pess...[and [tough te capag winne aynot is sona faot a cids tst in th eection pess assues tat any son chosen by eection wib capabe andtstwoy ...at such iefs we estabished een aong tenyea

ols s aps not suisng. Eectons pa o eey Aecancd's sch exnc. Een in the eaiest gades tee elections tocse te captain of the safety pato; ther eections to cse theead ceeeade th otes aut what do on a sc outing. he

38



hild oid h lio o b im d h r vlu oh iifi of hi vo dul, h m liz h uh pwrw iiou d h h ch d oh hoi oolld ll him diio Thu, ih mui, hi ofid i lio wkd, u h ill ri hi i bli h piv

mr urd h omiio of ldr fo h lorlup of h puli9

ow, om ould h hi mpl mk Dhl po, u hr i

di b urll wi li o ov o lf d o

l wr li hv pow d v o mii h wr ri fh d

oudl fl of wm iz hroh rul vo

dro whih lrl k pl oug g

To b fi, h hih Dhl pr i bi lld l

h om vlu Dhl h miid h h quio of "Who ov? h vrl

r, d h " omu i m diff opl, i ifr w

m iffr . f o look fo "moolihi ur "d u

mi Dhl, ll v of uh wll b fou Ufoul, ouh, h

o v hl or, fo hi i ill ju m of h ow fmou d

dpl v l A Prfac o Dmocraic Tho h "ll iv d l

oup h populo mk hmlv hd orul h pr

of do h i h blf h "dma uli o h om

li m d h li ill ull op o li o ll lim up Of our

hi h quio of ho d hih gropa "lii h li? d

who h fo h li?

would m ufi impl o pl o hoil f ordr o dprov

Dhl oio h h io wll vull b hd hrouh h lil

9



dmtic pss Mioitis of e eiio t.) hav hti for thi ht

to hd fo etuis i h Uied tts lo, ad lits td oly to iste to hoe

oizd mioitis ith por o ke oly o exampl, i ity ftr ity

Am lits hav ouht to hide hoess rosulai hi prsc i ity

paks d poposi ad passi iio to d thir oiciti doatios Do t

ites tiv to ist d iude h voie of th homss o to sic t

h otiv impitios of of this do ot oth Dh, for h maitai h

th o otiv impitio to hi orkh is imply poitil scientist

dscii hat h fds i th ra od Citic u Dh d Shumtr e a of

tuti ad pmoti ovive vis hih vidite h sttus quo, ut to

Dahl suh ausatios cay itt eiht oth footot to hi aic attacki

Walkrs ttk o dmti it theoy Dah amts

ouh I hv ay ed to e uidy I m icriy ppld y

iotovi vide of y iiity to do so.. fesor Wkits s otiv teoy I ad, s iv, othes) holy opimiy itdd to epii hoy dspit th r aiotid i [my tex

Dhl tu to this ut oe ut it i ot vy ovii Oc mo h xhiis

a i aivt i thiki tht th otiv d desiptiv so asi sptd

ad that epiical thois do ot csly rct th sujtivity of th scitit

hid hem

he u of cha ad rphs d s d sttistica dt povids th iusio of

ojctivity ut th is o spi th omtiv impictios of lims such as Dh's

H is, aft a saki aout th atu d imitatios of humaity ad th ncsy

40



strucus o wer in a sieties hese ae gan clai posiby afecting the live

(an eeom) of rea ope

t is, in a sense, e much ike Chales Muay's eense o his inamous k,

e Bll Cue, in which he argues tha blacs ae (satisticay umente to ) less

intelligent than whites Uner assive atack acaeic an lay-rsons, Muay

hasclaimed hat his book is wor o sial se: hi "objective intepetaion o he

"aa iply suggests that bcs have owe Q' It is compa to eauring rainal

in Aerican cities, or energy use r capita, ec A aica citic woud suggest that even

these lte easuments conain bias an noative implications, but we need not go o

ar to aize hat wor suh s Muy's an Dah's contains a pcriptive eement

Having a heo to expain how backs are les intelligent s a ace is a legitimatio o

eploiation. And haing theoy to eplain how huans ntually ebrace he elecoa

pe, a incapable of sel goveen an ave alays (an will alway) live in

ieies a iniviuas wo oinae y elies i a leitiatio o oppesion

Thee a eea other pble with Dah an he eaic elite theoists in

geneal but I ention just one oe oe oving on t i what aounts o a

conicion

Recall that C Wright Mills posuae a powe elie as a congloeaion o

elites various sectors o iey While such a notion as is eits, i can ague

hat e various elites come wih one anothe (in es o ector ivalry) rather than

coe ogehe to o a coheent "elie class Such a lie is key o he theories o

Schuer and Dah who argue ha he copeition aong elies help secure

ecy an the oeral funcioning o the system The poble with his is, as

Linlo as pointe out, that we ae let wih cople sstes in which two os o

41


54/288



Veezuela' pat liral deay, a demray tat wa ontrolled y werfl elite

ad legitimized y midle oting

Ariti might oter, though that demay work in trage way, ad ee

the t utouhale eoni elite aoutale to omeoeaountale rhap

even to the ytem a a whle. witt and Stoe oider thi argumet t rejet it a

allaiu, aue

The , to "eletions in other tha litial etor:tkolder ote fr ooration ditor, trade ion eer te fr

ion ofiial ad een oume a aid to te y ietig theirapital ut tee of eleton do ot gi to etali te t ofaoutaility ad nienss nee or pentatie demrayto workale Moer ot al itize get to ote or the ard ofDitor of eeral Moto [yet] it i ot jut the t khlder wo areafeted y the ati o eel Motor The ame i true o ieletio the prtetioit and ait liie of the uilding and

otrtio iie ae the lak who aot aadmittae to thee ion alo uale t paiipate i teireletio

Coeuetly, tere i gd ao to uetio the aumptio o wi the derati

eite teory i uilt, ildi te lie that omtitio of elite i od fr deray

ad t for te ople e piture pited ydemrati elite theort i lea, wit a

mall d powerful mirity ing the iety Of oue Dahl ad oter ae arged

that ti i te way it ha alway e ut oe wndehitoially akigif ti i

the ae ae eite alway ntoed the mae ad then idtiate thoe mae to

aept teir fate?

Perhap it i the ae tat elite theoy i oe at o iral teory ie eai

auptio aout the at f the idiidual eite ulll imat role i maig a

demray moothly jetig liral dey, Chez' Veezela i

43


56/288


57/288



Sanle I enn, "mac, The Ecylopedia ofhilosophy v 2, ewor Macmillan ulishin Co, 1967) 20

Rousseau quoed in Jon rhur, ed Democ Theo ad actice(emnt, Caliia Wadswoh ulishin Copny, 1992) 10

Roussea quoed in John hur, ed Democa eo ad actice(emont, Calioia Wadswoh uishin Copy, 1992) 1 1.

or a nice discussio of Le n is poin see a oden, destadigLieal Democ London hilip llan ulise, 1988) 39.

e, ei ostman is an e arues ha he me media has caedor leas fosered he idea ha every issue hs to sides o it News shows aedl

sy ha he prmse to er both sides f he so, and incunerin foats areve popula he cumulaie effect is ha we in a issues lack and whie, yes rno, or ad

Sanle I enn, "emrac, e Elopedia ofhilosophy v 2, ewor Macmilan ulishi Co, 1967) 340

homas obs, e Elemets f Natal ad olitical a I Hmaae (Ofrd Oford Universi ress, 199) 7980

231 use e e "mephysica ere in he sese i ad r ese iical

piosophers Meaphysics fers o e sudy of i, o wha is, o e nure of ie, Hobs, Rousseu, e a considered hemsees o b di eaphysics hesae ie he we doin poiicl pilosopy sie eir poitica eoy wasecessarily commied o a iew of wa it is o b idiidual, a sef, a soCosequen, 1 ake Rousseu, as pa of e ibra rdiion, b caimin hidiiduals ul eis in nure, u oups do no e pe do no eis ui he cof oin creates hem of libalism is comied o his cncepion of he i ofindiidus and e consuced naure of groups Communiarianism, as we wil see,quesions his meaphsica asumpion, auin h goups are rea and are priaCosequent, n ac of individuals (as in he ac of oin is needed o cae he roup,o n "he ple ino eisece e ope is alad a a enit

Faed Zakaa, The Rise of Illibral emracy, Foeig ais 76Noebrecembr 1997) 22

Faed Zakaia, he Rise of Ilibra emrac, Foeig ais 76(Noembrecembr 1997) 26

areed Zakaia, The Rise of Ilibral emrc, Foeig ais 76(Noembrecembr 1997) 0

46



Fed kaia, e Ris o ibal Dery Foreig Aairs 7(oerDecemb 1997: 42

Ideed, i sees soeat illibal o kr ot eet 0 explore tessiility o lple os o demacy, as oe o te eis o te ord illibalis ro-ided acordi o Weste s ditioy

Ma F later, ibalis and Demry: t He Oe Witout teOter Foreig Aars 77 (Ma/Apl 998: 73

It sold b cle y libalism jets su omul otios o s ooly re te idividals o to b asic, ro Hos o tee is o ditio oistory to ilec e idividal sice e spsedly lied i stte o ate itotistoy, e it idividual sese o a is or us, ore eei to oe ito

te siety. Mical J adel, Moality and e irl Ideal, The New Republi issue

y 7 1984 v 1: 7

e Uited aios Develope rora Ha Deelopme Repo0(Oord: Oord ivesity Press, 2 5659

Did Collie ad Steve itsky, Dery Wit Adjectives' : oeptualIotio i ompaative Researc, Worki Pr #30 e Helle Kello Istituteor Itetioal dies, Uiersity o ot Dae otre De I (ust 9 27

28Peter ra, e eo ofeorai Eliis (osto Little 97

9394

As ited y EtzioiHley va Fragile Deoray (Lodo rasationPlisers, 989 15

Pilip Ge, Deora (e Jesey Hities Press 99 5. e storyi ollos a te cyial litical scieist is also take o Ge

All o tis is ioi, o te time-bi, te distusUS. pesidetial eletiono 2 i i it seemed tt oe state eld te key to piki te pesidet isultitelyae do to oe rso iti ta state (or to oe rso o te Supmeou dedi on o oe lks t it) Elite teoy ad te Us presidentil eleioso old b te topi o itestig ote dissetio ! (I ill tou o tis ilter ptes)

Mills (1 959 p 324 (Full ilioapical iotio uetly missi)

7



EzoniHlevy Ev. Fragie Demora ondo ro uhe18) 6

Shmte (162) p 26

Ezioni-Hlevy Ev Fragie Demora (ondo: rio ulihe18) 22

ipet ( 160) p.

Shumte (162) p 28

hip Gen ed Dmora (e Jeey: Humniie e 3)

Dvid M Ricci Poiia Poer Commui ad Dmo Co: Rnd

McNly 10) 1



57pwitt and Stoe n Phili Gen, ed. Democra ew Jersey: HumesPss 1993) 138-139.

49



Chapter 3

ratic velopment, Librl Dlopnt?

3.1 lopment Theory: Intruction

I orr o eand he reaoni wee mracy veoe (a hs

eracy Venezela d h deacy a go Chvez) is ioa o

exame he hoy of "eveoen ie s sho e eveoen heoy ha

sosdy degoe a grea deal of chage The ge sbsaniaiy o his

chang is as we wil ee ebable b e hing s o cea eveoe hoy has

aways coaie a noaiv a well as desciive ee is iheren in h coc

o doe-weher raieda a ioveme or re as a o of ogoig

ws mriai wheher aken o a goa or rssha eveoe ycay

assms eeoogy ad cssai ase a o Deeoe s eveom

owr somehig I is a sing fo a sae (d a Se) h has o ye e aie

his mio ha her s soeig owa which veog coy is mog

coms ea i a oave sene

yicay evelome heo ha asse a ws moe whee oor aios

s sv o ake hevs i e iage of h Uied Ses (a Wee Ero)

I h s seeal decade howeve he ha e growig coce ha is is a

easic a iaoae model i i no o say hogh ha he oio of a

eeooy s oe away wih Rahe oe iica sciss sim anai ha a new

oe s call o I i he ienion here o skech some of he feas of devee

hory ing o he chgs hogho is bie hisoy he sio which ie

50


63/288



sial hange and dezatin s ne nd of devepent And Huntgt ges

hat althugh eization and esteizatio ave ften en take as snus

ey need not and should t Still, ther is g histial ron t suggest tht

develpent the tpial inldes and rfes to sh notios as detiti

onoi owth, eonoi equit eizatio, nrased lital papati

sial bilization, and haps even ationalization and westeizatin This hsto s

eithe plete n uontvesal, but as it w ill shown, although develpet

ean dffert things to diert ple, her se oon thrads and

oitent t a native idea.

The opatibiity assupti, the, is tt these developent goas fit tgethe

witout tension, tht they an psed siultaneousy, and that they natual g

togethe. Indeed, devepent gos nsitute a wish ist f g things, and ther is

song undelying ief in the tetur that al g things go togethe, theefe the

goals f devepet oud eve nflit fail to led t ne anothe

The opatbity assupti iginay gave se t thre dels f devepet

i the 1960sthe Lal de te Maist ode, and Denden The h f

these appoahes to develpent assued the opatibty f deveopent gas and

tended t strss enis t vay degres as the key ink in the han to ahievng

all g things. Rihad Higgtt aintans that eizati was the athwd f

ay in this ea and he ists Ma We ad alott Pasns as the inteetual gdathes

o the veent.3 The 1 60s wee haatezed b y attepts to undestand and easur

devepent b king at one islted ast of a siety o a state in the absene of an

hi sto ntext. Consequently, Gabie Aod stsses the leve of goveent

apabiities, Cead fuses n the e of buraua, and Huntingtn easurs the

52



level f nsttutnalizatin n de t nvestgte the dee t hch mezatn s

taing place. Given tis thugh t s hhle t nvestgate each the thee mels

f develent which se ut f the schlshp n the 60s.

The ial el s n man s the classc mdel f the e th

assumptns s entic i g that t cntinues t hve efect n lic ta. The dea s that

econoic growth ul lead t all the g thngs nd thus shuld pusued

rlentlessly Witing i 76 Huntngtn eplans that in the Ll del "t as

assumed t the causs f siecnmc equalt litical vlence and lc f

demtc litical ticpatin la n the s-ecnmc bcdness f set

[an] [te answe t tese ills cnsequentl s api siecnmic meizatn

and develpment . . . .,

B the el 170s hweve the Lal del fell nt dsrpute und t

Huntngtn descs methlgcll e emcal l y questble and hstcally

levt ut has the lage pblem s that t cae cle that a gng

ecnmy dd nt necessal tanslte nt tte cndtns ctzens. n nnual

ncrse GNP pve t have lttle effect n the dat-da lves f mn ple lvng

n the e ntns nt deliveng the secut stablt and (escall)

demtztn t hd msed. "zl s dng ell s the sng gs "but

ilns wer dng l.

Te Lil el thugh des d s ulet as inted ut t stl l nfs

geat del f Unted Natins duments n develpment (callng f ggate ecnmc

gals). nd althugh untngtn s ctcl f the appach claimng s ealy as 168

that a develd ecny and a develd ltcal stcte d nt ecessaly g

tgethe Hggtt ccuse Huntngtn ng a "meizatn rvsnst h

53



questions the uiliea mh of pogession in development et still see econoics

the key Indeed, fo all of its failed empiical tests the ial Mel rmained a majo

ideological foe i he s and though ta ultimatel blessing and haps

justifing A ad NA. Even Pesident Clintons mid19s bailout of exico

was inomed by the il el of development, he claimedat least publicly to

the meica opletht he Mexican aid package ould help pomote demac and

thus stability) fo exico ad all of the Aeicas

The secod el to come out of he 1960s is also deepl comitted to the

compatibil ity assumptio though it nds less pula sup tay. The Mist odel

maintains that the rvoluonay ovehow of the cuent opprssive siallitical ode

is the t step towad development. An equitable sstem is then put in place ad the

esult is economic owth demacy, and al l othe go things.

Her, econoic gowth is distinct fom economic euit, ad the existing

undedevelod sial-political sstem is maked b a lack of economic euity

Revoution achieves equit and thus leads to othe economic as ell as sialitical

nefits It is intersting to note that much neo)Maxist liteatur distinguishes

undelod fom udedevelod sieties. Higgotteinds us that M saw

backwad sieties undevelod, and And unde Fank claims that while

sieties ma have en udevelod once, toda they undedevelod since theya

foced to comte iteationall ith the dustial West

The Mist li tetur on development is an intersting and fascinatingly non

homogeneous dy of wo. Paul Baan' s Political Economy ofGrowth 1 57) is

geneall rgaded as a watehed, but it i s decidedl unohox Baan claims that

M as Euetic and that a Thid Wold bougeoisie ds not necessl pomote

54



capitalism. Regardles of he ineal debae, owever tere was geeral agreemen ha

ecoomic inequiy he key o he problem

The hird me-ndecy heory-ha may similarities o the Marxis

Mel Dendecy heory lms tha he econoic pblem is inteaional and ha

deveopmen m n by "bakng he chains o deecy ad feing e r

siety fom e inaional capialis order ..9 hs Higgo claims ha here

obvious reasons for endency heo ig seen a oatig in a eoMrxis

raditio even hough i iniial oagoniss we he radical stcturalist, bu no Marxis

ecoomiss a heECL

such a Rau Pbisch

10

With is fus on isory and is

critiue of capitalis dendency heo seems a home i a Marxis environmen

Some Mrxi however mainn he Dendeny Teory an only desc he

robem ad o exln i Ye F laed by ay a Marxis, pfers to ca imsef

a edey Theo, arguing ha iteaional capitalism causes uderdevelopme

Oe ommo riique o dendency eo in general, oug is i its srving for

ieece Tay many auhors regard such an ideal as urealisti given e fac tha

nocouty is indenent in he me word Sll, o say tat eiter he Unied Staes

or Afanisan indenden-tough analyically eis to cloud e issue and

deiratey msleading The Unied Sates is denden i a way hat is difen fom

fgaista (ad he of he ocaled Tird Worl) cause te unequal wer

reaiosips Perha Paulo Fi is righ to sugge hat t maser and slave abuser

and aused, exploier nd exloied caugh in a dehumaizig cyce of dendenceII

bu in denden a Fi World aio is deely diferen from ing deden as a

Third orld naion, and one coul imagine a new world order i whic he hird ord

deveops (wi all o is weseization, meizaon ootaions icluding

55



dea b baig its dedene the Fist Wold comig tte capitalists b

foing a hige pice fo its atioal sues which te Fist Wld aves and actuall

fosteing increased Fist Wold dendence o te id Wod his is not t sa that

tis is the ost desiable ath fo developet to tae but it is thetica ssible.

The se of PEC the ight see as a t of deveopment whee the Thid

Wold ganizes ad extats a ighe pice fom the Fist Wold f the il on whih

te ae edet. Tis is ceail nhdox Dendec The f the P

atins e plaig a lage oe i te iteatioal capitalist ode athe tha eteating

fo that e et if the PC atins get to wite of the es and wied a new

found we thee is aps a si in dendec latios. Evee is of use

stil l dendet the capitalist sstem itself ad ti s would th Feies ad the

taditiona Maxists pl but all of this gs nce gai to te questi f the gals f

develpment. Pehaps autono and indendece t goas t pusued at the

sae tie as eic gowth ad eizatio. he goals ne hses deteine the

path towad develpet ad i this ase the vesio of denden the one ings

to.

untigt is ight t int ut that eah f tese tee oels stesses one

pobe f an enic atu that ust solved i ode to achieve al the g

thigs iiating ve iequit dedec was lieve to ead t wndous

eets

And although each mel fused o ecomics it is impant t e

that the patibilit assumptio whih lies id te wole pojet f the 16s is

alive and wel and ds ot ecessail qui ginig wit econi devepet.

untingtn himself has a had tie gettig awa f te opatibilit assupti ad

aks that the sae is te f Ae

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