ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF OLIVE CULTIVARS (Olea europaea Linn. cv. pendolino and Olea

ferruginea Royle) GROWN IN ALMORA HILLS, KUMAUN HIMALAYA,

UTTARAKHAND

THESIS

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN

BOTANY (2008)

BY

PRABHAKAR JOSHI M.Sc. Botany

UNDER

THE SUPERVISION OF

Dr. K.R.VERMA Prof., Department Of Botany

Kumaun University, S.S.J. Campus, Almora

FACULTY OF SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, KUMAUN UNIVERSITY

SOBAN SINGH JEENA CAMPUS ALMORA 263601 (UTTARAKHAND) INDIA

Enrolment No. KU- 965712 2008

FONDLY DEDICATED TO..

My Heavenly Grandfather and

Grandmother

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Prabhakar Joshi, M.Sc. Botany has carried

out the research work for the award of Ph.D. degree on the topic

entitled, Ecophysiology of Olive Cultivars (Olea europaea Linn. cv.

pendolino and Olea ferruginea Royle) Grown in Almora Hills,

Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand under my supervision at the

Department of Botany, Kumaun University, Soban Singh Jeena

Campus, Almora, Uttarakhand.

The work presented embodies the original work of the candidate. The

candidate has put in more than two hundred days of research work in

the Department of Botany, K.U.S.S.J. Campus, Almora in

supplicating for the Ph.D. degree.

Almora Supervisor Dated: (K.R. Verma) Professor, Department of Botany, K.U.S.S.J.Campus,

Almora, Uttarakhand

DECLARATION

I here by declare that the research work entitled, Ecophysiology of

Olive Cultivars (Olea europaea Linn. cv. pendolino and Olea

ferruginea Royle) Grown in Almora Hills, Kumaun Himalaya,

Uttarakhand is my own work carried out in the laboratory of

Department of Botany, Kumaun University, Soban Singh Jeena

Campus, Almora, Uttarakhand.

Further, no part of thesis was earlier submitted for the award of

research degree in our or any other university or examining body in

India or in any other country.

Almora Dated: (Prabhakar Joshi)

Department of Botany, Kumaun University,

S.S.J.Campus, Almora, Uttarakhand

I come bearing an Olive branch in one hand, and the freedom fighters gun in the other. Do not let the Olive branch fall from my hand.

YASSER ARAFAT

Palestine Leader Nobel Laureate in 1993

Flag of the United Nations enclosed in Olive

branches

The flag of the United Nations was adopted on October 20, 1947. The flag has the official emblem of the United Nations in white on a blue background. The emblem is composed of an azimuthally equidistant projection of a world map (less Antarctica) centered on the North Pole, enclosed in olive branches. The olive branches are a symbol for peace, and the world map represents all the people of the world.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (a body independent of but reporting to the United Nations) has a flag with the same colours and olive leaves as the United Nations. The central symbol is a Rutherford model atom. The flag of the World Food Programme has the olive leaves of the UN flag, with a hand clutching grains in the center, in place of the globe. The white/blue colors of the UN flag are reversed in the WFP flag. A proposed flag for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly uses the same colors and olive branches and uses the cartographic elements of the globe to create what appear to be parliamentary benches.

THESIS CONTENTS TITLES PAGE NO. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I-III PREFACE IV-VI CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1-22 CHAPTER 2: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITES 23-30 CHAPTER 3: METEOROLOGICAL DATA 31-41 CHAPTER 4: GROWTH BEHAVIOUR OF OLIVE SAPLINGS 42-91 CHAPTER 5: APPLICATION OF F.Y.M. AND FERTILIZERS (N, P, K) ON GROWTH OF OLIVE SAPLINGS 92-129 CHAPTER 6: STRUCTURAL ATTRIBUTES OF OLIVE 130-150 CHAPTER 7: OLIVE BOTANY 151-169 CHAPTER 8: SOXHLET EXTRACTION & ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE OF OLIVE 170-205 CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY 206-216 REFERENCES 217-228

ACCEPTED RESEARCH PAPER / ABSTRACTS 229-231

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGENTS

Those who have dedicated their lives to the field of research or have

successfully carried on research in any academic sphere, realize the

importance of guidance extended to research students who are

completely no vice field. Guides pains taking perseverant and sincere

beaconing have led many a fellow traveler of academic pursuits to

described destination. For a no vice traveler like me to express a

complete sense of gratitude to my guide Dr. K.R.Verma, Professor,

Department Of Botany, Kumaun University, Soban Singh Jeena

Campus, Almora, through words in this monograph is absolutely

impossible, for it is more matter of realization than expression.

My sincere thanks are also due to Prof. K.N. Pandey, Head,

Department Of Botany, K.U.S.S.J.Campus, Almora for constant

inspiration throughout the whole tenure of study and providing me

the must needed departmental facilities as and when required.

I will be failing in my duty if I do not express my sincere gratitude to

all of our respected teachers Prof. P.C. Pandey, Dr. R. C. Gupta, Dr.

S.S. Gahelain, Dr. (Mrs.) Hema Joshi, and Dr. R.L. Fotedar of Botany

Department for their valuable suggestions, encouragement and good

wishes.

I acknowledge with thanks to the Director, V.P.K.A.S. (I.C.A.R.),

G.B.P.I.H.E&D. and F.R.I., Dehradun for providing me according

necessary library and laboratory facilities.

The present work has been initiated and completed with the help of

several people. It is my primary duty to express my deep gratitude to

Station In charge, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Horticulture Research & Extension

Center, Dhakarani, Dehradun for providing me his farm area to

collect several field data and for extensive survey of the olive gardens,

Dr. V.K. Dhore, D.H.O. Almora and Mr. Pathak, Station In charge,

Matela Farm (Kosi), Almora for their keen help and giving me the

permission to work in their respective farm areas during this research

work.

Many people have facilitated the initiation and completion of this

work. I am extremely especially indebted to Dr. G.S. Rawat, Head

Dept. Of Geography, K.U.S.S.J.Campus, Almora and Shri Vinod Singh

Rawat, NRDMS, Almora center for their kind help, constant

inspiration and valuable guidance throughout the course of this

study. I record my deep gratitude and thanks to Dr. D.L.Verma,

Reader, Dept. Of Chemistry, K.U.S.S.J.Campus, Almora for his

precious suggestion and supervision. I am also thankful to Dr. A.S.

Chandel- I.N.M., Project Director, ATMA, Vikas Bhawan & Mr. Manoj

Kumar- ATO Atma Project & Specialist, soil testing Multiplex for their

kind help. I owe special thanks to Mr. Abhishek Yadav for facilitating

table ANOVA preparations and Mr. Santosh Pathak for his constant

help in formatting and other related works.

I express my special thanks to Mrs. Dr. Manjulata Upadhyaya,

women scientist and other research scholars (Prangya, Lalit, Urmi,

Deepti, Nidhi, Deepa, Kalpana, Mayank, Prakash, Vijay, Gyan, Sumit,

Nisha, Shweta, Sanyukta, Beena and others) of Botany Department,

K.U.S.S.J.Campus, Almora for their constant help and co-operation

throughout the course of research work.

This acknowledgement would be incomplete if I fail to express my

thankfulness to all my seniors, colleagues and friends (Mr. Mayank

Singh, Mr. Sanjay Purohit, Sagar, Amit, Nishit, Iram and others)

working in various disciplines at this campus and outside, for their

cordial cooperation, inspiration and encouragement. Without their

help and inspiration it was a herculeus task for me to submit the

thesis and to make this publication possible.

I express heartfelt gratitude to my Uncle Sri H. C. Joshi and family

(Dehradun), present neighbor Shri U. C. Pandey and family (Almora)

for their selfless help in providing material collection, facilitating in

experimental plots preparation and unceasing encouragement

throughout the course of study.

Lastly but not least, overwhelmed with emotions and sentiments I am

unable to express my sense of obligation for filial encouragement

received from my dear parents Sri. M.C. Joshi & Smt. Tanuja Joshi,

Sisters Kiran, Pratibha and Brother Gaurav for their cheering

support, lovable inspiration and encouragement without which the

finalization of the present study was impossible.

DATE: (PRABHAKAR JOSHI)

PREFACE

OLIVE TREE: A SPIRITUAL CREATION

The tree of friendship - The tree of peace - The tree of fertility

We think that the olive tree was especially made for Greece, so well

does it thrive in most regions of the country. It loves the sea and the

sun and for this reason coastal areas where it is assured of the

climatic conditions it needs and a suitable ecosystem for the tree to

grow and bear fruit. It seeks a mild Mediterranean climate on the

coast, on the islands and on the mainland, while Aristotle elevated

olive cultivation to a science.

The olive tree was a symbol of prudence, peace, winning and fertility.

The winners at the Olympic Games received a garland made of wild

olive tree. The Acropolis of long, long ago is always depicted with an

ancient olive tree growing on it which (according to mythology) the

goddess Athena caused to spring up so that she could win the favor of

the inhabitants of the city which spread out into the Attica Basin. The

olive and its oil also held a special position in the Orthodox religion; it

was a symbol of love and peace, an essential part of several solemn

rites, from the service of baptism to the oil lamps used in churches

and the little shrine that is part of every Greek household.

The love and long esteem of the Greek olive-grower for the olive tree

is passed on from generation to generation and from family to family.

With the birth of a child an olive tree is planted which will grow and

develop along with the child. When the child starts school at the age

of seven, the olive tree is ready to produce its fruit. The blessed tree

grows up with the family, only it will have a much longer life and will

still be around to be tended by next generation, and the one after that,

yielding its annual crop of olives in return for the labor and love

expended on it. For the Greek producer, olive growing is not just a

job, it is his whole life. It is life itself and that is exactly how he views

it.

Olea L. (family Oleaceae) is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs

distributed in the warm temperate and sub-tropical regions of the old

world. The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the

family Oleaceae, native to coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean

region, from Syria and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern

Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. Its fruit, the olive, is of

major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the

source of olive oil.

It has been introduced and experimentally grown in some parts of

India, while the wild olive Olea ferruginea Royle (Syn. cuspidata) is

already growing as wild tree in the Western Himalaya from Kashmir

to Kumaun up to an altitude of 2400 m. Wild olive is also reported

from the Garhwal region of the North-West Himalaya. Olive shows

higher production, greater adaptability to different environmental

conditions (including wider pH and climatic variations) and

therefore, it has potential for wider geographical expansion.

The programme of work was performed in an experimental plot at

Almora where two different olive cultivars one Italian exotic species

viz. Olea europaea cv. pendolino and second local wild species viz.

Olea ferruginea have been planted. Different selected combinations

of F.Y.M. and fertilizers (N, P, and K) were applied to the saplings of

above plant species to check the growth performance. In spite of these

parameters, some other ecological and structural attributes were also

tested for their growth.

The olive oil extracted from olive fruits has many chemical, physical

and nutritional properties in common with the imported olive oil of

commercial value. It is used chiefly as a salad oil, in the manufacture

of soap, cosmetic preparations, textile lubricants, sulphonated oils,

babies massage and skin oil. Indias requirements of olive oil are met

by imports, mainly from European countries. Since inferior quality of

olive oil is imported by paying Dollars. The state of Uttarakhand

comes under subtropical to warm temperate which suits the growth of

olive plants. Two wild species of olive are already growing in Western

Himalaya, therefore, if attracted me to see whether good cultivars of

olive can be grown and harvested for good quality of olive oil or not.

Because of its high price value, its import from European countries is

a very costly affair; therefore, it prompted me to work out on some

eco physiological attributes, oil output and performance of olive

plants in Almora hills of Kumaun Himalaya in Uttarakhand State.

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The Olive tree is the richest gift of Heaven.

-Thomas Jefferson

The Olive (Olea europaea L.), a symbol of prosperity and peace, is a sub-

tropical, evergreen tree, native to Western Asia (Anon, 1966 & 2003;

Bhattacharjee, 2001) and belongs to the family Oleaceae (Anon, 1966;

Uphof, 1968; Britannica, 1991; Wagner et al.,1999; Hutchinson, 2000;).It is

a shrub or tree, varying in height from a few meters, in exceptional cases, to

30 meters (80 to 100 feet) (Bianchini & Corbetta, 1979).

The tree is extensively grown in countries bordering the Mediterranean

climate between 300 to 45

0 latitudes in both the hemispheres (Anon, 1966).

Olive was a native to Asia Minor and spread from Iran, Syria and Palestine

to the rest of the Mediterranean basin 6,000 years ago. It is among the oldest

known cultivated tree in the world, being grown before written language was

invented. Because of its long life, hardiness and adaptability to areas where

it may be the only type of tree that can be farmed, different cultivation

techniques, beliefs and traditions have evolved (Kiritsakis, 1991).

The description of olive tree has been also discussed by some Indian

workers (Pandey, 1984; Salunkhe & Desai, 1986; Singh et al. 1986; Mitra,

1997) and many other foreign workers (Troup, 1886; Macmillon, 1935;

Hayes, 1945; Brooks & Hesse, 1953; Kester & Hartmann, 1976; Sigmunt &

Gustav, 1991) etc.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT

The Olive has a history almost as long as that of Western civilization, its

development being one of civilized mans first accomplishments. The origin

of the Olive tree is lost in time. Its expansion coincides with the civilizations

that developed in the Mediterranean from east to west. The most recent

analysis of ancient botany confirms that wild olive trees existed around the

Mediterranean. Various fossilized olive tree leaves and fragments of oleaster

pits that have been found in Neolithic and Bronze Age excavations allow us

to state that there were olive trees there in the XII millennium B.C. But

probably their ancestors had appeared in the Villefranche period according

to some authors, or in the Tertiary Age according to others. Since then, they

spontaneously grew and developed around the margins of the Mare Nostrum

(Mediterranean). Subsequently, Olive growing spread to other countries

adjoining the Mediterranean Sea (Anon, 1962).

The Olive was most probably originated in the Mediterranean region (Zeven

& Zhukovsky, 1975). While exploring the history of Olive cultivars based

on there genetic studies presented archaeological evidence concerning Olive

cultivation Loukas and Krimbas (1983). They reported that the most ancient

indications of Olive cultivation were found during excavations in the eastern

Mediterranean region. From the east coast of the Mediterranean, this

cultivation extended around the Mediterranean basin. During the diffusion of

Olive cultivation the cultivar initially selected was hybridized with various

local wild types to achieve better adaptation and to increase the variability

among the cultivated varieties (Harlan, 1966).

Three hundred five years later, the Olive was brought to America by the

Spanish colonist and Missionaries. Finally Mediterranean emigrants

introduced this into South Africa and Australia. It has been grown on Crete

by 3000 B.C. and may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan

Kingdom. Until 1400 B.C., olive cultivation spread from Crete to Syria,

Palestine and Israel; commercial networking and application of new

knowledge then brought it to Southern Turkey, Cyprus and Egypt. Greece

and Phoenicia (today Lebanon) became the most important countries for

Olive cultivation and oil production. In the 4th century B.C., Greek writers

Theophrastus and Aristophanes mentioned about 15 Olive varieties (Godini,

1991).

With the expansion of the Greek colonies, the Greek and the Phoenicians

brought Olive cultivation to Southern Italy and Northern African regions

respectively, then spread into Southern France. During the Roman Empire,

as a result of Roman travels and invasions the species and its cultivation

reached the largest diffusion in all countries facing the Mediterranean Sea.

During the first century A.D., Roman writers Columella, Pliny and Virgil

wrote about the species, its varieties and cultivation techniques. Columella

called the Olive the first of all trees. According to the Historian Pliny,

Italy had excellent Olive oil at reasonable prices by the first century A.C.,

the best in the Mediterranean, he mentioned (Godini, 1991).

Olive culture has ancient roots. It is not known exactly when the wild olive

became a domesticated crop. Fossilized remains of the Olive trees ancestor

were found near Livorno in Italy, dating from twenty million years ago,

although actual cultivation probably did not occur in that area until the fifth

century B.C. The olive tree was brought from Asia Minor to Greece by

Cecropia, who according to the tradition founded Athens in the year 1582

B.C. The ancient inhabitants of Greece, who were familiar with the wild

olive tree, imported cultivated ones and techniques for oil production from

the Eastern Mediterranean.

Its cultivation in Italy started in the seventh century B.C. during the realm of

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, called "the Old", the fifth legendary king of

Rome, and reached its splendor in the second and third centuries. The olive

tree continued its expansion towards the Gallia (France), where it was

brought by the founders of Marseille, called Phoenicians, around 600 years

B. C. After the Punic Wars, the Romans reached Africa, and they found out

that the Berbers were already cultivating the olive tree and that in the

Carthaginian territories a true olive culture existed since the ninth century

B.C. In the north of Africa it was introduced by the Phoenicians, who began

the colonization of Western Mediterranean. The Aegean Sea, Cyprus, Crete,

Sardinia and the North of Africa were further milestones in this colonizing

process. In Spain at the Dawn of History, by R. J. Harrison, it is stated that

towards 3000 B.C. olives were harvested and eaten in Spain.

Its cultivation, nevertheless, was introduced there by the Phoenicians,

probably from their bases in Northern Tunisia in the eighth and seventh

centuries B.C. It was from the seventh and sixth centuries on that the

cultivation of the olive tree in Spain took hold especially in the Baetica

(present Andalusia) under the Carthaginian domination, and in Eastern and

Northeastern Spain under the influence of the Greek colonizers. The first

"golden age" of the Andalucian olive grove coincides with the Roman

period, from third century B. C. until the second century A. D. It was then

that the oil exports from the Baetica to Rome peaked.

The origin of this cultivation seems to be located in a wide region of Asia

Minor, limited by the Caucasian Mountains, Iran and the Coast of Syria and

Palestine (Vavilov, 1951) (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1

Expansion of the Olive Tree in Mediterranean Basin

Other authors, however, have placed the origin of this culture in Afghanistan

because in this country there are different species of the Oleaceae family

probably related to the cultivated variety (Almeida, 1963).

Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean

climate, such as South Africa, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean

Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and California. Considerable research

has been accumulated supporting the health benefits of consuming olives;

olive leaf and olive oil.The plant and its products are frequently referred to

in the Bible, the Qur'an and by the earliest recorded poets. Farmers in

ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than

a short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 staid (55.6 km) as the

limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing

a preference for the coast, it has long been grown further inland in some

areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean

(Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are milder.

In ancient times, the Olive tree was so appreciated as to be associated with

religions and gods. It has a history almost as long as that of western

civilization, its development being one of mans first accomplishments. At a

site in Spain, carbon-dating has shown olive seed there to be eight thousand

years old. Through the centuries, the Olive tree has been regarded as part of

the social and cultural traditions of every country and region in which it has

been grown. In fact, in the holy Bible (Genesis-9), we read that it was an

Olive twig that Noahs dove brought back to show that the flood is abated

(Hutchinson, 2000).Ever since this evergreen tree has been regarded as the

emblem of peace and abundance. Figure 1.2 shows a scanned article

published in Sarvottam Reader Digest, Year 1989 denoting the importance

of olive tree.

Fig. 1.2

Matter taken from the Sarvottam Reader Digest, Year 1989,

pp. 47-50

The Iliad and the Odyssey also contain numerous references to the olive tree,

the tree of Athena. Homer in the Iliad compares the fall of Euforbos,

defeated by Melenaus in the battlefield, to the fall of the olive tree that

......"grows handsome, agitated by all kinds of winds, covered with white

flowers, that suddenly, when a hurricane comes, is from the earth uprooted

and thrown to the ground. Olive trees were exceptional witnesses to the

sufferings of Jesus Christ in the Orchard of Gethsemani, the Mount of

Olives. The Koran mentions it reverently more than two hundred times.

Finally, Picasso, the painter from Malaga, of universal fame, selected as

symbol of peace a dove carrying a branch of olive tree in its beak.

The Olive trees on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem are reputed to be over

2000 years old, still relative newcomers, considering the long domestication

of the Olive. We dont know the exact variety of the trees on the Mount. The

Olive tree has been manipulated by Man for so many thousand of years that

it is unclear which varieties came from which other varieties. Varieties in

one country have been found to be identical to differently named varieties in

another. Some research is now being done using gene mapping techniques to

figure out the Olive family tree. Shrub like feral Olives still exist in the

Middle East which represent the original stock from which all other Olives

are descended. In the past several hundred years, the Olives have spread to

North and South America, Japan, New Zealand and Australia. In the Arabian

Andalusia, the olive tree was cultivated with extreme love, so that the

Andalucian land was transformed into a compact forest of well groomed

olive trees.

The expansion of the olive tree in the New World was undertaken by the

Spanish Conquistadors from the beginning of the Sixteenth Century.

The olive tree reached the United States, concretely California, in the

Eighteenth Century, when it was introduced by Fray Junipero Serra, founder

of the San Diego de Alcala mission. Years later olive trees were planted by

Franciscan fathers in the missions they established along the 600 miles of

the Californian cost. Presently, the olive tree variety called "mission" is

related to those foundations.

It is not clear when and where the olive tree was first domesticated: in Asia

Minor in the 6th millennium; in Palestine or Syria in the 4th; or somewhere

in the Fertile Crescent in the 3rd. Recent genetic studies suggest that modern

cultivars descend from multiple wild ancestors, but the detailed history of

domestication is not yet understood. Drought hardiness down through

thousands of years, the olive tree has proved to be very drought hardy. When

many other trees have died, the olive tree has always been amongst the few

survivors. Unlike many other fruit orchards, an olive grove can be neglected

for a number of years and then simply be rejuvenated to bring it back

into production.

THE HISTORY OF OLIVE PRODUCTION

The olive tree grew wild in the Middle East and its fruits have been used

since prehistoric times. Along with the vine, the olive tree was one of the

first plants to be cultivated and the practice spread from Central Persia and

Mesopotamia to Egypt and Phoenicia and then to Greece. The Greeks, more

specifically the Minoans of Crete, were the first to be involved in the full-

scale cultivation of the olive. After 2000 BC the cultivation of the olive tree

in Crete was very intense and systematic playing a primary role in the

islands economy. Between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC ancient

philosophers, physicians and historians undertook its botanical classification

and referred to the curative properties of olive oil. This knowledge is being

rediscovered today as modern scientists try to find out why the

Mediterranean Diet is so healthy.

The first export of olive oil began from Crete, not only to mainland Greece,

but also to North Africa and Asia Minor. In addition, it was probably the

Minoans of Crete who first exported olive cuttings to these regions.

Cultivation of the olive tree quickly spread to mainland Greece and olive oil

became an important part of the society and economy of the Mycenaean

civilization. The deciphering of Linear B script brought to light valuable

information about the production, commerce and trading of olive oil during

this period as can be seen in the palace records of Mycenae and Pylos.

In the 6th century BC, Solon, the great Athenian legislator, drafted the first

laws protecting the olive tree including prohibition of its uncontrolled

felling. A number of facts demonstrate the link between the olive tree and

social activities in ancient Greece. Most of us are familiar with the tradition

of awarding an olive branch to winners at the ancient athletic games. A

lesser known tradition is that the winners of Athens most important games,

the Panathenaea, were awarded huge amounts of olive oil (as much as 5

tons) stored in special amphorae known as Panathenaic Amphorae. Given

that winners of the Panathenaic Games were exempt from Athenian

legislation prohibiting the export of olive oil one can easily imagine how

wealthy any winner could become!

During the classical period when Athens reached the peak of its power, the

Greeks exported olive oil throughout the known world. When the Romans

occupied Greece oil production continued and spread to other parts of the

empire, as it did during the years of the Byzantine Empire. Due to the large

tracts of land owned by monasteries during this period, a great part of the

total production was the work of monks. The Byzantine Empire included

almost half of the olive oil producing areas in the known world and the

product was widely exported. When the Turks conquered Greece the

production of olive oil was not affected. The product itself was kept alive

through the traditional Greek way of life, and was even used for religious

purposes. During this time the olive tree and its oil had special significance

in the Christian Church; it was a symbol of love and peace, an essential part

of several solemn rites from baptism to its use in the oil lamps seen in

churches and the little shrine that is part of every Greek household. After

liberation, the olive tree areas were separated according to Greek law into

private properties (those areas which had belonged to the Greeks under

occupation), and the national areas (those areas which had belonged to the

Turks).

OIL HISTORY

The Manufacture of Oil, drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth

Century. Besides food, olive oil has been used for medicines, as a fuel in oil

lamps, to make soap, as bodily decoration and as a sexual lubricant. The

importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the word

"oil" actually derives from the same root as "olive".

Fourteen hundred years ago, the Prophet of Islam Muhammad advised his

followers to apply Olive oil to their bodies and himself used oil on his head.

The use of oil is found in many religions and cultures. It has been used

during special ceremonies and also as a general health measures. During

baptism in the Christian church, holy oil, which is often Olive oil, may be

used for ointment. At the Chrism, mass Olive oil, blessed by the bishop,

Chrism is used in the ceremony. Like the grape, the Christian missionaries

brought the Olive tree with them to California for food and ceremonial uses.

Olive oil was used to anoint the early kings of the Greeks and Jews. The

Greeks anointed winning athletes. Olive oil has also been used to anoint the

dead in many cultures.

Homer called it liquid gold (Homer, "Odyssey, book 5"). In ancient

Greece, athletes ritually rubbed it all over their body. Its mystical glow

illuminated history. Drops of it seeped into the bones of dead saints and

martyrs through holes in their tombs. Olive oil has been more than mere

food for people of the Mediterranean. It has been used as medicinal,

magical, an endless source of fascination, wonder and the fountain of great

wealth and power. The Olive tree, symbol of abundance, glory and peace,

gave its leafy branches to crown the victorious in friendly games and bloody

war, and the oil of its fruit has anointed the noblest of heads throughout the

history. Olive crowns and Olive branches, emblem of benediction and

purification, were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures: some were

even found in Tutankhamens tomb.

Olives trees dominated the rocky Greek countryside and became pillars of

Hellenic society; they were so sacred that those who cut one down were

condemned to death or exile. In ancient Greece and Rome, Olive oil was the

hottest commodity; advanced ships were built for the sole purpose of

transporting it from Greece to trading post around the Mediterranean.

In scriptural and classical writings the oil is mentioned as a symbol of

goodness and purity, and the tree as representing peace and happiness. The

oil, in addition to its wide use in diet, was burnt in the sacred lamps of

temples, while the victor in the Olympic Games was crowned with its leaves

(Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 (a & b)

Indian trap shooter Major Rajyawardhan Singh Rathore,

Silver medalist in Double trap shooting event; Silver medalist

Swetlana Khorkina (Left) of Russia & Gold medalist Carly

Patterson (Right) of U.S., in the womens individual all-round

Gymnastic event were crowned with the olive leaves at Athens

Olympic, 2004

[These photographs were taken from the daily Amar Ujala and

The Times of India, in the year 2004]

b

a

The belief that Olive oil conferred strength and youth was widespread. In

ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome, it was infused with flowers and with

grasses to produce both medicine and cosmetics; a list was excavated in

Mycenae enumerating the aromatics (fennel, sesame, clery, water cress, mint

sage, rose and juniper among others) added to Olive oil in the preparation of

ointments.

Olive trees have an almost titanic resistance, a vital force which renders

them nearly immortal. Despite harsh winters and burning summers, despite

truncation, they continue to grow, proud and strong reaching towards the

sky, bearing fruit that nourishes and heals inspires and amazes. Temperate

climatic conditions characterized by warm dry summers and rainy winters,

favors plentiful harvests; stone, drought, silence and solitude are the ideal

habitat for the majestic Olive tree. Italy and Spain are now the most prolific

producers of Olive oil, although Greece is still very active. There are about

thirty varieties of Olives growing in Italy today, and each yields particular

oil with its own unique characteristics.

Athens is named for the Goddess Athena who brought the Olive to the

Greeks as a gift Zeus had promised to give Attica to the God or Goddess

who made the most useful invention. Athenas gift of the Olive, useful for

light, heat, food, medicine and perfume was picked as a more peaceful

invention than Poseidons horse touted as a rapid and powerful instrument of

war. Athena planted the original Olive tree on a rocky hill which we know

today as the Acropolis. The Olive trees which grow there today is said to

have come from the roots of the original tree.

MYTH AND LEGEND

Of all the ancient people only Assyrians and Babylonians did not know the

olive tree. It, however, occupies a prominent place in ancient books. The

Bible provides us with one of the oldest quotations regarding its legend. The

book of Genesis narrates that after the "universal flood", around the fourth

millennium B. C., "Noah awaited seven days, after which he freed a dove,

which returned with an olive tree branch in its beak as sign that the deluge

had ended".

In ancient Greece, a quarrel erupted between Pallas Athena, beloved

daughter of Zeus, and Poseidon, the god of the sea, for the sovereignty of the

city of Athens and the right to confer the name to the city that Cecrops

would found. Both intended to give to the Attica the best possible present.

Poseidon offered a speedy horse capable of carrying man and helping in his

works. Pallas Athena had an olive tree appear, capable of providing man

with light and food, curing his illnesses and alleviating his evils. After

deliberating, the council of gods decided to confer victory to Pallas Athena,

who had promised the most valuable present. It was with oil that Auricle

anointed the body of Ulysses, the hero. Of olive tree wood was the log that

killed Polyphemus. Such was the veneration for this tree that an old Jewish

law forbids the destruction of any productive olive tree, even if owned by an

enemy. In the Book of Judges, of the Ancient Testament, a legend is told

that confirms this tree as supreme among all the tree species and speaks of

the special wisdom held by the users of its fruit.

There are about 788 million olive trees in the world on a cultivated area of

8.4 million ha; approximately 96% of the planting is located in the

Mediterranean area and its surroundings. Olive products account for almost

25% of the farming income in this area as a whole. In a world context, olive

oil only represents 4% of the edible oils, and production is concentrated in

Spain, Italy and Greece, where 80% of the total olive oil (1.8 million tons

per annum) is produced. World production of olive fruit is about 9 million

tons per annum. Approximately 92% of this production is used for the

extraction of olive oil and the remaining 8% is consumed as table olives

(Mezzardi & Mate, 1995).

Oleaceae comprises 200 genera and 500 species worldwide. There are at

least five natural subspecies distributed over a wide range:

Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Europe)

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from Eritrea and Ethiopia south throughout

East Africa, also in Iran to China)

Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries)

Olea europaea subsp. maroccana (Morocco)

Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)

Following five species of olive- Olea europaea, O. ferruginea, O.

glandulifera, O. gamblei, and O. diocia are found in India.

Olea europaea (common olive) has been introduced and experimentally

grown in some parts of India (Anonymous, 1966). The tree is propagated by

cuttings; grafting and budding of O. europaea on Indian Olive, O.

ferruginea has proved successful.

The wild olive Olea ferruginea Royle (Syn. Olea cuspidata) is already

growing as wild tree in the Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaun up

to an altitude of 2400m. This species is closely related to Olea europaea

(Anonymous, 1966; Luna, 1996).

Olea diocia Roxb. is found in the Eastern Himalayas, Duars, Assam and in

the Eastern Peninsula chiefly in Western Ghats.

Olea glandulifera Wall. is a handsome, medium sized to large tree, up to 27

m. in height and 3 m. in girth, found in the outer Himalayas from Kashmir to

Nepal up to an altitude of 1,800 m., and in the hills of South India; it is

usually found along bank of rivers and in the shady ravines.

O. gamblei C.B. Clarke is a small tree found in the lower hills of Darjeeling

at an altitudes of 600-900m.

Wild Olive is reported from the Garhwal region of the North-West Himalaya

(Gaur, 1999). Indian wild Olive cultivar Olea ferruginea is also reported

from Almora hills (Pandey, 1984). The tree is somewhat localized in

distribution and occurs chiefly along the outer hills and inner dry valleys of

Western Himalaya. It is more or less gregarious and is very common on hilly

terrain, somewhat associated with Dodonea viscosa, Acacia modesta, Acacia

catechu, Carrica spinarum, Monothecia baxifolia, Pistacia integerrima and

in the Pinus roxburghii forests. It often occurs on rocky grounds of hot

aspects (Luna, 1996).

In India also, a small piece of work has been done on various attributes of

olive tree. Presently many scientists and co-workers studied the phenology,

biochemical characteristics of olive oil, harvesting methodologies and other

related fields (Salunkhe & Desai, 1986; Singh et al.1986; Mitra, 1997), but

no major work has been done on ecophysiological parameters in India

except varietal screening of some exotic Italian species by Singh et. al

(1986). There are many hundreds of olive varieties all over the world. Since

the olive varieties are very specific to microclimatic conditions, detailed

ecological and phenological studies are required before they can be

recommended for commercial cultivation in any area of the state. Some

preliminary trials provided broad indication concerning the microclimatic

range in which the olive cultivation could be experimentally successful.

Although no detailed census was made to assess the wild olive resources

existing in Uttarakhand, field surveys carried out by the extension agencies

of the Department of Horticulture allowed identifying the O. cuspidata in

natural areas. Seeing the economic importance of olive oil, Horticulture

Department has tried to cultivate the olive plants at the Government

Vegetable Sub-Station, Matela Farm (Kosi) in Almora district since 1986-

1987. Government Demonstration Farm, Dhakrani (Dehradun) is also very

famous for different developmental programmes of Olive cultivars. Singh et

al. (1986) have tried to cultivate six varieties of Olive (Olea cornicobra, O.

ascoiterana, O frantoio, O. coratina, O. pendolino, and O.aglandeau) under

the agro climatic conditions of Himanchal Pradesh to recommend suitable

cultivars for commercial cultivation.

The horticulture industry in India has witnessed a spectacular development

in the last two decades. Today, India ranks second in the world in the

production of fruits. However, the productivity of temperate fruits in

particular is declining at a faster rate. This decline in productivity is being

attributed to changing climatic scenario which has caused a serious concern

to temperate fruit growers, scientists, and developmental agencies.

The information on various aspects of temperate fruits in the Himalayas is

scattered in various research papers, review articles and bulletins. This work

is an effort to bridge this gap and have holistic information. In this study, the

information on fruit crop improvement; quality planting material production;

climatic changes and their adverse effects; state of fruit farming in

Himalayan region and future strategies for enhancing productivity of olive

has been provided.

Besides these, crop regulation; temperate fruits for subtropical areas; plant

protection problems; and status of temperate fruit production in the

Himalayan states have also been discussed. The present volume will enhance

the knowledge towards the prosperity of Horticulture and fulfill the

expectations of scientists, students, teachers, extension workers and policy

planners.

On the basis of the successful results achieved by the earlier efforts of the

Department of Horticulture in the transformation and upgrading of wild

olive trees into improved varieties through different techniques, a technical

cooperation for the development of olive cultivation was sought from

FAO/UNDP. Consequently, the FAO/UNDP sanctioned the project

ACO/IND74/064 in 1975 for a technical cooperation programme. Under this

programme, FAOs consultants on olive visited the state and gathered

numerous data on ecology and phenology of wild olive plantations of the

state. On the basis of their study, they were of the opinion that there was vast

scope for the cultivation of olive in the mid-hill areas, provided suitable

varieties were selected and planted in the state.

The feasibility study report was submitted by FAOs consultants in June,

1976. Encouraged by the positive content of this report, the Government

implemented a separate scheme for olive development starting from the year

1978. Under this scheme, many additional olive development stations were

established. But, for want of proper technology and funds, the Department of

Horticulture could not maintain the above stations properly. The problem of

producing large quantity of olives for oil extraction had to be faced due to

non availability of processing facilities. Therefore, a need was felt to seek

assistance from foreign countries for upgrading the technology for olive

production and oil extraction.

Since inferior quality of olive oil is imported by paying Dollars. The State of

Uttarakhand comes under subtropical to warm temperate which suits the

growth of olive plants. Two wild species of olive are already growing in

Western Himalaya, therefore, it attracted me to see whether good cultivars of

olive can be grown and harvested for good quality of olive oil or not.

Because of its high price value, medicinal properties and costly import from

European countries, it prompted me to workout on some eco physiological

attributes, oil output and performance of olive plants in Almora hills of

Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand. The whole study is divided into following

chapters.

The first chapter deals with the general introduction, historical account of

olive plant and oil, while second chapter presented detail description of the

study sites. The third chapter describes the meteorological, climatic and

geological description of the study sites.

Different parameters of Growth behavior i.e. plant height, root length, dry

matter (biomass) production, Relative growth rate (RGR), Total Leaf Area

(TLA), Leaf Area Ratio (LAR), Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) and Root:

Shoot ratio of olive saplings for two different cultivars were described in the

fourth chapter.

The fifth chapter comprises the application and effects of F.Y.M. and

fertilizers (N, P, and K) on growth of olive saplings. The sixth chapter gives

the knowledge about the structural attributes of olive.

Olive botany has been described in the seventh chapter. The eighth chapter

comprises the soxhlet extraction method and economic importance of olive

oil. Finally the last chapter gives the detail summary of the work done.

CHAPTER 2

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITES

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY SITES

The Himalayan region is one of the most important botanical regions of the

world. It is world known for their grandeurs, beauty and natural resources

since time immemorial. The Himalayan environment provides one of the

best biosphere reserves of the world. It preserved diversity of flora and fauna

which has great biological as well as ecological importance. The Himalaya

stands for a length of about 3000 km and width of 250 to 400 km on the

North West to North East of India. The Himalaya has been sub categorized

longitudinally on the basis of natural factors, such as geological structures,

topography, drainage and climate, which are Western Himalaya, Central

Himalaya and North West Himalaya (Gupta, 1982).

Uttarakhand is situated in the Central Himalaya, earlier a part of Uttar

Pradesh. It has been carved out as a new state, which consists of 13 districts

including Almora. Since ancient times, the Himalayan region has played a

key role in social, cultural and economic life of the people of Indian sub-

continent. They are a source of major river system of India and abound in

biological and mineral wealth. The slopes and valleys of this region are a

home of numerous groups of people having a great cultural heritage and

ethnic diversity. For these people, living in the mountains, the forests are

most vital resource. They are not only the catchments area of the Indo-

Gangetic plain but also the cradle of human civilization which has flourished

in this region.

The programme of work was operating mainly in an experimental plot

prepared by the author the village Sarkar ki Ali, Lower Mall Road (Almora),

Govt. Demonstration Farm, Dhakrani (Dehradun) and late Dr. Shankar Lal

Sah Temperate Research and Extension Centre, Matela (Almora).

1. Sarkar ki Ali: The first study area i.e., Sarkar ki Ali lies in Almora

district of Uttarakhand. It is situated about 2 km. away in the North-East

direction from the Kumaun university S.S.J. campus. This experimental site

consist an area of 4428 square feet (about 2 nalis), an altitude of 1510 m. and

lies in 29o364N latitude and 79o4153E longitude. Actually it is a part of

my residence where maximum protection and fencing were available,

therefore, this site was chosen for measuring olive growth parameters. The

present investigation was carried out at an experimental plot in this site

during July 2003 to June 2005, on two different varieties of Olive, one

exotic cultivated variety - Olea europaea cv. pendolino and the second

indigenous species - Olea ferruginea (Fig. 2.1 & 2.2).

About 300 uniforms, healthy and disease free saplings of each cultivar were

collected and carried out from the Indo-Italian Govt. Demonstration Farm,

Dhakrani (Dehradun) for recording the observations on their growth

parameters and also to check their ecological and structural attributes. The

experiment was conducted at three levels of F.Y.M. and three combinations

of N, P and K during 2003-2005 and laid down in randomized block design

with twenty four numbers of saplings in each design and the data were

analyzed accordingly.

Fig. 2.1 (a, b & c)

Study area at Village Sarkar ki Ali, Almora (Uttarakhand)

showing cultivated saplings of Olea pendolino and Olea

ferruginea

c

b

a

(a) India (b) Uttarakhand

(c) District Almora (d) Sarkar Ki Ali

Fig. 2.2 (a, b, c & d)

Location Map of Village Sarkar ki Ali, Almora (Uttarakhand)

a b

c d

2. Dhakrani: Dhakrani farm is one of the main centers for the present

study. It is situated about 40 kms. away from Dehradun, on the banks of

Yamuna River, temperature ranges there from 7 to 42oc; altitude is 475 mts.

above sea level. The Dhakrani farm spread over an area of 24 ha. in which

olive cultivation is done in an area of 2 hectare. Dhakrani is now a well

established farm for plant production, where the latest techniques are used,

i.e. mist chamber, glass house, green house, sprinklers for irrigation and

various machineries. The Dhakrani farm shows a subtropical type of climate

which is one of the essential parameters for the better growth of olive

plantation. This demonstration farm have been established in order to study

the performance of different imported varieties in different microclimates of

Uttarakhand hills, so that the large scale plantation could be taken up with

selected varieties (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3 (a & b)

Study area at Dhakrani Farm, Dehradun (Uttarakhand)

showing different cultivated varieties of Olive

a b

3. Matela: Matela farm (Late Dr. Shankar Lal Sah Temperate Research

and Extension Centre, Matela) is spread over an area of 8 ha, out of which

olive plantation is carried out in an area of 0.40 hectare. The altitude of

Matela farm is 1250 m. and lies in 29o 3748N latitude and 79o4044E

longitude. This shows a subtropical type of climate which is soothing to the

growth of olive plantation. It is situated about 10.5 km. away from Almora,

in the North direction, on the banks of Kosi river valley (Fig. 2.4, 2.5 & 2.6).

Fig. 2.4

Still Picture of the painted map of Matela farm showing

different programmes running at Late Dr. Shankar Lal Sah

Temperate Research and Extension Centre, Matela

Fig. 2.5 (a & b)

Photograph showing Olive tree plantation of the year 1986-87

at Late Dr. Shankar Lal Sah Temperate Research and

Extension Centre, Matela

b

a

(a) India (b) Uttarakhand

(c) District Almora (d) Matela Farm

Fig. 2.6 (a, b, c & d)

Location Map of Village Matela, Almora (Uttarakhand)

a b

d c

CHAPTER 3

METEOROLOGICAL DATA

METEOROLOGICAL DATA

The meteorological data were taken from the nearest recording station, i.e.

Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anushandhanshala V.P.K.A.S. (I.C.A.R.),

Almora. The climate is characterized by short summer, moist and wet rainy

season and prolonged winter. The year round climate is divided into five

seasons (Singh, 1989):

1- Winter - December - Mid March

2- Spring - Mid March - Mid May

3- Summer - Mid May - July

4- Rainy - July - October

5- Autumn - October - November

Average maximum temperature: 23.75 (2003-04)

23.05 (2004-05)

Average minimum temperature: 12.66 (2003-04)

12.36 (2004-05)

Total rainfall : 806.9 mm. (2003-04)

819.9 mm. (2004-05)

These meteorological data of the trial period are presented in table 3.1 and

3.2 respectively. These data represented the average conditions of maximum

and minimum temperature and rainfall from July, 03 to June, 05 i.e. the

study period.

Table 3.1

METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF ALMORA

Year 2003-2004

MONTHS Max.

Temp.

Min.

Temp.

Total Rainfall

(0C) (

0C) (mm.)

JULY 2003 27.8 19.7 209.8

AUGUST 2003 26.5 19.1 167.3

SEPTEMBER 2003 25.5 17.5 144

OCTOBER 2003 25.2 12.6 -

NOVEMBER 2003 20.9 7.8 5.2

DECEMBER 2003 15.9 5.3 30.3

JANUARY 2004 14.0 3.5 40.3

FEBRUARY 2004 18.6 5.8 4.6

MARCH 2004 26.0 11.7 -

APRIL 2004 27.1 14.6 52.4

MAY 2004 29.7 17.3 43.3

JUNE 2004 27.8 17.1 109.7

METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF ALMORA (2003-2004)

0

50

100

150

200

250

JULY

AUGUST

SEP

TEM

BER

OCTO

BER

NO

VEM

BER

DECEM

BER

JANUARY

FEBR

UARY

MARCH

APR

IL

MAY

JUNE

MONTHS

Max. Temp. (0C)

Min. Temp. (0C)

Total Rainfall (mm.)

Table 3.2

METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF ALMORA

Year 2004-2005

MONTHS Max.

Temp.

Min.

Temp.

Total Rainfall

(0C) (0C) (mm.)

JULY 2004 27.3 19.1 149.4

AUGUST 2004 26.3 16.6 252.0

SEPTEMBER 2004 27.0 17.2 96.6

OCTOBER 2004 22.4 12.1 37.8

NOVEMBER 2004 19.5 8.1 6.8

DECEMBER 2004 18.2 5.6 3.5

JANUARY 2005 14.2 4.4 92.6

FEBRUARY 2005 15.0 3.8 83.2

MARCH 2005 22.1 10.4 40.6

APRIL 2005 24.9 14.6 3.4

MAY 2005 28.4 16.5 22.2

JUNE 2005 31.3 20.0 31.8

METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF ALMORA (2004-2005)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

JULY

AUGUST

SEP

TEM

BER

OCTO

BER

NO

VEM

BER

DECEM

BER

JANUARY

FEBR

UARY

MARCH

APR

IL

MAY

JUNE

MONTHS

Max. Temp. (0C)

Min. Temp. (0C)

Total Rainfall (mm.)

NATURAL CONDITIONS

So far as land form is considered; the middle portion of the district is

comparatively lower, where many rivers develop fertile valleys between

500-1000m. As we move from middle to north, east south and north up to

3500m.height, high mountains are seen.

CLIMATE

Olive trees like cool/cold winters and hot summers. Even though olives are

evergreen trees, they still need a cool winter so they can rest to prepare for

their main shooting, flowering and fruiting in the spring. For most varieties

some winter frost is preferred.

According to Mani (1978), the study region falls in the Western Himalaya.

The climate of this area is monsoonic temperate. It received precipitation

three times in a year, i.e., during rainy season from the monsoon of Bay of

Bengal and during winter from the Mediterranean Sea via Afghanistan.

During summer, orographic type of rainfall is very much apparent. Summer

season is not so warm and winter is also not so cool. Here winters are soft

and summers are pleasant. However, in valley areas it is quite hot during

summer and extremely cold during winters.

GEOLOGY

The rocks of the tract comprise of a set of shells and dark slates with bands

of fine quartzite, capped with massive dark blue gray limestone or dolomite.

The steep slopes of the limestone capped slate hills have caused landslips of

considerable sizes from time to time. Some slopes consist mainly of massive

limestone. No fossils have been found in any of these rocks, although these

are probably very ancient. The soil varies considerably. It is often light loam

to clayey loam formed from the limestone. On steep slopes it is shallow and

poor and is largely mixed with fragmented rocks. On gentle slopes and in

valleys the soil is usually fresh, deep and fertile.

TEMPERATURE

Throughout the world olives are grown in climates which range from the

cold of Tuscany (Italy) where minus 20 OC is not unheard of, through to

warmer areas such as Seville (Spain) where some regions don't even reach 0

OC during winter. Summer temperatures are important for the growth of

fruit-bearing foliage. Most olive growing regions of the world have average

maximum daily temperatures, in the hottest month of summer; somewhere

above 30OC. Afternoon temperatures are as high as 45

OC have very little

effect on mature olives as they have an inbuilt mechanism which temporarily

shuts down their system until the cooler part of the day arrives. However,

apart from the cool winter and warm summer requirements, the moisture

levels of the tree will be adequate.

The average annual maximum and minimum temperatures for both the

experimental years are 23.75 O

C, 23.05 O

C and 12.66 O

C, 12.36 O

C

respectively. The maximum temperatures were recorded during May and

June for both the years, while the minimum temperature was noted in

January and February for former and latter years respectively. There was a

gradual increase in temperature from January to June. May and June were

the hottest months of the year.

RAINFALL

The advent of monsoonic rain in the month of June marks the beginning of

rainy season. In the former year 2003-2004 total rainfall was 806.9 mm,

while in the latter year 2004-2005 it was 819.9 mm. The maximum rainfall

was observed in July for both the years while the minimum rainfall was

recorded in the month of February for the year 2003-2004 and April for the

year 2004-2005. Zero Rainfall is recorded in the months of October and

March for the year 2003-2004.

The average annual rainfalls are 67.24 mm. & 68.32 mm. respectively for

both the years. Most part of the rainfall is received through monsoonic rains

with July and August being the wettest months. The rainy season lasts from

about the middle of June to the end of September. From the beginning of

October to the middle of November, it is usually dry, although occasional

showers are not uncommon. From December till March the weather is often

unsettled when strong winds, snowfall and winter showers are the usual

features.

The snow does not stay long on the ground except in shady situations. In

April, May and early part of June, the mercury shoots up to its maximum

and the weather is dry, but one may expect showers and thunderstorms

during this period also.

FOREST VEGETATION OF THE SITE

The areas of the subtropical forests are found in the south east and south

west parts only in the form of narrow belts. All the middle portion of the

districts is occupied by the wide spread and randomly distributed monsoonic

temperate forests. This forest region is an integral part of Central Himalaya.

One of the many dilemma facing this region is neither we can afford not to

go on exploiting forests, nor can we afford not to.

About the height of 2500m., temperate forests are found which are

distributed in the limited areas of the district. In the north of this wide spread

areas of the summer, meadows (bughiyals) are found, which represents the

Alpine zone of Central Himalaya. The Alpine meadows of Central Himalaya

appreciated for grazing, medicinal and recreational values. Out of these few

taxus are endangered, vulnerable, rare and threatened, while few are

indeterminate.

The hill is characterized by deep ravines, crevices, elevated ridges and could

be easily divided into north, south, east and west slopes. Almora forests are

clearly distinguished into three types viz. Chir-Pine, Pine-Oak and Banj-

Oak. In the North of Almora, its boundaries join Chamoli, in the West with

Pauri, in South with Nainital, in the East with Pithoragarh and Champawat

Districts. The eastern boundary of the district is formed by Ram Ganga

River and the South Eastern boundary with Saryu River. The rivers separate

Almora from Pithoragarh district.

SOIL ANALYSIS

The olive plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils,

requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant

prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It

requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. Although rustic, olive

trees have limited soil adaptability or, at least, well defined requirements.

The olive may thrive on poor and alkaline soils and in arid environments.

This makes olive culture a successful alternative to other crops in hard,

almost inhospitable soils. However, the olive trees perform poorly in five-

textured soils that are poorly defined or water logged.

In general terms, it may be said that the best soils for olive growing have

been found to be those containing 60% of sand, 20% of silt and 20% of clay.

These figures are only indicative, of course, and good soils may greatly vary

in composition, ranging from 45 to 75% of sand, 5 to 35% of silt and 5 to

30% of clay. On the other hand, the olive will show signs of poor growth

and reduced production where soil contains clay above 30% or a cumulated

amount of silt and clay in excess of 50%.

These data refers, however, to the Mediterranean basin, and it is possible

that specific analysis of the Chinese environment may show some deviation

from the above figures. In wet summer climates, some of these conditions

may be excessive, especially in the presence of impermeable sub-soil and

poor drainage. Deep light soils, but also calcareous mountain soils rich in

texture, may be superior for olive production to low lying areas or former

rice paddies.

It is advisable to place more emphasis on problems of soil fertility and

fertilization. Optimum levels of most important levels, according to analysis

made in the Mediterranean environment, as shown below (Gonzales Y.

Troncoso, 1972). This information has only an indicative value, but provides

some guidance for selecting conditions most favorable for the expansion of

olive culture.

Table 3.3

Optimum soil composition and mineral content for Olive

growth and production (After Gonzales Y Troncoso, 1972)

Soil parameters Content Average Minimum Maximum

Structure (%) Sand

Silt

Clay

60

20

20

45

5

5

75

35

35

Organic Matter

(%)

1.8 0.5 2.5

Mineral Content

(%)

N

P2O5

K2O

Ca

Mg

1.3

0.17

0.18

0.30

0.20

0.05

0.05

0.15

0.2

0.2

0.45

CaCO3 20 5 60

Table 3.4

Soil analysis / Soil health card of Matela farm (Kosi) Almora-

by Multiplex Aatma Project, Karnataka Agro. Chemicals

Sufficient C, Ca, Fe

Medium N, P, K, S, Zn, Cu, Mn

Low Mg

Ph 7.1

Carbon 1.8

Phosphorus 19.4

Potash 215.0

Sulphur 16.8

Zinc 2.3

Ferrous 11.2

Copper 1.4

It is also important to understand the soil type, structure and pH prior to

planting. Types Olive trees will tolerate a large range of soil conditions,

preferring a neutral to alkaline soil type. If the soil is acidic, they may be

easily changed to an optimal pH of 7.0-8.0 by simple methods such as the

addition of agricultural lime. Olives will often grow in hilly, rocky areas that

are not suitable for other crops. However, they do not like very heavy soils

that hold excessive water after wet periods. Relative proportions of sand silt

and clay in the soil was determined by pipette method (Piper, 1944). The pH

was determined by a digital pH meter; Bulk density and water holding

capacity were determined following Piper (1944).

Table 3.5

Physico-chemical characteristics of soil used for experiment

SOIL PARAMETERS SOIL QUALITIES

Texture Sandy loam

Sand (%) 67.160

Silt (%) 22.290

Clay (%) 10.550

Bulk density (gm./cc) 1.360

Water holding capacity (%) 40.650

pH 6.800

Organic carbon (%) 0.480

Organic matter (%) 0.827

Total nitrogen (%) 0.075

Available nitrogen (kg./ha) 138.300

Available potassium (kg./ha) 198.400

Organic carbon was determined by rapid titration method (Walkley and

Black, 1934). Nitrogen was determined by Micro-Kjeldahl method

following Jackson (1958). Potassium was analyzed according to Mishra

(1968) through a flame photometer.

CHAPTER 4

GROWTH BEHAVIOUR OF OLIVE SAPLINGS

GROWTH BEHAVIOUR OF OLIVE SAPLINGS

Growth analysis is a widely used analytical tool for characterizing plant

growth while the growth of woody plants has been characterized by

quantitative, anatomical, morphogenetic and physiological view points.

Knowledge of growth behavior of a plant species provides an important base

for the development of nursery and plantation on a large scale. The amount

of growth and its seasonal variation caused by environmental factors have

been studied mostly for temperate trees (Mikola, 1962; Pietarinen et al.,

1982; Zobel, 1983). The tropical climate is characterized by wet and dry

seasons where flushing is seasonal. During past few years, some studies

have been initiated at Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anushandhan shala

(ICAR), Almora.

Quantitative investigators often use classical growth analysis techniques that

emphasize growth rates than final measurements of size or yield (Kramer &

Kozlowski, 1979). Early increases in size or dry weights of plants, organs or

tissues are approximately linear. Eventually however, various internal

growth controlling mechanism induce departure from a linear growth

relationship. So that over a long period, growth can best be visualized by a

sigmoid growth curve. Seasonal and lifetime growth of shoots, roots and

reproductive structures generally confirm such type of pattern (Evans, 1972).

There is a lack of information about the growth behavior of olive saplings in

India. Therefore, it stimulated the author to workout the growth behavior of

olive saplings. The growth behavior was undertaken in order to find out

plant height, root length, dry matter (biomass) production. Relative growth

rate (RGR), Total Leaf Area (TLA), Leaf Area Ratio (LAR), Net

Assimilation Rate (NAR) and Root: Shoot ratio of olive saplings for two

different cultivars over a period of 24 months from August, 2003 to June,

2005.

Plant height is an inherent character and it furnishes an idea of the net height

increment in successive phases. Increase in stem diameter is a direct

indication of cell division and explanation in the primary state and after

cambial activity (Singh & Paliwal, 1988).

Estimation of dry matter (biomass), production of plants and its distribution

into different component parts is of prime importance. The knowledge of dry

matter production by the seedlings is useful in the studies of photosynthetic

capture and dry matter production of trees (Mishra & Bhatnagar, 1987).

Relative growth rate (RGR) represents the important index of plant growth

(Evans, 1972). It is a measurement of increase in dry weight per unit of time

per unit of growing material often in grams per gram dry weight per week

(Kramer & Kozlowski, 1979).

The total leaf area (TLA) has significant effects on water loss of individual

plants and plants with larger areas usually transpiring more than those with

small leaf areas (Kramer & Kozlowski, 1979).

The leaf area ratio (LAR) varies with plant size, age, spacing and various

factors influencing leaf size. It is an important structural concept as at

expresses the proportion of assimilatory surface to respiratory mass (Evans,

1972).

Leaf Area Index (LAI) data are required to characterize evaporation and

assimilation rates from canopies. The LAI of a canopy of trees can be

estimated from the transmittance of radiation at various angles. A

commercial sensor for LAI determination (Plant Canopy Analyzer LI-COR

LAI-2000) was tested for Olive trees (Olea europaea L.) during 1992 and

1993 in Cordoba, Spain. The weight increase per unit of leaf surface or mass

is expressed as Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) after Kramer & Kozlowski,

(1979).

Chlorophyll in the leaves is the sites of photochemical activities of plants.

The chlorophyll determines the photosynthetic efficiency of the plants. Thus

it is taken as index of dry matter production (Bouer et al., 1987; Stryer,

1988). The quantitative estimation of chlorophyll content is one of the

important parameters of structural aspects of the ecosystem and it may be

considered as an index of primary productivity in the ecosystem (Ovington

& Lawrence, 1967; Redmann, 1975). Since it is actual place of

photosynthetic activity, it is important to calculate chlorophyll content in any

plant species. A number of studies have been reported on chlorophyll

content of various tree species (Goodwin, 1958; Whittaker & Garfine, 1962;

Wood & Bachelord, 1969; Lawrenz, 1987; Young & Joseph, 1987; Kannan

& Paliwal, 1992). No report is available on the chlorophyll content of olive.

Therefore, chlorophyll content of olive saplings for Olea europaea cv.

pendolino and Olea ferruginea was determined at bimonthly intervals, i.e.

from August, 2003 to June, 2005.

Root/shoot ratio is the common parameter for evaluating the relations

between below and above ground growth of plant (Bray, 1963). Several

workers have suggested that a particular plant at a stage has a definite

root/shoot ratio in a specific environment (Crist and Stout, 1929; Wareing,

1969). Changes in this ratio have been interpreted (Pearsall, 1927;

Troughton, 1960a, b). A numbers of reports are available on above

mentioned growth parameters for various tree sapling and seedling (Lalman

& Mishra, 1981; Singh et al., 1982; Dwivedi, 1985; Mishra & Bhatnagar,

1987; Sharma et al., 1987; Khan & Tripathi, 1989; Joshi, 1990; Mishra &

Singh, 1991; Turner, 1991; Kannan & Paliwal, 1992; Negi & Singh, 1992).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The aim of this work was to assess growth traits during the initial

developmental stages of olive seedlings, which could be correlated to time to

first flowering, facilitating fast selection in olive breeding programs. The

present study was conducted at the experimental plots prepared by the author

in the village Sarkar Ki Aali, Lower Mall Road, Almora. The experimental

material consisted of 300 uniforms, healthy and disease free saplings of two

different varieties of Olive plant, one exotic cultivated variety - Olea

europaea cv. pendolino and the second indigenous species - Olea ferruginea

from the Indo-Italian Govt. Demonstration Farm, Dhakrani (Dehradun) and

replanted at village Sarkar Ki Aali, Almora i. e. the experimental plot

(Fig.4.1a & b). The experiment was laid down in randomized block design

with twenty four numbers of saplings in each design and the data were

analyzed accordingly.

Fig. 4.1 (a & b) Olea europaea cv. pendolino & Olea ferruginea

Vegetative traits of the saplings, including canopy height and diameter,

length of lateral vegetation, number of leaves, mean and total leaf area per

plant, leaf shape characteristics, and specific leaf area (SLA), were recorded

until 24 months after sowing. The first saplings to initiate flowers, 4 years

after sowing, were also recorded. The existence of correlations between the

above growth traits and time to first flowering was investigated. In single-

branched seedlings 2 months after sowing, height measured at this stage was

a b

significantly correlated with the mean and total leaf area per plant, specific

leaf area, and other vegetative traits measured 24 months after sowing. Our

results indicated that pre-selection of olive saplings for earliness of first

flowering is possible, based on vegetative characteristics assessed very early

in their development. The average height of stem and root were almost

same. After plantation, the saplings were kept for local acclimatation

(Fig.4.2).

Fig. 4.2

Planted Olive saplings kept for local acclimatation

After acclimatization, growth parameters of saplings viz.height, root length,

stem diameter and dry weight were recorded at bimonthly intervals .The

length of stem and root was measured with the help of a meter scale and

stem diameter was taken with the help of Vernier Calipers. For the

estimation of dry matter (biomass) production, the plants were harvested,

washed and separated into its component parts (stem, root and leaves). These

parts were dried at 600c for 72 hours and weighed (Mishra, 1968).

Different growth parameters viz. Relative growth rate (RGR), Total Leaf

Area (TLA), Leaf Area Ratio (LAR), Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) were

calculated following Evans (1972).

RGR is calculated from samples of individuals from the same cohort at two

points in time Evans (1972). Rearrangement of terms yields the equation

used to calculate RGR in what is called the classical approach (Hunt, 1982).

In classical growth analysis, relative growth rate (RGR) is calculated as:

RGR (gg-1

day-1

) = log W2-log W1

T2-T1

Where,

W1 and W2 = Dry weight (g) at time T1 and T2.

T2-T1 = Number of days in the sampling interval.

Since

RGR is usually calculated using destructive harvests of several

individuals, an obvious approach is to substitute W1 and W2 with sample

means 1 and 2. Here we demonstrate that this approach yields a biased

estimate of RGR whenever the variance of the natural logarithm-transformed

plant weight changes through time. This bias increases with an increase in

the variance in RGR, in the length of the interval between harvests, or in

sample size.

TLA was calculated by multiplying the specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf dry

weight.

TLA (cm2

plant-1

) = SLA X leaf dry weight,

While SLA was estimated by the following formula:

SLA (cm2 g

-1) = A

LW

Where,

A = leaf area (cm2)

and LW = leaf dry weight (g).

LAR was also calculated by multiplying the leaf weight ratio (LWR) by

specific leaf area (SLA). LWR is the ratio of leaf dry weight (g) and total

plant dry weight (g).

LAR = LWR X SLA

NAR was determined by using following expression:

NAR (g cm-2

day-1

) = W2-W1 X logA2-logA1

T2-T1 A2-A1

Where,

W1 and W2 = plant dry weight at time T1 and T2.

A1 and A2 = leaf area (cm2)

at time T1 and T2.

Chlorophyll content was extracted in 80% acetone solvent + 20% absolute

alcohol and the optical density was measured at 645 and 663 nm in a

spectrophotometer. Following equations were used for the estimation of

chlorophyll (Arnon, 1949).

Chl a (mg/l) = 12.7 A663 - 2.69A645

Chl b (mg/l) = 22.9 A645 - 4.68A663

Chl (mg/g dry weight) = C X V

W

Total chlorophyll = Chl a + Chl b

Where,

A = Optical Density.

C = Concentration of chlorophyll (mg. /litre).

V = Volume of solution taken (litre).

W = Dry weight of leaves used for chlorophyll extraction (g).

The Root: Shoot Ratio is a measure of distribution of dry weight between

root and shoot of the plants. It was calculated by dividing dry weight of root

by dry weight of shoot.

RESULTS

PLANT HEIGHT, ROOT LENGTH AND STEM

DIAMETER

Maximum plant height, root length, stem diameter of saplings grown are

given in table 4.1 & 4.3 for both the olive cultivars respectively. In both the

cultivars the plant height as well as root length increased with age showing

greatest value at the last sampling month, i.e. June, 2005. Olea pendolino

cultivar showed a maximum height of 86.2 cm. at the last sampling month,

while in case of Olea ferruginea species, it was 78.2 cm. Maximum length

of root was 43.2 cm. and 39.7 cm. for both varieties. Like plant height and

root length, stem diameter also increased with age but no major increase was

observed during investigation.

Table 4.1

Plant height (cm.), root length (cm.), stem diameter (cm.) of

Olea pendolino at all sampling stages, i.e. Aug, 03 to June, 05

MONTHS

PLANT

HEIGHT(cm.)

ROOT

LENGTH(cm.)

STEM

DIAMETER(cm.)

AUG,2003 10.1 7.9 0.55

OCT 17.1 10.3 0.90

DEC 24.9 14.2 1.08

FEB,2004 29.8 16.8 1.16

APR 37.7 19.6 1.30

JUNE 45.6 23.0 1.55

AUG 52.5 26.1 1.70

OCT 59.4 30.5 1.80

DEC 65.4 33.4 1.92

FEB,2005 73.3 37.8 2.00

APR 78.2 40.6 2.10

JUNE 86.2 43.2 2.28

Table 4.2 ANOVA

Source of Variation Ss df MS f

between graph 10451.12 2 522.56 2.41

within graph 7138.02 33 216.30

35

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

PLANT HEIGHT, ROOT

LENGTH AND STEM

DIAMETER(cm.)

AUG,2003 DEC APR AUG DEC APR

MONTHS

Fig.4.3: PLANT HEIGHT, ROOT LENGTH AND STEM DIAMETER OF

Olea pendolino AT ALL SAMPLING STAGES.

PLANT HEIGHT

ROOT LENGTH

STEM DIAMETER

Table 4.3

Plant height (cm.), root length (cm.), stem diameter (cm.) of

Olea ferruginea at all sampling stages, i.e. Aug, 03 to June, 05

MONTHS

PLANT

HEIGHT(cm.)

ROOT

LENGTH(cm.)

STEM

DIAMETER(cm.)

AUG,2003 11.2 9.1 0.80

OCT 14.7 10.8 1.04

DEC 20.6 13.6 1.25

FEB,2004 25.8 16.2 1.40

APR 30.7 18.6 1.50

JUNE 38.9 21.4 1.62

AUG 46.0 24.5 1.80

OCT 53.1 26.9 1.96

DEC 60.2 30.5 2.05

FEB,2005 66.3 33.7 2.13

APR 75.1 36.3 2.20

JUNE 78.2 39.7 2.38

Table 4.4 ANOVA

Source of Variation Ss df MS f

between graph 13115.19 2 6557.59 25.64

within graph 8438.31 33 255.70

35

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

PLANT HEIGHT, ROOT

LENGTH AND STEM

DIAMETER (cm.)

AUG,2003 DEC APR AUG DEC APR

MONTHS

Fig.4.4: PLANT HEIGHT, ROOT LENGTH AND STEM DIAMETER OF

Olea ferruginea AT ALL SAMPLING STAGES.

PLANT HEIGHT

ROOT LENGTH

STEM DIAMETER

DRY MATTER PRODUCTION

The dry matter production of saplings and its component organs (stem, root

and leaves) at maximum during all sampling stages are given in table 4.5

and 4.7 respectively. In both the olive cultivars, dry matter production of

shoot and root increased with time factor throughout the experimental

period. The total dry matter (biomass) production increased with age

throughout the study period attaining the peak value at the last sampling

stage. Olea pendolino sapling showed the maximum total dry matter

production of 17.69 g/plant, while for Olea ferruginea it was 18.42 g/plant.

Table 4.5

Dry matter production (g/sapling) for Olea pendolino at all

sampling stages, i.e. Aug, 03 to June, 05

MONTHS STEM (g.) ROOT (g.) LEAF (g.) TOTAL (g.)

AUG,2003 3.10 1.48 2.07 6.65

OCT 4.22 1.76 2.16 8.14

DEC 4.90 1.83 2.27 9.00

FEB,2004 5.16 1.98 2.45 9.59

APR 5.80 2.23 2.61 10.64

JUNE 6.10 2.36 2.82 11.28

AUG 7.15 2.58 3.02 12.75

OCT 7.70 2.68 3.24 13.62

DEC 8.05 2.94 3.50 14.49

FEB,2005 8.39 2.98 3.80 15.17

APR 9.26 3.28 4.05 16.59

JUNE 9.69 3.62 4.38 17.69

Table 4.6 ANOVA

Source of Variation Ss df MS f

between graph 121.8 2 60.9 35.82

within graph 58.48 33 1.772

35

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

DRY MATTER

PRODUCTION

(g./sapling)

AUG,2003 DEC APR AUG DEC APR

MONTHS

Fig.4.5: DRY MATTTER PRODUCTION FOR Olea pendolino AT ALL SAMPLING

STAGES.

STEM

ROOT

LEAF

TOTAL

Table 4.7

Dry matter production (g/sapling) for Olea ferruginea at all

sampling stages, i.e. Aug, 03 to June, 05

MONTHS STEM (g.) ROOT (g.) LEAF (g.) TOTAL (g.)

AUG,2003 3.96 2.40 2.10 8.46

OCT 4.30 2.56 2.20 9.06

DEC 4.65 2.72 2.38 9.75

FEB,2004 4.90 2.98 2.60 10.48

APR 5.28 3.12 2.90 11.30

JUNE 5.72 3.35 3.18 12.25

AUG 6.05 3.58 3.46 13.09

OCT 6.48 3.77 3.80 14.05

DEC 6.97 3.96 4.25 15.18

FEB,2005 7.40 4.16 4.72 16.28

APR 7.92 4.45 5.14 17.51

JUNE 8.35 4.62 5.45 18.42

Table 4.8 ANOVA

Source of Variation Ss df MS