On The Geologic Time Scale -...

Geologic Time Scale 2012 publication

Arthur Holmes the Father of the Geologic Time Scaleonce wrote (Holmes 1965 p 148) ldquoTo place all thescattered pages of earth history in their proper chrono-logical order is by no means an easy taskrdquo Ordering

these scattered and torn pages requires a detailed andaccurate time scale This will greatly facilitate our un-derstanding of the physical chemical and biologicalprocesses since Earth appeared and solidified

Calibration to linear time of the succession of eventsrecorded in the rocks on Earth has three components

Newsletters on Stratigraphy Vol 452 171ndash188 ArticleStuttgart July 2012

On The Geologic Time Scale

Felix M Gradstein1 James G Ogg2 and Frits J Hilgen3

With 6 figures and 1 table

Abstract This report summarizes the international divisions and ages in the Geologic Time Scale pub-lished in 2012 (GTS2012) Since 2004 when GTS2004 was detailed major developments have taken placethat directly bear and have considerable impact on the intricate science of geologic time scaling Precam briannow has a detailed proposal for chronostratigraphic subdivision instead of an outdated and abstract chrono-metric one Of 100 chronostratigraphic units in the Phanerozoic 63 now have formal definitions but stablechronostratigraphy in part of upper Paleozoic Triassic and Middle JurassicLower Cretaceous is still want-ingDetailed age calibration now exist between radiometric methods and orbital tuning making 40Ar-39Ar dates064 older and more accurate In general numeric uncertainty in the time scale although complex and notentirely amenable to objective analysis is improved and reduced Bases of Paleozoic Mesozoic and Ceno-zoic are bracketed by analytically precise ages respectively 541 063 25216 05 and 6595 005 MaHigh-resolution direct age-dates now exist for base-Carboniferous base-Permian base-Jurassic base-Ceno-manian and base-Eocene Relative to GTS2004 26 of 100 time scale boundaries have changed age of which14 have changed more than 4 Ma and 4 (in Middle to Late Triassic) between 6 and 12 Ma There is muchhigher stratigraphic resolution in Late Carboniferous Jurassic Cretaceous and Paleogene and improved in-tegration with stable isotopes stratigraphy Cenozoic and Cretaceous have a refined magneto-biochronologyThe spectacular outcrop sections for the Rosello Composite in Sicily Italy and at Zumaia Basque ProvinceSpain encompass the Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points for two Pliocene and two Paleocenestages Since the cycle record indicates to the best of our knowledge that the stages sediment fill is strati-graphically complete these sections also may fulfill the important role of stage unit stratotypes for three ofthese stages Piacenzian Zanclean and Danian

Key words Geologic Time Scale Precambrian Stratotype Standard chronostratigraphy

copy 2012 Gebruumlder Borntraeger Stuttgart GermanyDOI 1011270078-042120120020

wwwborntraeger-cramerde0078-042120120020 $ 450

Authorsʼ addresses1 Past Chair ndash International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) Geological Museum University of Oslo N-0318 OsloNorway E-Mail felixgradsteinnhmuiono2 Past Secretary General ndash ICS Department of Earth amp Atmospheric Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana47907-2051 USA3 Chair ndash Subcommision on Neogene Stratigraphy of ICS Department of Earth Sciences Utrecht University 3584 CDUtrecht Netherlands

(1) the standard stratigraphic divisions and their corre-lation in the global rock record (2) the means of meas-uring linear time or elapsed durations from the rockrecord and (3) the methods of effectively joining thetwo scales the stratigraphic one and the linear one

In the last decade there have been major develop-ments in stratigraphic division and measuring lineartime that directly bear and have considerable impacton the World Geologic Time Scale 2012 GTS2012 details and explains the historical background princi-pal methodology current chronostratigraphy and newgeochronologic results in a systematic manner in32 chapters authored and co-authored by a team ofover 65 scientists (chapter collaborators not listed) asfollows

Introduction F M GradsteinChronostratigraphy linking time and rock F M Grad-stein and J G OggBiochronology F M GradsteinCyclostratigraphy and astrochronology L A Hinnovand F J HilgenThe geomagnetic polarity time scale J G OggRadiogenic isotopes geochronology M SchmitzStrontium isotope stratigraphy J M Mcarthur R J Ho -warth and G ShieldsOsmium isotope stratigraphy B Peucker-Ehrenbrinkand G RavizzaSulfur isotope stratigraphy A Paytan and E T GrayOxygen isotope stratigraphy E GrossmanCarbon isotope stratigraphy M Saltzman and E Tho -masA brief history of plants on Earth S R Gradstein andH KerpSequence chronostratigraphy M SimmonsStatistical procedures F P Agterberg O Hammer andF M GradsteinThe Planetary time scale K Tanaka and B HartmannThe Precambrian the Archean and Proterozoic EonsM Van Kranendonk et alThe Cryogenian Period G A Shields A C Hill andB A MacgabhannThe Ediacaran Period G Narbonne S Xiao andG A ShieldsThe Cambrian Period S Peng L Babcock andR A CooperThe Ordovician Period R A Cooper and P M SadlerThe Silurian Period M J Melchin P M Sadler andB D CramerThe Devonian Period T Becker F M Gradstein andO Hammer

The Carboniferous Period V Davydov D Korn andM SchmitzThe Permian Period Ch Henderson V Davydov andB WardlawThe Triassic Period J G OggThe Jurassic Period J G Ogg and L HinnovThe Cretaceous Period J G Ogg and L HinnovThe Paleogene Period N Vandenberghe F J Hilgenand R SpeijerThe Neogene Period F J Hilgen L Lourens andJ Van DamThe Quaternary Period B Pillans and P GibbardThe Prehistoric Human Time Scale J A Catt andM A MaslinThe Anthropocene J Zalasiewicz P Crutzen andW Steffen

Appendix 1 ndash Colour coding of Standard Stratigraph-ic UnitsAppendix 2 ndash M Schmitz GTS2012 RadiometricAgesAppendix 3 ndash E Anthonissen and J G Ogg Creta-ceous and Cenozoic Microfossil Biochronology

To ensure continuity between geologic periods and un-dertake error analysis the linear age scale using 265carefully recalibrated radiometric dates was construct-ed by F Gradstein O Hammer J Ogg and M Schmitzin close consultation with individual chapter authors

Precambrian

Precambrian is at the dawn of a geologically meaning-ful stratigraphic scale Several features of the currentinternational stratigraphic chart relating to the Pre-cambrian timescale have raised concern within the geological community primary among which is thechronometric scheme used for Eon Era and SystemPeriod boundaries that are based purely on round-number chronometric divisions and ignore geologyand stratigraphy (Plumb and James 1986 Fig 1) Thecurrent chronometric scheme for Precambrian time inFigure 1 was partly chosen because of a relative pauci-ty of potential biological-geological criteria Roundnumber divisions of the scheme has worked reason-ably well because there was relatively little precisegeochronological information available at the time ofcompilation more than 30 years ago to disprove thesebroad divisions The existing chronometric scheme is

F M Gradstein et al172

now unsatisfactory because there has been a veritableexplosion of new geoscience information on the geo-dynamic evolution of Precambrian terrains and on the geobiological evolution of the planet In additionthere are now thousands of precise U-Pb zircon agedates and many detailed isotopic studies of Precam-brian stratigraphic sections The new data has revealedthat many of the current divisions are either misplacedin terms of global geodynamic events impractical interms of global correlation or meaningless in terms ofsignificant lithostratigraphic biological and biochem-ical changes across much of the globe

As outlined in great detail by Van Kranendonk andcollaborators in GTS2012 (Van Kranendonk 2012)Precambrian Earth evolved in a distinct series of over20 linked events (Fig 2) each of which arose directlyas a result of antecedent events and thus they accordwell with Gouldrsquos (1994) historical principles of di-rectionality and contingency Each event has globalsignificance This allows for the very real possibilityof a fully revised Precambrian timescale founded onthe linked geological development of the planet andevolution of the biosphere and based on the extantrock record with real boundaries marked by GlobalBoundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPrsquos seenext text section for fundamental details of the con-cept) Nine events may qualify for such with the baseEdiacaran Period already formalized with a GSSP andthe upper level of the Precambrian formalized with theGSSP for the base Cambrian Period (Fig 2)

Three Precambrian eons can be identified relatingto 1) the early development of the planet (HadeanEon 4567ndash4030 Ma) 2) a major period of crust for-mation and establishment of a biosphere characterizedby a highly reducing atmosphere (Archean Eon 4030ndash2420 Ma) and 3) a period marked by the progressiverise in atmospheric oxygen supercontinent cyclicityand the evolution of more complex (eukaryotic) life(Proterozoic Eon 2420ndash541 Ma)

Each of these eons may be subdivided into a num-ber of eras and periods that reflect lower-order changesin the geological record (Fig 2)

ndash 4567 Ma start of Hadean EonChaotian Era start ofthe solar system formation of Earth chronometricboundary on Ca-Al-rich refractory inclusions inmeteorites

ndash 4404 Ma end of Chaotian Erastart Jack Hillsian(Jacobian) Era end of major accretion and Moon-forming giant impact and first appearance of crustalmaterial chronometric boundary on oldest detrital

On The Geologic Time Scale 173

~4568

Hadean(informal)

Cryogenian

Tonian

Statherian

Orosirian

Rhyacian

Siderian

Neo-proterozoic

Neoarchean

Meso-archean

Paleo-archean

Eoarchean

Stenian

Ectasian

Calymmian

Meso-proterozoic

Paleo-proterozoic

Arche

anProterozo

icPraec

ambrian

630

8501000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2050

2300

2500

2800

3200

3600

~4000

Eon Era AgeMaPeriod

Paleozoic

Cenozoic

Phan

ero-

zoic

Ediacaran 541

252

66Mesozoic

Fig 1 The Precambrian chronometric scheme used forEon Era and SystemPeriod boundaries is based purely onround-number chronometric divisions and ignores geologyand stratigraphy


Fig 2 Proposed scheme for a fully revised Precambrian timescale clock symbols = chronometric boundaries greenspikes = boundaries where possible GSSPs are recognised yellow spike = formally recognised GSSP (for details see VanKranendonk 2012)

zircon from Jack Hills greenstone belt (Yilgarn Cra-ton Australia)

ndash 4030 Ma end Hadean Eon (Jack Hillsian (Jacobian)Era)start Archean Eon (Paleoarchean Era AcastanPeriod) start of the stratigraphic record chrono-metric boundary at worldrsquos oldest rock in the Acas-ta Gneiss (Slave Craton Canada)

ndash ~ 3810 Ma end Acastan Periodstart Isuan Periodfirst appearance of supracrustal rocks chronometricboundary in the Isua supracrustal belt (North At-lantic Craton western Greenland)

ndash 3490 Ma end Paleoarchean Era (end Isuan Period)start Mesoarchean Era (Vaalbaran Period) well-preserved crustal lithosphere with macroscopic evi-dence of fossil life GSSP at base of stromatoliticDresser Formation (Warrawoona Group PilbaraSupergroup Australia)

ndash ~ 3020 Ma end Vaalbaran Periodstart Pongolan Period first appearance of stable continental basinscontaining evidence of microbial life in terrestrialenvironments GSSP just above the base of the DeGrey Supergroup (Pilbara Craton Australia)

ndash ~ 2780 Ma end Mesoarchean Era (Pongolan Peri-od)start Neoarchean Era (Methanian Period) onsetof global volcanism associated with late Archeansuperevent and of highly negative δ13Ckerogen val-ues GSSP at base of Mount Roe Basalt (FortescueGroup Mount Bruce Supergroup Australia)

ndash ~ 2630 Ma end Methanian Periodstart Siderian Period first appearance of global BIFs GSSP atbase of Marra Mamba Iron Formation (HamersleyGroup Mount Bruce Supergroup Australia)

ndash ~ 2420 Ma end Archean Eon (Neoarchean EraSiderian Period)start Proterozoic Eon (Paleopro-terozoic Era Oxygenian Period) first appearance of glacial deposits rise in atmospheric oxygen anddisappearance of BIFs GSSP at base of Kazput For-mation (Turee Creek Group Mount Bruce Super-group Australia)

ndash ~ 2250 Ma end Oxygenian Periodstart Jatulian (orEukaryian) Period end of glaciations and first ap-pearance of cap carbonates with high δ13C values(start of Lomagundi-Jatuli isotopic excursion) andof oxidised paleosols and redbeds GSSP at base ofLorrain Formation (Cobalt Group Huronian Super-group Canada)

ndash 2060 Ma end Jatulian (or Eukaryian) PeriodstartColumbian Period end of Lomagundi-Jatuli isotopicexcursion and first appearance of widespread globalvolcanism and iron-formations GSSP at conforma-ble base of Rooiberg Group (Bushveld Magmatic

Province Kaapvaal Craton South Africa) or at baseof the Kuetsjaumlrvi Volcanic Formation (Pechengagreenstone belt Fennoscandia)

ndash ~ 1780 Ma end Paleoproterozoic Era (ColumbianPeriod)start Mesoproterozoic Era first appearanceof sulphidic reducing oceanic deposits first acrit -archs and successions with giant sulphide ore de-posits GSSP unassigned

ndash ~ 850 Ma end Mesoproterozoic Erastart Neopro-terozoic Era (Cryogenian Period) onset of δ13Canomalies GSSP unassigned

ndash ~ 630 Ma end Cryogenian Periodstart EdiacaranPeriod GSSP at conformable contact at base of capcarbonate overlying Marinoan Glaciation

ndash 542 Ma end Proterozoic Eon (Neoproterozoic EraEdiacaran Period)start Phanerozoic Eon (PaleozoicEra Cambrian Period)

The suggested changes proposed herein include fourchronometric and ten chronostratigraphic (GSSP)boundaries as listed above These boundaries are in-tended as a guide for future discussions and refine-ments of the Precambrian timescale The boundarieswill need to be approved by the members of the Pre-cambrian subcommission and formally accepted be-fore they can be made useful in detailed mapping andfurther study by the geological community at largeThe goal over the next few years is to develop propos-als for the major eons and their boundaries and thenwork down through the era and period boundaries to decide on the best sections for GSSPs and the mostsuitable names to use

A separate question is how best to group Precam-brian events into Periods Eras and Eons a questiondealt with in detail in GTS2012 The Subcommissionof Precambrian Stratigraphy of ICS is actively en-gaged with these stratigraphic challenge and formali-ties

Global stratotype sections and points

It is not long ago that stratigraphy was spending timein dealing with type sections of stages and correlationof stage units in terms of zones and not fossil eventsTraditionally stages would be characterized by a his-torical type section that contained a body of sedimentsince long considered typical for the stage in questionIdeally the type section also would contain fossilzones allowing correlation of the body of the stage unit



Famennian

GivetianEifelian

LochkovianPragian

Frasnian

Emsian

LudfordianGorstianHomerian

SheinwoodianTelychianAeronian

Rhuddanian

P a

l e o

z o

i c

Pridoli

Ludlow

Wenlock

Llandovery

Upper

Middle

Lower

Devo

nian

Tremadocian

Darriwilian

Hirnantian

Paibian

Upper

Middle

Lower

Series 3

Stage 3Stage 2

Fortunian

Stage 5Drumian

Guzhangian

JiangshanianStage 10

FloianDapingian

SandbianKatian

Stage 4Series 2

Terreneuvian

Furongian

Cam

brian

Ordo

vician

Silur

ianLopingian

Guadalupian

Cisuralian

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

Carb

onife

rous

Perm

ianChanghsingianWuchiapingian

CapitanianWordianRoadian

KungurianArtinskianSakmarianAsselianGzhelian

KasimovianMoscovianBashkirian

SerpukhovianVisean

Tournaisian

Pen

n-sy

lvan

ian

Mis

sis-

sipp

ian

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d

SeriesEpoch

Guadalupe Mountains TX USA

Aidaralash Ural Mountains Kazakhstan

Arrow Canyon Nevada USA

Pengchong South China

Black Knob Oklahoma USA

Drum Mountains Utah USA

La Serre Montagne Noir FranceCoumiac Cessenon Montagne Noir FranceCol du Puech Montagne Noir FranceJebel Mech Irdane Tafilalt MoroccoWetteldorf Richtschnitt Eifel Hills GermanyZinzilban Gorge UzbekistanVelka Chuchle SW Prague Czech RepKlonk SW of Prague Czech RepublicPozary Prague Czech RepublicSunnyhill Ludlow UKPitch Coppice Ludlow UKWhitwell Coppice Homer UKHughley Brook Apedale UKCefn Cerig Llandovery UKTrefawr Llandovery UKDobs Linn Moffat UK

Guadalupe Mountains TX USAGuadalupe Mountains TX USA

Penglaitan Guangxi China

Huangnitang Zhejiang ChinaHuanghuachang Yichang Hubei ChinaDiabasbrottet Hunneberg SwedenGreen Point Newfoundland Canada

Paibi Hunan ChinaDuibian Zhejiang China

Louyixi Guzhang Hunan China

Fortune Head Newfoundland Canada

Wangjiawan Yichang Hubei China

Meishan Zhejiang China

Fagelsang Scania Sweden

Fig 3 Distribution of ratified Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) in the Paleozoic Mesozoic andCenozoic Eras (see also wwwstratigraphyorg or httpsengineeringpurdueeduStratigraphy)


UpperMiddle

Calabrian

Selandian

TortonianSerravallian

LanghianBurdigalianAquitanian

Ypresian

ChattianRupelian

Priabonian

Danian

Thanetian

BartonianLutetian

CampanianSantonian

TuronianConiacian

AlbianAptian

Berriasian

Barremian

ValanginianHauterivian

Maastrichtian

Cenomanian

Piacenzian

MessinianZanclean

Gelasian

C e

n o

z o

i c

Cre

tace

ous

Pal

eoge

neN

eoge

ne

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Pleistocene

Upper

Lower

Holocene

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

M e

s o

z o

i c

Jura

ssic

Tria

ssic

TithonianKimmeridgian

OxfordianCallovian

BajocianBathonian

AalenianToarcian

PliensbachianSinemurianHettangianRhaetianNorianCarnianLadinianAnisian

OlenekianInduan

Qua

tern

ary

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d SeriesEpoch


East Quantox Head West Somerset UK

Vrica Calabria Italy

North GRIP ice core Greenland

Zumaia SpainZumaia Spain

Monte San Nicola Sicily ItalyPunta Picola Sicily ItalyEraclea Minoa Sicily ItalyOued Akrech Rabbat Morocco

Lemme-Carrosio N Italy

Massignano Ancona Italy

Dababiya Luxor EgyptGorrondatxe N Spain

El Kef TunisiaTercis-les-Bains Landes SW France

Mont Risou Rosans Haute-Alpes France

Cabo Mondego W PortugalRavin du Begraves Provence France

Kuhjoch Tyrol Austria

Fuentelsaz Spain

Bagolino ItalyPrati di Stuores Italy

Monte dei Corvi Beach Ancona ItalyRas il Pellegrin Fomm Ir-Rih Bay Malta

Rock Canyon Pueblo Colorado USA

Robin Hoods Bay Yorkshire UK

sedimentary strata outside the type area Boundariesbetween stages would be interpolated using suitablebiostratigraphic criteria rarely if ever found in thestratotype section Stage boundaries traditionally hadno type sections It is readily understood that the ab-sence of stage boundary definition in type sectionsmay lead to uncertainty in stage correlation

Hollis Hedberg a major champion stratigraphicstandardization once wrote (1976 p 35) ldquoIn my opin-ion the first and most urgent task in connection withour present international geochronology scale is toachieve a better definition of its units and horizons sothat each will have standard fixed-time significanceand the same time significance for all geologistseverywhere Most of the named international chronos-tratigraphic (geo chro no logy) units still lack preciseglobally accepted definitions and consequently theirlimits are controversial and variably interpreted by different workers This is a serious and wholly unnec-essary impediment to progress in global stratigraphyWhat we need is simply a single permanently fixedand globally accepted standard definition for eachnamed unit or horizon and this is where the concept ofstratotype standards (particularly boundary stratotypesand other horizon stratotypes) provides a satisfactoryanswerrdquo It is this and other stratigraphic deliberationsthat have led to the current concept and active and de-liberate application of the Global Boundary StratotypeSection and Point (GSSP) to global chronostratigraph-ic standardization

The second edition of the International StratgraphicGuide defines the Global Boundary Stratotype Sectionand Point (GSSP) as follows The selected type or standard for the definition and recognition of a strati-graphic boundary between two named standard globalchronostratigraphic units designated as a unique andspecific point in a specific sequence of rock strata in a unique and specific location identified in publishedform and marked in the section (Salvador 1994p 120)

Now stratigraphic standardization through the workof the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)is steadily refining the international chronostratigraph-ic scale Of the 100 stage or series units in the Phanero-zoic Eonothem 63 now have ratified boundary defini-tions using the Global Stratotype Section and Point(GSSP) concept (Fig 3) versus 60 in 2008 fewer than45 in 2004 and just over 30 in the year 2000 Details on the new and existing stage boundary definitions arepresented in Gradstein and Ogg (2012) at httpsengi-neeringpurdueeduStratigraphy and at wwwnhm2

uionostratlex The former internet site has a link toʻTimeScale Creatorʼ a free JAVA program packagethat enables users to explore and create charts of anyportion of the geologic time scale from an extensivesuite of global and regional events in Earth History Theinternal database suite encompasses over 25000 pale-ontological geomagnetic sea-level stable isotope andother events All ages in Time Scale Creator are cur-rently standardized to Geologic Time Scale 2012 butmay be retro-scaled in Geologic Time Scale 2004 or2008 if so desired

In many cases traditional European-based LateProterozoic and Phanerozoic stratigraphic unitrsquos stag -es have now been replaced with new subdivisions thatallow global correlation The Cryogenian and Edi-acaran Periods are ʻfilling upʼ with stratigraphic infor-mation and the latter is now a ratified Period Newstages have been introduced in Cambrian and Ordo -vician that allow global correlations in contrast toBritish American Chinese Russian or Australian re-gional stages Long ratified stage definitions in Siluri-an and Devonian are undergoing long overdue revisionto better reflect the actually observed fossil and rockrecord The Jurassic for a long time the only period inthe Phanerozoic without a formal definition for baseand top now has a formal base in the Kuhjoch sectionin Austria The boundary is thought to correspondclosely to End-Triassic mass extinctions coincidentwith a negative carbon-isotope excursion linked towidespread volcanism (see Ogg and Hinnov 2012)

Only base Cretaceous is still undefined although realistic and practical solutions exist if one considersother zonal events than regional and unpractical am-monites and also place emphasis on the high-resolu-tion geomagnetic record that transcends facies bound-aries (Ogg and Hinnov 2012) Curiously the largestchronostratigraphic knowledge gap in the Phanerozoicpertains to Callovian through Albian where no GSSPrsquoshave yet been defined (Fig 3)

All Paleocene (Danian Selandian Thanetian) twoEocene (Ypresian Lutetian) and one Oligocene (Ru-pelian) stage are now defined in the Cenozoic and allbut two Neogene stages (Langhian and Burdigalian)have been defined and ratified The Pleistocene is for-mally divided in three units and Holocene has a newand formal definition Quaternary after 150 years ofconfusion now has a formal definition also althoughit remains to be seen how practical that definition is for marine geosciences Tertiary bracketing Paleogeneand Neogene still remains an informal unit albeit fre-quently and widely used in popular stratigraphic liter-


ature and in oil industry jargon and its publicationsHere ICS has a task to not only serve its academic followers with formalizing chronostratigraphy butalso professionals

Stage unit stratotypes

The branch of stratigraphy called chronostratigraphyhas as its fundamental building block the time-rockunit A stage is a time-rock unit not just a time unitand not just a rock unit Unfortunately the boundarystratotype concept of the previous section in this studyonly outlines and defines boundaries of units and notthe content of the unit In a chronologic sense it pro-vides the abstract duration of units but not its contentIt defines an abstraction in time and not a tangible unitin rock Hence it can be argued that each stage shouldgo back to its roots and both have boundary stratotypesfor its boundaries and a unit stratotype And to take itone step further Would chronostratigraphy not beserved best if suitable sedimentary sections could beidentified on Earth that harbor both the complete bodyof rock and the upper and lower boundaries of stagesin one and the same section

Now recent developments in integrated high-reso-lution stratigraphy and astronomical tuning of contin-uous deep marine successions combine potential unitstratotypes and boundary stratotypes for global stagesas basic building blocks of the Global Chronostrati-graphic Scale (GCS) Within the framework of an in-tegrated high-resolution stratigraphy the age-calibra-tion of the youngest Neogene part of this time scale isnow based entirely on astronomical tuning resultingin a time scale with an unprecedented accuracy reso-lution and stability (Hilgen et al 2006) This progressin integrated high-resolution stratigraphy in combina-tion with astronomical tuning of cyclic sedimentarysuccessions thus invalidates arguments against unitstratotypes At the same time due to the geochrono-logic quality of the tuned cycle units it elegantly com-bines chronostratigraphy with geochronoloy It arguesin favour of a reconsideration of the unit stratotypeconcept and as a consequence a strengthening of thedual classification of chronostratigraphy (time-rock)and geochronology (time)

For the late Neogene Global Stratotype Section andPoint (GSSP) sections may also serve as unit strato-types covering the interval from the base of a stage up to the level that ndash time-stratigraphically ndash correlateswith the base of the next younger stage in a continuous

and well-tuned deep marine succession (Hilgen et al2006)

The Rossello Composite Section (RCS Sicily Italysee Fig 4) is a prime example of the modified unit stratotype approach of classical chronostratigraphydefining the complete sedimentary record of stagesand their stage boundaries The RCS shows the orbitaltuning of the basic precession-controlled sedimentarycycles and the resulting astronomical time scale withaccurate and precise astronomical ages for sedimenta-ry cycles calcareous plankton events and magnetic reversal boundaries The GSSPrsquos of the Pliocene Zan-clean and Piacenzian Stages are formally defined inthe RCS while the level that time-stratigraphically correlates with the Gelasian GSSP is found in the top-most part of the section The well tuned RCS lies at thebase of the Early ndash Middle Pliocene part of the Neo-gene Time Scale and the Global Standard Chrono -stratigraphic Scale and as such could serve as unit stratotype for both the Zanclean and Piacenzian Stage(Langereis and Hilgen 1991 Hilgen 1991 Lourens etal 1996) Similarly the Monte dei Corvi section mayserve as unit stratotype for the Tortonian Stage ( Huuml -sing et al 2009)

Now the Zumaia section along the Basque coast ofnorthwestern Spain has the potential to become theDanian unit stratotype (Fig 5) The Danian GSSP isdefined in the El Kef section in Tunisia but the timecorrelative level marked by the KPg boundary caneasily be identified at Zumaia The Selandian GSSP is defined at the top part of the ldquoDanianrdquo limestones in the Zumaia section itself The sedimentary cyclepattern is tuned to the eccentricity time series of astronomical solutions La2004 (Laskar et al 2004)and R7 (Varadi et al 2003) following Kuiper et al (2008) who used the astronomically calibrated age of28201 0046 Ma for the FCs dating standard to re-calculate single crystal 40Ar39Ar sanidine ages of ashlayers intercalated directly above the KPg boundaryin North America to constrain the tuning to the 405-kyreccentricity cycle Tuning to ~ 100-kyr eccentricity isunreliable due to uncertainties in the astronomical so-lution 405-kyr eccentricity cycles are numbered backfrom the Recent and once the tuning is confirmedmay serve to define and label correlative 405-kyr lime-stone-marl cycles as ndash Milankovitch ndash chronozones(see also Dinares-Turrel et al 2003 Hilgen et al 20062010) The finely tuned and finely numbered LateNeogene deep marine oxygen isotope record is the Mi-lankowitch chronozone set ʻpar excellenceʼ for globaldeep marine sedimentary correlation (see below) Ex-



Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

toty

peP

iace

nzia

n U

nit-S

trato

type

10

20

Capo Rossello Composite

40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100

(Langereis and Hilgen 1991)

ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

ON

FOR

MAT

ION

PO

LAR

ITY

CY

CLE

LITH

OLO

GY

Astronomical Time Scale(Lourens et al 1996)

PRECESSION INSOLATION

La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

PIC

CO

LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

A4

S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

GIL

BE

RT

MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

n3n

1r

3n2

n

MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

2An

2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

PIA

CE

NZI

AN

4300

4188

3596

3330

MN

N16

aV

VI

VII

MN

N1b

-17

GA

US

SM

AT

GE

L

2582

3032

3116

3207

MAMMOTH

KAENA

STA

GE

Age

(Ma)

Spa

ak 1

983

Rio

et a

l 1

990

CH

RO

NS

UB

CH

RO

NP

OLA

RIT

Y

Cita

197

5 (e

)

PUN

TA D

I M

AIA

TAP

G

TRU

BI

ERA

CLE

A M

INO

A

-006 006 540 400

Fig 4 The Rossello Composite Section (RCS Sicily Italy) is a prime example of the modified unit stratotype approachshowing the orbital tuning of the basic precession-controlled sedimentary cycles and the resulting astronomical time scalewith accurate and precise astronomical ages for sedimentary cycles calcareous plankton events and magnetic reversalboundaries The Zanclean and Piacenzian GSSPs are formally defined in the RCS while the level that time-stratigraphical-ly correlates with the Gelasian GSSP is found in the topmost part of the section The well tuned RCS lies at the base of theEarly ndash Middle Pliocene part of the Neogene Time Scale and the Global Standard Chronostratigraphic Scale and as suchcould serve as unit stratotype for both the Zanclean and Piacenzian Stage

tending this high-resolution chronozone set back inʻdeep timeʼ to the Paleogene is now around the corner

The added value of such sections as the RCS andZumaia as unit stratotype lies in the integrated high-resolution stratigraphy and astronomical tuning Suchsections provide excellent age control with an un-precedented resolution precision and accuracy withinthe entire stage As such they form the backbone of thenew integrated late Neogene time scale and providethe basis for reconstructing Earthrsquos history Applica-tion of such accurate high-resolution time scales al-ready led to a much better understanding of theMessinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean (e gKrijgsman et al 1999) and of the potential influence of very long period orbital forcing on climate (e gLourens et al 2005) and species turnover in smallmammals (Van Dam et al 2006)

In this way a stage is also defined by its content andnot only by its boundaries Extending this concept toolder time intervals requires that well-tuned continu-ous deep marine sections are employed thus necessi-tating the employment of multiple deep sea drillingsites for defining (remaining) stages and stage bound-aries in at least the Cenozoic and Cretaceous and pos-sibly the entire Mesozoic Evidently the constructionof the Geological Time Scale should be based on themost appropriate sections available while where pos-sible taking the historical concept of global stages intoaccount


0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe

Fig 5 The Zumaia section as potential Danian unit strato-type The Danian GSSP is defined in the El Kef section inTunesia but the time correlative level marked by the KPgboundary can easily be identified at Zumaia The SelandianGSSP is defined at the top part of the ldquoDanianrdquo limestonesin the Zumaia section itself The sedimentary cycle patternis tuned to the eccentricity time series of astronomical solutions La2004 (Laskar et al 2004) and R7 (Varadi et al2003) The 405-kyr eccentricity cycles are numbered backfrom the Recent and once the tuning is confirmed mayserve to define and label correlative 405-kyr limestone-marlcycles as ndash Milankovitch ndash chronozones

Ages

New or enhanced methods of extracting linear timefrom the rock record have enabled age assignmentswith a precision of 01 or better leading to improvedage assignments of key geologic stage boundaries andintra-stage levels A good protocol now exists to assignuncertainty to age dates (Schmitz 2012) and intercal-ibrate the two principal radiogenic isotope techniquesusing potassium-argon and uranium-lead isotopes Im-proved analytical procedures for obtaining uranium-lead ages from single zircons have shifted publishedages for some stratigraphic levels to older ages bymore than 1 myr (for example at the PermianTriassicboundary) Similarly an astronomically assigned agefor the neutron irradiation monitor for the 40Ar-39Ardating method makes earlier reported ages older by064 Also the rhenium-osmium (187Re-187Os) shalegeochronometer has a role to play for organic-richstrata with limited or no potential for ash bed datingwith the uranium-led isotopes For example Selby(2007) obtained an age of 1541 22 Ma on the baseKimmeridgian in the Flodigarry section on Isle ofSkye NW Scotland Details on the improved radio -genic isotope methods are in Schmitz (2012)

A welcome practice is that instead of micro- andmacrofossil events also global geochemical excur-sions are becoming defining criteria for chronostrati-graphic boundaries like the Corg positive anomaly atthe PaleoceneEocene boundary Carbon isotope ex-cursions are close proxies for base Cambrian base Triassic and base Jurassic The famous iridium anom-aly is at the CretaceousPaleogene boundary MoreGSSPrsquos should use global geochemical events

Paleozoic chronostratigraphy and geochronology(541ndash252 Ma) are becoming stable A majority ofstages have ratified boundaries (Fig 3a) As outlinedin detail in GTS2012 improved scaling of stages isfeasible with composite standard techniques on fossilzones as a means of estimating relative zone durations(Cooper and Sadler 2012) It would be desirable tohave a second and independent means of scalingstages as a check on potential stratigraphic distortionof zonal composites that ultimately depend on a non-linear evolutionary process Integration of a refined100 and 400 kyr sedimentary cycle sequences with atruly high-resolution UPb age scale for the Pennsyl-vanian is a major step towards the global Carbonifer-ous GTS Although tuning to ~ 100-kyr eccentricity isunreliable due to uncertainties in the astronomical so-lution back into deep time it is feasible to recognize

~ 100-kyr eccentricity cycles between high resolutionradiometric anchor points In this case the high densi-ty sequential and high resolution radiometric datingprovides an independent means of scaling stages thatalso have been scaled with composite standard tech-nique (Davydov et al 2012) Visean with 17 myr du-ration is the longest stage in the Paleozoic Era

Several stages in the Mesozoic Era (252ndash66 Ma)still lack formal boundary definition but have consen-sus boundary markers Lack of the latter and of suffi-cient radiometric for the Carnian Norian and RhaetianStages in the Triassic make these 3 long stages less certain The Triassic-Jurassic boundary is well dated at2013 02 Ma Earliest Triassic Induan with 15 myrduration is the shortest Mesozoic stage

The Earth eccentricity component is very stable andextends orbital tuning from the Cenozoic well into theMesozoic GTS Jurassic and Cretaceous now have longorbitally tuned segments that confirm the GTS2004scale built using seafloor spreading Recalculation of40Ar39Ar ages at the CretaceousndashPaleogene boundaryyields an age estimate of 6595 005 Ma instead of655 03 Ma in GTS2004 the new age rounds off to66 Ma

Milankovitch-type orbital climate cyclicity hastuned the Neogene geologic time scale (Hilgen et al2012) and for the first time the classical seafloorspreading and magnetochron method to construct thePaleogene time scale has now been matched with the orbitally tuned scale (VandenBerghe et al 2012)Hence magneto- and biochronology are refined andstage boundary ages strengthened for the Paleogenealso

A completely astronomical-tuned GTS (AGTS) forthe Cenozoic is within reach showing unprecedentedaccuracy precision and resolution Burdigalian andLanghian in the Miocene and Chattian Bartonian andPriabonian Stages in the Paleogene still require formaldefinition

Error bars

Uncertainty in time scales derives from several fac-tors listed here in decreasing order of difficulty toquantify and often also in magnitude Uncertainty inbio-magneto and other event stratigraphic correlationuncertainty in relative scaling of stages uncertainty inlinking radiometric ages dates to precise stage bound-ary levels uncertainty in radiometric age dates itselfand uncertainty in orbital tuning



Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean

PiacenzianGelasianCalabrian

660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian

KasimovianGzhelianAsselian

Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian

WuchiapingianChanghsingian

Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian

SheinwoodianHomerian

GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period

MESOZOICCENOZOIC PALEOZOIC

PHANEROZOIC PRECAMBRIAN

The GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2012

Copyright Geologic TimeScale FoundationJune 2012

GeologicTimeScaleFoundation

Fig 6 The new Geologic Time Scale (GTS2012) with standard chronostratigraphy and ages

Table 1 Changes in age between GTS2004 and GTS2012 Stages or series that changed by 2 Ma or more in GTS2012 are shown in bold with Bashkirian Artinskian Carnian Norian and Rhaetian changing numerically most in ageWhere the 95 uncertainty estimate of a GTS2012 stage age exceeds the actual numerical age change such ismarked in bold also in this table

AgeStage GTS2004 GTS2012 Change in Ma GTS2012 uncertainty in Ma (95)

Quaternary TOP 0 0 (2000)Holocene 00115 00118 00003Tarantian 0126Ionian 0781Calabrian 181 1806 ndash0004Gelasian 259 2588 ndash0002

Neogene Piacenzian 3600 0Zanclean 5333 0Messinian 7246 0Tortonian 1161 1163 002Serravallian 1365 1382 017Langhian 1597 0Burdigalian 2044 0Aquitanian 2303 0

Paleogene Chattian 284 281 ndash03Rupelian 339 0Priabonian 372 378 06 05Bartonian 404 412 08 05Lutetian 486 478 ndash08 02Ypresian 558 560 02Thanetian 587 592 05Selandian 617 616 ndash01Danian 655 660 05

Cretaceous Maastrichtian 706 721 15 02Campanian 835 836 01 02Santonian 858 863 05 05Coniacian 893 898 05 03Turonian 935 939 04 02Cenomanian 996 1005 09 04Albian 112 1130 1 04Aptian 125 1263 13 04Barremian 130 1308 08 05Hauterivian 1364 1339 ndash25 06Valanginian 1402 1394 ndash08 07Berriasian 1455 1450 ndash05 08

Jurassic Tithonian 1508 1521 13 09Kimmeridgian 1557 1573 16 10Oxfordian 1612 1635 23 11Callovian 1647 1661 14 12Bathonian 1677 1683 06 13Bajocian 1716 1703 ndash13 14Aalenian 1756 1741 ndash15 10Toarcian 183 1827 ndash03 07Pliensbachian 1896 1908 12 10Sinemurian 1965 1993 28 03Hettangian 1996 2013 17 02

Triassic Rhaetian 2036 2095 59 ~ 1Norian 2165 2284 119 ~ 2Carnian 228 2370 9 ~ 1Ladinian 237 2415 45 ~ 10Anisian 245 2471 21 ~ 02Olenekian 2497 2500 03 05Induan 251 2522 12 05

Table 1 Continued


Permian Changhsingian 2538 2542 04 03Wuchiapingian 2604 2598 ndash06 03Capitanian 2658 2651 ndash07 04Wordian 268 2688 08 05Roadian 2706 2723 17 05Kungurian 2756 2793 37 06Artinskian 2844 2901 57 02Sakmarian 2946 2955 09 04Asselian 299 2989 ndash01 02

Carboniferous Gzhelian 3039 3037 ndash02 01Kasimovian 3065 3070 05 02Moscovian 3117 3152 35 02Bashkirian 3181 3232 51 04Serpukhovian 3264 3309 45 04Visean 3453 3467 14 04Tournaisian 3592 3589 ndash03 04

Devonian Famennian 3745 3722 ndash23 16Frasnian 3853 3827 ndash26 10Givetian 3918 3877 ndash41 08Eifelian 3975 3933 ndash42 12Emsian 407 4076 06 26Pragian 4112 4108 ndash04 28Lochkovian 416 4192 32 32

Silurian Pridoli 4187 4230 43 23Ludfordian 4213 4256 43 09Gorstian 4229 4274 45 05Homerian 4262 4305 43 07Sheinwoodian 4282 4334 52 08Telychian 436 4385 25 11Aeronian 439 4408 18 12Rhuddanian 4437 4438 01 15

Ordovician Hirnantian 4456 4452 ndash04 14Katian 4558 4530 ndash28 07Sandbian 4609 4584 ndash25 09Darriwilian 4681 4673 ndash04 11Dapingian 4718 4700 ndash18 14Floian 4786 4777 ndash09 14Tremadocian 4883 4854 ndash29 19

Cambrian Age 10 NA 4895 ~ 20Jiangshanian NA 494 ~ 20Paibian 501 497 4 ~ 20Guzhangian NA 5005 ~ 20Drumian NA 5045 ~ 20Age 5 ʻ513ʼ 509 ~ 4 10Age 4 NA 514 ~ 20Age 3 NA 521 ~ 20Age 2 NA 529 ~ 20Fortunian 542 541 ndash1 10

Ediacaran Series 1 635

Although radiometric ages can be more precise than zonal or fossil event assignments the unevenspacing and fluctuating accuracy and precision of bothradiometric ages and zonal composite scales demandsspecial statistical and mathematical techniques to cal-culate the geologic time scale this is outlined inGTS2012 by Agterberg et al (2012)

The assignment of error bars to ages of stage bound-aries first advocated by Gradstein et al (1994) at-tempts to combine the most up-to-date estimate of uncertainty in radiogenic isotope dating and in stra -tigraphic scaling into one number Although strati-graphic reasoning to arrive at uncertainties has a roleto play geosciences are no less than physics and chem-istry when it comes to assigning realistic error bars toits vital numbers Error estimates on GTS2012 strati-graphic boundaries are tabulated in Table 1

In GTS2004 error bars on stage boundary age esti-mate and stage durations were estimated using a Max-imum Likelihood fitting of a Functional Relationship(MLFR) regression of the rectified spline This splinefit interpolates high-resolution radiometric ages withscaled stages GTS2012 uses a more direct approachdetailed and executed by Oyvind Hammer with his program PAST (httpnhm2uiononorlexpast) for theOrdovician Silurian Carboniferous Permian Creta-ceous and Paleogene Periods in GTS2012 (see Agter-berg et al 2102) Given our spline fitting procedure andthe inaccuracy of the estimates of radiometric dates andstratigraphic positions we may ask how much an in-terpolated zonal boundary date would have varied if wecarried out the datingrsquos spline fitting and interpolationrepeatedly This is simulated by a Monte Carlo proce-dure picking random stratigraphic positions and dateswith distributions as given (normal or rectangular) andthen running the spline fitting anew with cross-valida-tion This is repeated say 10000 times producing a histogram of interpolated values from which a 95confidence interval can be derived The procedure iscomputer intensive for each of the 10000 Monte Car-lo replicates a number of splines must be computed inthe cross-validation procedure The uncertainties onolder stage boundaries systematically increase owingto potential systematic errors in the different radiogenicisotope methods rather than to the analytical precisionof the laboratory measurements In this connection wemention that biostratigraphic error is fossil event andfossil zone dependent rather than age dependent

Ages and durations of Neogene stages derived fromorbital tuning are considered to be accurate to within aprecession cycle (~ 20 kyr) assuming that all cycles are

correctly identified and that the theoretical astronom-ical-tuning for progressively older deposits is precisePaleogene dating combines orbital tuning radiometricand C-sequence splining hence stage ages uncertain-ty is larger and varies between 02 and 05 myr

GTS2012

Figure 6 is the new and global Geologic Time Scale created in 2012 (GTS2012) and Table 1 lists the modi-fied ages of stage boundaries in GTS2012 relative to ʻAGeologic Time Scale 2004ʼ (GTS2004) No ages shownfor stages in the GTS2004 column means there is nochange in age in GTS2012 with ʻNAʼ in the Cambrianreflecting absence of those stages when GTS2004 wasconceived Fifteen Phanerozoic stages got formally de-fined since 2004 about half with new definitions A majority of age changes in GTS2012 involves a combi-nation of improved radiometric methodology higherresolution interpolation methods and better correlationsbetween key sections Stages or series that changed by 2 Ma or more in GTS2012 are shown in red withBashkirian Artinskian Carnian Norian and Rhaetianchanging numerically most in age The latter three stagesalso were problematic in GTS2004 due to lack of agedates and uncertainty in correlations Interestingly Sil-urian stages all become (much) older and Ordovicianstages younger than in GTS2004 Where the 95 un-certainty estimate of a GTS2012 stage age exceeds theactual numerical age change such is marked in red also

Conclusion

Continual improvements in data coverage methodol-ogy and standardization of chronostratigraphic unitsimply that no geologic time scale can be final The newGeologic Time Scale 2012 provides detailed insight inthe most up-to-date geologic time scale and is the successor to Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS2004 by Gradstein et al 2004) and GTS1989 (Harland et al1990) Despite detailed and widespread documenta-tion of new time scales it is no surprise as Ruban(2011) points out that subjective deviations from thestandard time scale in geologic text books are not un-common Authors may prefer different geologic timescales because of deficiencies in distribution of stan-dards among the international geological communitychanges in the standards themselves or problems withapplying standard stratigraphy to regional geology


This points to the obvious that authoritative com-munication of updates to the standard time scale mustbe at a deliberate and slow pace to be effective Minorand quick updates need to be avoided Having a newand formal definition for a stage does not mean that the standard time scale should be updated Firstly re-definition of stages and correlations take many yearsto take effect in the scientific domain and secondly acceptance of a new age without updating existing cor-relation schemes leads to correlation errors Particu-larly in the mineral and petroleum industry the intro-duction of a new time scale demands extensive invest-ments in internal standardization and communicationand is not a trivial undertaking The only thing that isgained by the publication and introduction of minimalgeologic time scale changes is resentment by the usernot eager to re-calibrate data for ʻminorʼ reasons

Acknowledgements Geologic Time Scale 2012 wouldnot have been possible without the tremendous cooperationreceived from many colleagues and scientific organizationsover many years of research and compilation It is withthanks and pleasure that we here repeat the Dedication of thefourth edition of the Geologic Time Scale (Gradstein Ogg etal 2012) to the many scientists in the CHRONOS ProjectGeological Time Scale Next (GTSNext) the Earth TimeProjects and the International Commission of Stratigraphy(ICS) These programs and others champion and stronglysupport the compilation standardization enhancement nu-merical age-dating and international public distribution ofour progressive unraveling of Earthrsquos fascinating historyWerner Piller is thanked for his valuable review commentsthat improved the manuscript

References

Agterberg F P Hammer O Gradstein F M 2012 Statis-tical procedures In Gradstein et al The Geologic TimeScale 2012 Elsevier Publ Co

Cooper R A Sadler P M 2012 The Ordovician PeriodIn Gradstein et al The Geologic Time Scale 2012 Else-vier Publ Co

Davydov V I Korn D Schmitz M D 2012 The Car-boniferous Period In Gradstein et al The GeologicTime Scale 2012 Elsevier Publ Co

Dinaregraves-Turell J Baceta J I Pujalte V Orue-EtxebarriaX Bernaola G Lorito S 2003 Untangling the Palaeo -cene climatic rhythm an astronomically calibrated EarlyPalaeocene magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy atZumaia (Basque basin northern Spain) Earth Planet SciLett 216 483ndash500

Gould S J 1994 Introduction The coherence of historyIn Bengston S (Ed) Early Life on Earth Nobel Sym-posium 84 New York Columbia University Press 1ndash8

Gradstein F M Agterberg F P Ogg J G Hardenbohl Jvan Veen P Thierry T Huang Z 1994 A Mesozoictime scale Journal of Geophysical Research 99(B12)24051ndash24074

Gradstein F M Ogg J G Smith A G Agterberg F PBleeker W Cooper R A Davydov V Gibbard P Hinnov L A House M R (dagger) Lourens L LuterbacherH-P McArthur J Melchin M J Robb L J ShergoldJ Villeneuve M Wardlaw B R Ali J Brinkhuis HHilgen F J Hooker J Howarth R J Knoll A HLaskar J Monechi S Powell J Plumb K A Raffi IRoumlhl U Sanfilippo A Schmitz B Shackleton N JShields G A Strauss H Van Dam J Veizer J vanKolfschoten Th Wilson D 2004 A Geologic TimeScale 2004 Cambridge University Press 589 pp

Gradstein F M Ogg J G Schmitz M D Ogg G MAgterberg F P Anthonissen D E Becker T R CattJ A Cooper R A Davydov V I Gradstein S R Hen-derson C M Hilgen F J Hinnov L A McArthur J MMelchin M J Narbonne G M Paytan A Peng SPeucker-Ehrenbrink B Pillans B Saltzman M R Sim-mons M D Shields G A Tanaka K L VandenbergheN Van Kranendonk M J Zalasiewicz J Altermann WBabcock L E Beard B L Beu A G Boyes A FCramer B D Crutzen P J van Dam J A Gehling J GGibbard P L Gray E T Hammer O Hartmann W KHill A C Hoffman P F Hollis C J Hooker J JHowarth R J Huang C Johnson C M Kasting J FKerp H Korn D Krijgsman W Lourens L J Mac-Gabhann B A Maslin M A Melezhik V A NutmanA P Papineau D Piller W E Pirajno F Ravizza G ESadler P M Speijer R P Steffen W Thomas E Ward-law B R Wilson D S and Xiao S 2012 The Geolog-ic Time Scale 2012 Boston USA Elsevier XX pp

Gradstein F M Ogg J G 2012 The ChronostratigraphicScale In Gradstein et al The Geologic Time Scale 2012Elsevier Publ Co

Harland W B Armstrong R L Cox A V Craig L ESmith A G Smith D G 1990 A geologic time scale1989 Cambridge University Press 263 pp

Hilgen F J 1991 Extension of the astronomically calibrat-ed (polarity) time scale to the Miocene-Pliocene bound-ary Earth Planet Sci Lett 107 349ndash368

Hilgen F J Brinkhuis H Zachariasse W J 2006 Unitstratotypes for global stages The Neogene perspectiveEarth-Science Reviews 74 113ndash125

Hilgen F J Lourens L J Kuiper K F 2010 Evaluationof the astronomical time scale for the Paleocene and ear-liest Eocene Earth Plan SciLett 300 139ndash151

Holmes A 1965 Principles of Physical Geology NelsonLtd UK 1288 p

Huumlsing S K Kuiper K F Link W Hilgen F J Krijgs-man W 2009 Monte dei Corvi (Northern ApenninesItaly) a Mediterranean reference section for the Torton-ian Stage Earth Planet Sci Lett 282 140ndash157

Krijgsman W Hilgen F J Raffi I Sierro F J WilsonD S 1999 Chronology causes and progression of theMessinian salinity crisis Nature 400 652ndash655


Kuiper K F Deino A Hilgen F J KrijgsmanW RenneP R Wijbrans J R 2008 Synchronizing the RockClocks of Earth history Science 320(5875) 500ndash504

Langereis C G Hilgen F J 1991 The Rossello compos-ite A Mediterranean and global reference section for theEarly to early Late Pliocene Earth Planet Sci Lett 104211ndash225

Laskar J Robutel P Joutel F Gastineau M CorreiaA C M Levrard B 2004 A long term numerical solu-tion for the insolation quantities of the Earth Astronomyand Astrophysics 428 261ndash285

Lourens L J Hilgen F J Zachariasse W J Van HoofA A M Antonarakou A Vergnaud-Grazzini C 1996Evaluation of the Pliocene to early Pleistocene astronom-ical time scale Paleoceanography 11 391ndash413

Lourens L J Sluijs A Kroon D Zachos J C ThomasE Roumlhl U Bowles J Raffi I 2005 Astronomicalpacing of late Palaeocene to early Eocene global warm-ing events Nature 435 1083ndash1087

Ogg J G Ogg G Gradstein F M 2008 The Concise Geo logic Time Scale Cambridge Cambridge UniversityPress 177 pp

Ogg J G Hinnov L A 2012 The Cretaceous Period InGradstein et al The Geologic Time Scale 2012 ElsevierPubl Co

Plumb K A James H L 1986 Subdivision of Precam-brian time Recommendations and suggestions by thecommission on Precambrian stratigraphy PrecambrianResearch 32 65ndash92

Ruban D A 2011 Geologic timescales in modern booksa failure of standardization Proceedings of the Geolo-gistsrsquo Association 122 347ndash352

Salvador A (Ed) 1994 International stratigraphic guide a guide to stratigraphic classification terminology andprocedure 2nd ed Trondheim International Subcom-mission on Stratigraphic Classification of IUGS Interna-tional Commission on Stratigraphy 214 pp

Schmitz M D 2012 Radiogenic isotopes geochronologyIn Gradstein et al The Geologic Time Scale 2012 Else-vier Publ Co

Selby D 2007 Direct rhenium-osmium age of the Oxfor-dian-Kimmeridgian boundary Staffin Bay Isle of SkyeUK and the Late Jurassic geologic timescale NorwegianJournal of Geology 87 291ndash299

Van Dam J A Abdul Aziz H A Sierra M A A HilgenF J Van den Hoek L W Oostende F J Lourens L JMein P Van der Meulen A J Pelaez-Campomanes P2006 Long-period astronomical forcing of mammalturnover Nature 443 687ndash691

VandenBerghe N Hilgen F J Speijer R P 2012 The Pa-leogene Period In Gradstein et al The Geologic TimeScale 2012 Elsevier Publ Co

Van Kranendonk M 2012 The Precambrian the Archeanand Proterozoic Eons In Gradstein et al The GeologicTime Scale 2012 Elsevier Publ Co

Varadi F Runnegar B Ghil M 2003 Successive refine-ments in long-term integrations of planetary orbits As-trophys J 592 620ndash630

Manuscript received April 11 2012 rev version acceptedMay 7 2012


(1) the standard stratigraphic divisions and their corre-lation in the global rock record (2) the means of meas-uring linear time or elapsed durations from the rockrecord and (3) the methods of effectively joining thetwo scales the stratigraphic one and the linear one

In the last decade there have been major develop-ments in stratigraphic division and measuring lineartime that directly bear and have considerable impacton the World Geologic Time Scale 2012 GTS2012 details and explains the historical background princi-pal methodology current chronostratigraphy and newgeochronologic results in a systematic manner in32 chapters authored and co-authored by a team ofover 65 scientists (chapter collaborators not listed) asfollows

Introduction F M GradsteinChronostratigraphy linking time and rock F M Grad-stein and J G OggBiochronology F M GradsteinCyclostratigraphy and astrochronology L A Hinnovand F J HilgenThe geomagnetic polarity time scale J G OggRadiogenic isotopes geochronology M SchmitzStrontium isotope stratigraphy J M Mcarthur R J Ho -warth and G ShieldsOsmium isotope stratigraphy B Peucker-Ehrenbrinkand G RavizzaSulfur isotope stratigraphy A Paytan and E T GrayOxygen isotope stratigraphy E GrossmanCarbon isotope stratigraphy M Saltzman and E Tho -masA brief history of plants on Earth S R Gradstein andH KerpSequence chronostratigraphy M SimmonsStatistical procedures F P Agterberg O Hammer andF M GradsteinThe Planetary time scale K Tanaka and B HartmannThe Precambrian the Archean and Proterozoic EonsM Van Kranendonk et alThe Cryogenian Period G A Shields A C Hill andB A MacgabhannThe Ediacaran Period G Narbonne S Xiao andG A ShieldsThe Cambrian Period S Peng L Babcock andR A CooperThe Ordovician Period R A Cooper and P M SadlerThe Silurian Period M J Melchin P M Sadler andB D CramerThe Devonian Period T Becker F M Gradstein andO Hammer

The Carboniferous Period V Davydov D Korn andM SchmitzThe Permian Period Ch Henderson V Davydov andB WardlawThe Triassic Period J G OggThe Jurassic Period J G Ogg and L HinnovThe Cretaceous Period J G Ogg and L HinnovThe Paleogene Period N Vandenberghe F J Hilgenand R SpeijerThe Neogene Period F J Hilgen L Lourens andJ Van DamThe Quaternary Period B Pillans and P GibbardThe Prehistoric Human Time Scale J A Catt andM A MaslinThe Anthropocene J Zalasiewicz P Crutzen andW Steffen

Appendix 1 ndash Colour coding of Standard Stratigraph-ic UnitsAppendix 2 ndash M Schmitz GTS2012 RadiometricAgesAppendix 3 ndash E Anthonissen and J G Ogg Creta-ceous and Cenozoic Microfossil Biochronology

To ensure continuity between geologic periods and un-dertake error analysis the linear age scale using 265carefully recalibrated radiometric dates was construct-ed by F Gradstein O Hammer J Ogg and M Schmitzin close consultation with individual chapter authors

Precambrian

Precambrian is at the dawn of a geologically meaning-ful stratigraphic scale Several features of the currentinternational stratigraphic chart relating to the Pre-cambrian timescale have raised concern within the geological community primary among which is thechronometric scheme used for Eon Era and SystemPeriod boundaries that are based purely on round-number chronometric divisions and ignore geologyand stratigraphy (Plumb and James 1986 Fig 1) Thecurrent chronometric scheme for Precambrian time inFigure 1 was partly chosen because of a relative pauci-ty of potential biological-geological criteria Roundnumber divisions of the scheme has worked reason-ably well because there was relatively little precisegeochronological information available at the time ofcompilation more than 30 years ago to disprove thesebroad divisions The existing chronometric scheme is









~4568

Hadean(informal)

Cryogenian

Tonian

Statherian

Orosirian

Rhyacian

Siderian

Neo-proterozoic

Neoarchean

Meso-archean

Paleo-archean

Eoarchean

Stenian

Ectasian

Calymmian

Meso-proterozoic

Paleo-proterozoic

Arche

anProterozo

icPraec

ambrian

630

8501000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2050

2300

2500

2800

3200

3600

~4000

Eon Era AgeMaPeriod

Paleozoic

Cenozoic

Phan

ero-

zoic

Ediacaran 541

252

66Mesozoic

























Famennian

GivetianEifelian

LochkovianPragian

Frasnian

Emsian



Rhuddanian

P a

l e o

z o

i c

Pridoli

Ludlow

Wenlock

Llandovery

Upper

Middle

Lower

Devo

nian

Tremadocian

Darriwilian

Hirnantian

Paibian

Upper

Middle

Lower

Series 3

Stage 3Stage 2

Fortunian

Stage 5Drumian

Guzhangian


FloianDapingian

SandbianKatian

Stage 4Series 2

Terreneuvian

Furongian

Cam

brian

Ordo

vician

Silur

ianLopingian

Guadalupian

Cisuralian

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

Carb

onife

rous

Perm





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n-sy

lvan

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Calabrian

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ChattianRupelian

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Danian

Thanetian

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CampanianSantonian

TuronianConiacian

AlbianAptian

Berriasian

Barremian


Maastrichtian

Cenomanian

Piacenzian

MessinianZanclean

Gelasian

C e

n o

z o

i c

Cre

tace

ous

Pal

eoge

neN

eoge

ne

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Pleistocene

Upper

Lower

Holocene

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

M e

s o

z o

i c

Jura

ssic

Tria

ssic


OxfordianCallovian

BajocianBathonian

AalenianToarcian


OlenekianInduan

Qua

tern

ary

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d SeriesEpoch














Fuentelsaz Spain
























Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

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peP

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nzia

n U

nit-S

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type

10

20


40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100


ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

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FOR

MAT

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PO

LAR

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CY

CLE

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OLO

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La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

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MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

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LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

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S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

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436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

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298

284

300302304

502504506508510

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468470472474

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396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

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378380382

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372374

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316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

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278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

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MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

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3n2

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MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

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2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

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NZI

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4300

4188

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3330

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(Ma)

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CH

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A

-006 006 540 400






0m

5

10

15

25

20

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45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

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+

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seld

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b-E

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A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

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La2004Va03_R7

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163

162

161

160

159

158

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156

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154

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405-

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e

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ian

GSS

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lan

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nG

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Un

it s

trat

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Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References











































~4568

Hadean(informal)

Cryogenian

Tonian

Statherian

Orosirian

Rhyacian

Siderian

Neo-proterozoic

Neoarchean

Meso-archean

Paleo-archean

Eoarchean

Stenian

Ectasian

Calymmian

Meso-proterozoic

Paleo-proterozoic

Arche

anProterozo

icPraec

ambrian

630

8501000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2050

2300

2500

2800

3200

3600

~4000

Eon Era AgeMaPeriod

Paleozoic

Cenozoic

Phan

ero-

zoic

Ediacaran 541

252

66Mesozoic

























Famennian

GivetianEifelian

LochkovianPragian

Frasnian

Emsian



Rhuddanian

P a

l e o

z o

i c

Pridoli

Ludlow

Wenlock

Llandovery

Upper

Middle

Lower

Devo

nian

Tremadocian

Darriwilian

Hirnantian

Paibian

Upper

Middle

Lower

Series 3

Stage 3Stage 2

Fortunian

Stage 5Drumian

Guzhangian


FloianDapingian

SandbianKatian

Stage 4Series 2

Terreneuvian

Furongian

Cam

brian

Ordo

vician

Silur

ianLopingian

Guadalupian

Cisuralian

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

Carb

onife

rous

Perm





SerpukhovianVisean

Tournaisian

Pen

n-sy

lvan

ian

Mis

sis-

sipp

ian

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d

SeriesEpoch



















UpperMiddle

Calabrian

Selandian



Ypresian

ChattianRupelian

Priabonian

Danian

Thanetian

BartonianLutetian

CampanianSantonian

TuronianConiacian

AlbianAptian

Berriasian

Barremian


Maastrichtian

Cenomanian

Piacenzian

MessinianZanclean

Gelasian

C e

n o

z o

i c

Cre

tace

ous

Pal

eoge

neN

eoge

ne

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Pleistocene

Upper

Lower

Holocene

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

M e

s o

z o

i c

Jura

ssic

Tria

ssic


OxfordianCallovian

BajocianBathonian

AalenianToarcian


OlenekianInduan

Qua

tern

ary

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d SeriesEpoch














Fuentelsaz Spain
























Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

toty

peP

iace

nzia

n U

nit-S

trato

type

10

20


40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100


ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

ON

FOR

MAT

ION

PO

LAR

ITY

CY

CLE

LITH

OLO

GY



La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

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35

37

39

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43

45

47

49

51

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25

27

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31

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35

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43

45

47

49

51

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MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

PIC

CO

LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

A4

S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

GIL

BE

RT

MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

n3n

1r

3n2

n

MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

2An

2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

PIA

CE

NZI

AN

4300

4188

3596

3330

MN

N16

aV

VI

VII

MN

N1b

-17

GA

US

SM

AT

GE

L

2582

3032

3116

3207

MAMMOTH

KAENA

STA

GE

Age

(Ma)

Spa

ak 1

983

Rio

et a

l 1

990

CH

RO

NS

UB

CH

RO

NP

OLA

RIT

Y

Cita

197

5 (e

)

PUN

TA D

I M

AIA

TAP

G

TRU

BI

ERA

CLE

A M

INO

A

-006 006 540 400






0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe


Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References



























































Famennian

GivetianEifelian

LochkovianPragian

Frasnian

Emsian



Rhuddanian

P a

l e o

z o

i c

Pridoli

Ludlow

Wenlock

Llandovery

Upper

Middle

Lower

Devo

nian

Tremadocian

Darriwilian

Hirnantian

Paibian

Upper

Middle

Lower

Series 3

Stage 3Stage 2

Fortunian

Stage 5Drumian

Guzhangian


FloianDapingian

SandbianKatian

Stage 4Series 2

Terreneuvian

Furongian

Cam

brian

Ordo

vician

Silur

ianLopingian

Guadalupian

Cisuralian

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

Carb

onife

rous

Perm





SerpukhovianVisean

Tournaisian

Pen

n-sy

lvan

ian

Mis

sis-

sipp

ian

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d

SeriesEpoch



















UpperMiddle

Calabrian

Selandian



Ypresian

ChattianRupelian

Priabonian

Danian

Thanetian

BartonianLutetian

CampanianSantonian

TuronianConiacian

AlbianAptian

Berriasian

Barremian


Maastrichtian

Cenomanian

Piacenzian

MessinianZanclean

Gelasian

C e

n o

z o

i c

Cre

tace

ous

Pal

eoge

neN

eoge

ne

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Pleistocene

Upper

Lower

Holocene

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

M e

s o

z o

i c

Jura

ssic

Tria

ssic


OxfordianCallovian

BajocianBathonian

AalenianToarcian


OlenekianInduan

Qua

tern

ary

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d SeriesEpoch














Fuentelsaz Spain
























Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

toty

peP

iace

nzia

n U

nit-S

trato

type

10

20


40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100


ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

ON

FOR

MAT

ION

PO

LAR

ITY

CY

CLE

LITH

OLO

GY



La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

PIC

CO

LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

A4

S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

GIL

BE

RT

MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

n3n

1r

3n2

n

MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

2An

2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

PIA

CE

NZI

AN

4300

4188

3596

3330

MN

N16

aV

VI

VII

MN

N1b

-17

GA

US

SM

AT

GE

L

2582

3032

3116

3207

MAMMOTH

KAENA

STA

GE

Age

(Ma)

Spa

ak 1

983

Rio

et a

l 1

990

CH

RO

NS

UB

CH

RO

NP

OLA

RIT

Y

Cita

197

5 (e

)

PUN

TA D

I M

AIA

TAP

G

TRU

BI

ERA

CLE

A M

INO

A

-006 006 540 400






0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe


Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References





































UpperMiddle

Calabrian

Selandian



Ypresian

ChattianRupelian

Priabonian

Danian

Thanetian

BartonianLutetian

CampanianSantonian

TuronianConiacian

AlbianAptian

Berriasian

Barremian


Maastrichtian

Cenomanian

Piacenzian

MessinianZanclean

Gelasian

C e

n o

z o

i c

Cre

tace

ous

Pal

eoge

neN

eoge

ne

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Pleistocene

Upper

Lower

Holocene

Upper

Upper

Middle

Middle

Lower

Lower

M e

s o

z o

i c

Jura

ssic

Tria

ssic


OxfordianCallovian

BajocianBathonian

AalenianToarcian


OlenekianInduan

Qua

tern

ary

GSSPsStageEra

Perio

d SeriesEpoch














Fuentelsaz Spain
























Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

toty

peP

iace

nzia

n U

nit-S

trato

type

10

20


40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100


ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

ON

FOR

MAT

ION

PO

LAR

ITY

CY

CLE

LITH

OLO

GY



La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

PIC

CO

LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

A4

S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

GIL

BE

RT

MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

n3n

1r

3n2

n

MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

2An

2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

PIA

CE

NZI

AN

4300

4188

3596

3330

MN

N16

aV

VI

VII

MN

N1b

-17

GA

US

SM

AT

GE

L

2582

3032

3116

3207

MAMMOTH

KAENA

STA

GE

Age

(Ma)

Spa

ak 1

983

Rio

et a

l 1

990

CH

RO

NS

UB

CH

RO

NP

OLA

RIT

Y

Cita

197

5 (e

)

PUN

TA D

I M

AIA

TAP

G

TRU

BI

ERA

CLE

A M

INO

A

-006 006 540 400






0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe


Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References























































Zanclean GSSP

Piacenzian GSSP

Gelasian GSSP

Zanc

lean

Uni

t-Stra

toty

peP

iace

nzia

n U

nit-S

trato

type

10

20


40

30

50

0

70

80

90

60

130

120

110

100


ME

TER

S

SE

CTI

ON

FOR

MAT

ION

PO

LAR

ITY

CY

CLE

LITH

OLO

GY



La90(11) La90(11)

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

MO

NTE

NA

RB

ON

EPU

NTA

PIC

CO

LA

A1

A2A3

A5

A45

A4

S

S

S

SS

S

SS

SSS

112

111

110

109108107106105104103102101100999897969594939291908988878685848382818079

7778

76757473727170

6869

6766656463626160595857565554535251

4950

4748

464544

4243

4140

3837363534

3233

31302928

2625242322

21

1920

1817161514

1213

11

910

87

4

6

1

5

23

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

502504506508510

460

464

468470472474

488490492494496500

476478480482484486

438440442444

458

446448450452454456

436

424426428430432434

398400402404406408

396

386388390392394

410412414416418420

348350352354356358

346

338340342344

360362364366368370

378380382

376

372374

318320322326328

316

308310312314

330332334

258260

264

256

250252254

278280282

276

268

272

288290292

286

296294

298

284

300302304

Arenazzolo

p-cycle i-cycle

5236

4998

4896

4799

4632

4493

THVERA

SIDUFJALL

NUNIVAK

MP

L1M

PL2

III

ZAN

CLE

AN

GIL

BE

RT

MN

N12

3n4

n3r

3n2

r3n

3r

3n3

n3n

1r

3n2

n

MP

L3M

PL4

AIII

IV

3n1

n2A

r

MN

N13

MN

N14

-15

COCHITI2A

n3n

2An

2r2A

n2n

2An

1r2A

n1n

2r2

r

MP

L4B

MP

L5A

PIA

CE

NZI

AN

4300

4188

3596

3330

MN

N16

aV

VI

VII

MN

N1b

-17

GA

US

SM

AT

GE

L

2582

3032

3116

3207

MAMMOTH

KAENA

STA

GE

Age

(Ma)

Spa

ak 1

983

Rio

et a

l 1

990

CH

RO

NS

UB

CH

RO

NP

OLA

RIT

Y

Cita

197

5 (e

)

PUN

TA D

I M

AIA

TAP

G

TRU

BI

ERA

CLE

A M

INO

A

-006 006 540 400






0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe


Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References








































0m

5

10

15

25

20

30

35

40

45

50

13

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

11

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2223242526

27

12

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

n92C

n82C

r72C

r82C

r92C

n72C

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+++++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

seld

nu

b-E

ytiralo

P

Lithologiccolumn )a

Mni(

eg

A

0060

660

650

640

630

0060

635

645

655

625

620

615

La2004Va03_R7

6594065957

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

405-

kyr c

hro

noz

on

e

Dan

ian

GSS

PSe

lan

dia

nG

SSP

Dan

ian

Un

it s

trat

oty

pe


Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References




































Ages









Error bars




Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References





































Age

Period

Epoch AgeStage Age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Pale

ogene

Neogene

Quat

Pale

ocene

Eocene

Olig

ocene

Mio

cene

Plio-cene

Pleisto-cene

Holocene

Danian

Selandian

Thanetian

Ypresian

Lutetian

Bartonian

Priabonian

Rupelian

Chattian

Aquitanian

Burdigalian

Langhian

Serravallian

Tortonian

Messinian

Zanclean


660

616

592

560

478

412

378

339

281

230

204

1597

1382

1163

725

533

360

259181

078

Age

Period

Epoch

210

220

230

240

250

Triassic

Early

Middle

Late

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

Jura

ssic

Cre

taceous

Early

Middle

Late

Early

Late

25222500

2471

2415

2370

2284

2095

AgeAgeStage

2013

1993

1908

1827

1741

17031683

1661

1635

1573

1521

1450

1394

1339

1308

1263

1130

1005

939

898

863

836

721

InduanOlenekian

Anisian

Ladinian

Carnian

Norian

Rhaetian

Hettangian

Sinemurian

Pliens-bachian

Toarcian

AalenianBajocian

BathonianCallovian

Oxfordian

Kimmeridgian

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

ConiacianSantonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

4854

4777

47004673

4584

4530

4452443844084385

43344305427442564230

5410

5290

5210

5140

5090

5045

5005

49704940

4895

4192

41084076

3933

3877

3827

3722

3589

3467

3309

3232

3152

30703037

29892955

2901

2793

27232688

2651

2598

2542

425

450

475 Ord

ovic

ian

Cam

brian

Devonia

nS

ilurian

Early

Middle

Late

Llando-very

Wenlock

LudlowPridoli

500

525

Terre-neuvian

Epoch2

Epoch3

Furon-gian

Fortunian

Age 2

Age 3

Age 4Age 5

DrumianGuzhangian

Paibian

JiangshanianAge 10

375

400

Lochkovian

Pragian

Emsian

Eifelian

Givetian

Frasnian

Famennian

275

300

325

350

Carb

onifero

us

Perm

ian

Mis

sis

sip

pia

nP

ennsy

lvania

n

E

M

L

E

M

L

Cis-uralian

Guada-lupian

Lopin-gian

Tournaisian

Visean

Serpukhovian

Bashkirian

Moscovian


Sakmarian

Artinskian

Kungurian

RoadianWordian

Capitanian


Age

Period

Epoch AgeAgeStage

Tremadocian

Floian

Dapingian

Darriwilian

Sandbian

KatianHirnantian

RhuddanianAeronian

Telychian


GorstianLudfordian

Early

Middle

Late

Hadean(informal)

Arc

hean

Pro

tero

zoic

Eoarc

hean

Pale

o-

arc

hean

Meso-

arc

hean

Neo-

arc

hean

Pale

opro

tero

zoic

Mesopro

tero

zoic

Neopro

tero

zoic

Siderian

Rhyacian

Orosirian

Statherian

Calymmian

Ectasian

Stenian

Tonian

Cryogenian

Ediacaran

3600

4000

3200

2800

2500

2300

2050

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

850

635600

700

800

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

900

2000

2100

2200

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

2300

3400

3500

3600

3800

3900

4000

4100

4200

4300

4400

4500

3700

Age AgeEra

Eon

Period















Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References












































Table 1 Continued














GTS2012


Conclusion





References









































GTS2012


Conclusion





References






































References




































On The Geologic Time Scale -...

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