Old Testament

An Introduction to the Canon

What is the Old Testament? The book of the people of God

How and why we (the people of God) came to be Family album Formation through God’s free action

Blueprint Insight into God and what He expects How to be God’s people

History (of a special sort) Insight into the action of God in history, not photorealism Span of action is about 2000 years

Key for understanding ourselves and our situation

Large, old and diverse Span of writing is over 1000 years Different writers, various kinds of writing, changing circumstances

Salvation history Patriarchal period (2000? – 1500?)

Looked back on from later perspective; no contemporary writings

Creation, fall, beginning of redemption God appears as a character, interacting with a few key figures

Egyptian period Hebrews increase, but are enslaved

Exodus & Wilderness Wanderings (c.1250-1200) God intervenes dramatically Leadership of Moses Hebrews brought out of Egypt Sinai covenant

Allotments of the Twelve Tribes

Salvation History (2) Conquest of Canaan & Period of Judges

Loose confederation of tribes Holy war (incomplete) Cycles of drift into idolatry, repentance, rescue by a charismatic

leader (“judge”)

Monarchy (1030–586) David secures borders, establishes capital at Jerusalem Solomon constructs temple Nation splits into north and south kingdoms (Israel & Judah) Prophets protest idolatry & other abuses

Exile (586–529) Temple destroyed, monarchy ended Thousands of leading Israelites deported to Babylon Economic infrastructure devastated

Near East in Sixth Century

Salvation History (3) Persian period (529-331)

Jews allowed to return Second temple built Early Judaism (local worship in synagogue; centrality of Torah)

Greek period (331–167) Many Jews settle outside Palestine Scriptures translated into Greek (Septuagint, LXX) Persecution under Antiochus

Independence & Roman rule War of liberation by the Maccabees (167) Further OT writings in Hebrew and Greek Annexation by Rome (63) Temple overhauled by Herod

Important OT themes Revelation of God

A God who speaks to humans God is One God as Creator, and providence

The human person (greatness & wretchedness) Created in the image of God Marred by sin

God as liberator and savior Saves the people from outside threats, in the exodus and later Saves the people from its faults Saves individuals from death or oppression Salvation after death (hinted at)

Important OT themes (2) Election of Israel

Initiative is God’s (not earned) Called to know & love God, and be a light to other nations Brings responsibility, not entitlement

The Covenant You shall be treasured You shall be holy, as God is holy

The Law A gift (!) A blueprint for how to respond to God’s love (how to become

holy)

Important OT themes (3) Prayer and Cult

Privileged moments of communion with God Special times and places

Divine Reproaches & Condemnations Idolatry Injustice

Promises Descent from Abraham Promised land Salvation of Israel Reign of God Son and successor of David

Canon

From the Greek word kanon

Hebrew qaneh

Measuring stick or line

Groupings of the OT Books

Nevi’im – The Prophets

Latter Prophets Torah –The Law Former

Prophets The Twelve

Kethuvim – The Writings

Gen

esis

E

xodu

s L

evit

icus

N

umbe

rs

Deu

tero

nom

y

Josh

ua

Judg

es

Sam

uel

Kin

gs

Isai

ah

Jere

mia

h E

zeki

el

Hos

ea

Joel

A

mos

O

badi

ah

Jona

h M

icah

N

ahum

H

abak

kuk

Zep

hani

ah

Hag

gai

Zec

hari

ah

Mal

achi

Psa

lms

Pro

verb

s Jo

b S

ong

of S

ongs

R

uth

Lam

enta

tion

s E

ccle

sias

tes

Est

her

Dan

iel

Ezr

a/N

ehem

iah

Chr

onic

les

Pentateuch Historical Books Poetical Books Prophetical Books

Gen

esis

Exo

dus

Lev

itic

us

Num

bers

D

eute

rono

my

Josh

ua

Judg

es

Rut

h 1,

2 K

ingd

oms

3,4

Kin

gdom

s 1,

2 C

hron

icle

s **

1 E

sdra

s 2

Esd

ras

(Ezr

a/N

ehem

iah)

Est

her (

&)

Judi

th

Tob

it

1,2

Mac

cabe

es

**3,

4 M

acca

bees

Psa

lms

Pro

verb

s E

ccle

sias

tes

Son

g of

Son

gs

Job

Wis

dom

of

Solo

mon

Si

rach

**

Psa

lms

of S

olom

on

Hos

ea

Am

os

Mic

ah

Joel

O

badi

ah

Jona

h N

ahum

H

abak

kuk

Zep

hani

ah

Hag

gai

Zec

hari

ah

Mal

achi

Is

aiah

Jere

mia

h

Bar

uch/

Let

ter

of J

erem

iah

Lam

enta

tion

s

Eze

kiel

Dan

iel (

&)

Pentateuch Historical Books Wisdom Books Prophetical Books

Gen

esis

Ex

od

us

Lev

itic

us

Nu

mb

ers

Deu

tero

no

my

Josh

ua

Jud

ges

Ru

th

1,2

Sam

uel

1,2

Kin

gs

1,2

Ch

ron

icle

s

Ezr

a

Neh

emia

h

To

bit

Jud

ith

Est

her

(&)

1,2

Ma

ccab

ees

Job

Psa

lms

Pro

ver

bs

Ecc

lesi

aste

s S

on

g o

f S

on

gs

Wis

do

m

Sir

ach

Isai

ah

Jere

mia

h L

amen

tati

on

s

Ba

ruch

E

zek

iel

Dan

iel (&

) H

ose

a Jo

el

Am

os

Ob

adia

h Jo

nah

Mic

ah

Nah

um

Hab

akk

uk

Zep

han

iah

Hag

gai

Zec

har

iah

Mal

ach

i

THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the Hebrew OT

THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the Septuagint (LXX) Greek OT

THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the New American Bible OT

Hebrew Scriptures

Law – Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy) Prophets

Deuteronomistic History (Joshua – 2 Kings) Latter Prophets (Isaiah through Malachi)

Writings (everything else) Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah Wisdom Literature Apocalyptic (Daniel)

Torah

(also called Books of Moses or Pentateuch)

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy

An Outline of the Pentateuch

Creation of World and Human Way of Life (Gen 1-11)

God’s Choice of the Patriarchs (Gen 12-50)

Liberation from Egypt (Exodus 1-18)

Formation of Israel through the Torah at Sinai (Exodus 19 –

Leviticus 26)

Formation of Israel through Wanderings (Nbrs 1-36)

Formation of Israel on the Plains of Moab (Deut 1-30)

Concluding Blessings and Transitions (Deut 31-34)

The PatriarchsGenesis 12–50

Abraham & Sarah

Isaac & Rebekah

Esau JacobIsrael

Jacob & Leah

Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Issachar Zebulon Dinah

Laban

Nahor

Terah

Haran

LotBethuelMoabites, Ammonites

Jacob & Bilhah

Dan Naphtali

Jacob & Zilpah

Gad Asher

Jacob & Rachel

Joseph Benjamin

Manasseh Ephraim

Edomites

Abraham & HagarIshmael

Ishmaelites

Abraham & KethuraMidian

Midianites

Stained glass at Temple Sinai, Glendale CA

The Torah as a Collection

First part of the canon established Earliest datable material: Song of Deborah (Judges 5),

Blessing of Jacob (Genesis 49), Song of Miriam (Exodus 15), Prophecies of Balaam (Numbers 22-24)-- 10th C. BCE

It was pulled together after the fall of Jerusalem in 587/86 BCE.

Regarded as fixed by the 4th century BCE Most authoritative

LITERARY PATTERNSGenesis 3:9-18 and 4:9-16

Where are you? The woman you

gave me What have you

done (Eve)? Cursed is the

ground Land to be

toiled without giving strength

Where is Abel? Am I my brother’s

keeper? What have you

done? Cursed are you

from the ground Land to be toiled

without giving strength

LITERARY PATTERNSGenesis 27:1–35:29Isaac

dying

Isaac dies

Jacob/Esau conflict

Jacob/Esau reconciliation

theophany

theophany

Jacob/Laban conflict

Jacob/Laban reconciliation

Leah/Rachel conflictBIRTH OF 12 SONS

and 1 daughter

LITERARY PATTERNSExodus 7:15–11:1 The Plagues of Egypt

1 Nile turned to blood“Tomorrow morning, when he sets out for the water, go and present yourself by the river bank…”

2 Frogs “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”

3 Gnats This plague comes without warning

4 Flies“Again the Lord said to Moses, ‘Early tomorrow morning present yourself to Pharoah…’”

5 Plague on livestock “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”

6 Boils This plague comes without warning

7 Hail“Then the Lord told Moses, ‘Early tomorrow morning present yourself to Pharoah…’”

8 Locusts “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”

9 Darkness This plague comes without warning

10 Death of firstborn “Then the Lord told Moses, ‘One more plague I will bring upon Pharoah…’”

Formation of the PentateuchThe ‘Documentary Hypothesis’

Formation of the PentateuchThe ‘Documentary Hypothesis’

“Law” vs. “Torah”

What does “Law” bring to mind today?

“Torah” is translated “Law”, but had different connotation: Psalm 147:19-20, 119:1, 119:97

What are themes of these verses? Nobody else has Torah We’re lucky to have Torah Torah is the way to God

Prophets (Nebi’im or Nevi’im) Former Prophets

Joshua Judges Samuel Kings

Latter Prophets Major Prophets

Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel

Minor Prophets(Book of the 12) Hosea, Joel, Amos,

Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

The Prophets as a Collection

“Prophecy” does not mean telling the future; it is about the action of God in history Prophet speaks on God’s behalf, in His name No new commandments, but the people are called to account, and

warned of the consequences of their ignoring the covenant. Increasing understanding of God’s universality, and His plan to redeem

all peoples Moral & ethical sensitivity reach levels unsurpassed in world literature

This collection is far more diverse. It was closed by the 2nd century BCE. We know that because Daniel (c. 164 BCE) was not included.

Basic Historical Data

1000 BCE United Monarchy 922 BCE Secession of North Israel 722 BCE Assyria defeats N. Israel 587 BCE Babylon defeats Judah

The United Monarchy, 1000-931

King Saul of the tribe of Benjamin emerges as warleader of United Israel c. 1030 BC?

Effective in war and seen to enjoy divine favour

How to unite diverse tribes and establish royal administration?

David, 1005-970 BC

King of Judah, then conquered Israel to establish United Monarchy

Establishes Jerusalem as royal and religious centre

Transformation from pastoral, tribal culture to hierarchical society with urban emphasis

Solomon, 970-931• Benevolent monarch or Near Eastern potentate?• Greatest project: the Temple, crafted by Phoenicians• Divided Israel into tax districts: fortified and garrisoned• Seen as favouring Judah in place of Israel

Divided Monarchy, 931-722 BC

Israel, aka Samaria: allied with Tyre, rich but geographically vulnerable: falls in 722 BC

Judah, protected by geography and fortified capital of Jerusalem, falls in 597

Themes of Prophets

Not just predictions of what will be, but also exhortations to avoid what might be

Three major themes of prophets Abuse of power by leaders (2 Samuel 12) Treatment of the poor (Amos 2:6-7) Idolatry

Babylonian Exile, 597-538 Failed rebellion against Babylonian rule King Jehoiachin and many citizens were removed

to Babylon; Temple and palace were looted & burned

Exile community refined and purified religious practices: returned to Judah under Persian rule

Themes of the Deuteronomistic History“Deuteronomistic History” is the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings

So called because style and outlook are very similar to Deuteronomy These books are also called the “Former Prophets” (i.e. earlier prophets)

God has chosen Israel to be a special people This choice leads to giving of a covenant in the Torah The Torah leads to life Sacrifice to God must occur in Jerusalem Ethics and Worship go hand-in-hand Sinful behavior of the people leads to divine punishment Repentance of the people leads to divine forgiveness God does not abandon Israel – even when they sin God raises up leaders (judges, then kings) to bring about restoration Prophets call both rulers and subjects to be faithful to the covenant

Writings (Kethub’im or Kethuv’im) Psalms Proverbs Job Song of Songs Ruth Lamentations

Ecclesiastes Esther Daniel Ezra-Nehemiah Chronicles

The Writings as a Collection Different formulations existed over time (compare Mt 7:12 to Lk 24:44) Greek-speaking Jews outside Palestine had a slightly larger collection:

Expanded versions of Esther and Daniel Judith, Tobit, Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, 1&2 Maccabees, Baruch Also, sometimes, Esdras, 3&4 Maccabees, Psalms of Solomon This became the OT initially used by the Christian Church Esdras, 3&4 Maccabees, Psalms of Solomon were not used in the western

Church, so Catholics do not include them in the OT books

Following the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem (70 CE), the pressure rose to close the canon

Last additions to the Palestinian canon were at Jamnia about 90 CE Ecclesiastes was probably declared officially “in” at this time. No surviving statement that the canon was now closed, but there were in

fact no additions after this.

Writings

Wrestle with application of the Law and Prophets to the post-Exilic world Who can be a member of the Community? Will God continue to take care of us?

Reveal a vital, reflective community of faith Great variety of voices – different responses to tradition But clearly the tradition is still central in the life of the community,

still speaking powerfully

Psalms

Show prayer and worship continue to be central in sustaining the faith community

Songbook and prayer book Show broad range of feelings & emotions it is proper to bring to

worship of God Lots of ‘complaint’ psalms, but they typically end in thanksgiving Longest single book in the Bible

Core component of the Church’s Liturgy of the Hours Also a key component of the Liturgy of the Word at Mass

Expresses the Church’s response to the proclaimed Word

Megillot

Read publicly at Jewish seasonal feasts Commemorate foundational events in community’s life

Song of Songs, read on Sabbath of Pesach (Passover) Commemorates God’s rescue of the people from slavery in Egypt

Ruth, read on festival of Shavuot (Weeks) Commemorates giving of Law at Sinai

Ecclesiastes, read on intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot Lamentations, read on fast day of Tisha B’Av

Commemorates God’s chastisement of the people with the fall of Jerusalem, and his continuing love

Esther, read on Purim Commemorates God’s rescue of the people from intended massacre

in Persia

Wisdom literature

Nature wisdom Observations of the natural world, that allow us to understand it

and coexist with it Lists of names (trees, animals, …)

Practical wisdom Analyzed the social order

Judicial wisdom Sought ways to settle disputes

Theological wisdom Sought answers for puzzling or troubling questions

human suffering unpunished injustice

Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah

Closely related to each other in date, style, and viewpoint Less literary merit than the other OT books Ezra, Nehemiah tell the story of the return from the Exile, and the

rebuilding of Jerusalem and the temple Chronicles overlaps with the Deuteronomistic History Different viewpoint from the Deuteronomistic History

Glass is half-full (Deut Hist is half-empty) Focus on establishing ties between repatriated Jews and earlier times

Process of Canonization

Stuff Happened People sang and spoke about the stuff that happened People wrote down what others sang and spoke about

the stuff that happened People worked earlier sources into longer documents The books reached canonical form

The Masoretic Text (MT)

The Tanakh is written primarily in Hebrew

We do not have any original manuscripts; we only have copies of copies

Codex Leningradensis is the oldest complete Hebrew manuscript we have. It dates to 1008 CE

Septuagint

Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible

Done in Alexandria, Egypt

3rd century BCE

Greek was the lingua franca of the region

Letter of Aristeas

Also known as the LXX

Included the Apocrypha 15 “hidden” books Written between 200-100

BCE Written in Greek Included in the early

Christian canon

Vulgate

Jerome’s translation of the Tanakh and NT into Latin

Commissioned by Pope Damasus in 382 or 383 CE to produce an authoritative Latin version

Word means “common” or “common translation.”

Jerome knew Greek, but learned Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Arabic to translate from as many different manuscripts as possible

Translation

Formal Correspondence Maintain the vocabulary,

grammar, structure of the original as closely as possible

NAB, RSV, NRSV, are all examples

Dynamic Equivalence More emphasis on creating

coherence in the receptor language

JB, NJB, NEB, TEV or Good News are all examples

Compare the NAB and TEV translations of Ruth 3:9b:

NAB: And she replied, “I am your servant Ruth. Spread the corner of your cloak over me, for you are my next of kin.”

TEV: “It’s Ruth sir,” she answered.

“Because you are a close relative, you

are responsible for taking care of me.

So please marry me.”

Background:

What is the primary sense of “man”? Older dictionaries say “human being”, but many would now disagree, especially in the United States.

Problem: Rendering ’adam or ’anthropos as ‘man’ can introduce a sexist tinge that

is foreign to the original text. “God speaks to man” – only men? Not men and women?

Inclusive Language

Hebrew Greek Latin English

’adam ’anthropos homo man

’ish ’aner vir man

Human being

Adult male human being

Typical workarounds: Change singular to plural Change “any man” to “anyone”, “no man” to “no one”, etc. Change “brothers” to “brothers and sisters”, “sons” to “children”, etc.

Examples:Ps 1:1a RSV: Blessed is the man [adam] who walks not in the counsel of the wicked

RNAB: Happy those who do not follow the counsel of the wicked

Ps 8:4 RSV: what is man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou dost care for him?

RNAB: What are humans that you are mindful of them, mere mortals that you care for them?

Acts 23:21a RSV: But do not yield to them; for more than forty of their men [aner] lie in ambush for him,

RNAB: but do not believe them. More than forty of them are lying in wait for him

Inclusive Language

Many newer translations (1983 and later) strive for gender-neutrality (or gender-equity), in varying degrees.

NAB, JB, RNAB, NJB are specifically Catholic versions RSV-CE (which has a handful of alterations of the RSV, all in the NT) is also

approved for some official Catholic uses This is the English version used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church

Inclusive Language Translations

Older version Updated, gender-sensitive version

Revised Standard Version (RSV) 1952 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) 1989

Jerusalem Bible (JB) 1966 New Jerusalem Bible (NJB) 1985

New American Bible (NAB) 1970 NAB with Revised NT & Psalms 1986, 1991

New English Bible (NEB) 1970 Revised English Bible (REB) 1989

Today’s English Version (TEV) 1976 Contemporary English Version (CEV) 1995

New International Version (NIV) 1978 Today’s New Int’l Version (TNIV) 2002

Today’s English Version (TEV) 1976 Good News Translation (GNT) 2004

Liturgiam Authenticam (Vatican, 2001) Says systematic switching from singular to plural is not a good workaround

In particular, “man” implies a type (human nature), “humans” or “men and women” implies a set of individuals.

So, there’s no good substitute for “between God and Man”.

“Particular care is to be taken to ensure that the fixed expression ‘Son of Man’ be rendered faithfully and exactly. The great Christological and typological significance of this expression requires that there should also be employed throughout the translation a rule of language that will ensure that the fixed expression remain comprehensible in the context of the whole translation.”

“Just as has occurred at other times in history, the Church herself must freely decide upon the system of language that will serve her doctrinal mission most effectively, and should not be subject to externally imposed linguistic norms that are detrimental to that mission.”

Single English translation should be used across all English-speaking countries [as was done for the Catechism of the Catholic Church]

Current Status Re-revised RNAB lectionary promulgated in US in 2002

Approved by Rome and the US Bishops Does not match any available version of the complete Bible Previously available options (RNAB, NJB, RSV-CE)

No new English Bible translation in the works Mostly negative response to Liturgiam Authenticam by US bishops

(and the Catholic Biblical Association of America).

Bishop Donald Trautman (Erie), a strong proponent of inclusive language, became Chairman of the (US) Bishops’ Committee on the Liturgy in 2004.

Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, a strong proponent of Liturgiam Authenticam, became Pope in 2005.

Stay tuned …

Old and New Testaments

Reciprocal relationship NT demands to be read in the light of the OT Church rejected Marcion’s 2nd C. attempt to discard OT Christians ‘re-read’ OT in the light of the Christ

Re-reading Discovers or develops a meaning not originally explicit Examples occur within the OT itself (e.g. Chronicles) Does not negate (or replace) the original reading

Making sense of a passage

Literal sense What passage meant to original author / editor / audience Not always obvious!

Different kinds of writing need to be read differently Language, cultural differences can get in the way

Allegorical & other senses need to be grounded in the literal sense (Aquinas, Pius XII, Vatican II)

Canonical sense Passage can take on a different color in the light of other

passages in scripture Church has sometimes declared what a passage means in the

life of the Church

Scripture and Theology

Inasmuch as it is the word of God set in writing, the Bible has a richness of meaning that no one systematic theology can ever completely capture or confine.

One of the principal functions of the Bible is to mount serious challenges to theological systems and to draw attention constantly to the existence of important aspects of divine revelation and human reality which have a times been forgotten or neglected in efforts at systematic reflection.

— Pontifical Biblical Commission,

The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, 1994