Oil spill preparedness Sensitivity mapping Oil spill and response for oil spill … ·...

Sensitivity mappingfor oil spill response

Oil spillpreparedness

Oil spill preparedness and responseSensitivity mappingfor oil spill response


report series summary

2008

Sensitivity mappingfor oil spill response


i

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association5th Floor, 209–215 Blackfriars Road, London, SE1 8NL, United KingdomTelephone: +44 (0)20 7633 2388 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2389E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.ipieca.org

© IPIECA 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording orotherwise, without the prior consent of IPIECA.

This publication is printed on paper manufactured from fibre obtained from sustainably grown softwood forests and bleached without any damage to the environment.

IPIECAREPORTSERIES1990–2008

Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Report Series Summary

I P I E C A O I L S P I L L P R E P A R E D N E S S A N D R E S P O N S E R E P O R T S E R I E S S U M M A R Y

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CONTENTS

PART 1

Biological impacts of oil pollution

Guidelines 2

Coral Reefs 4

Mangroves 6

Saltmarshes 8

Rocky Shores 10

Fisheries 12

Sedimentary Shores 14

PART 2

Contingency planning for, andresponse to, marine oil spills

Contingency planning for 18oil spills on water

Sensitivity mapping for 20 oil spill response

Choosing spill response options 22to minimize damage

Guidelines for oil spill waste 24minimization and management

A guide to oiled wildlife 26response planning

Dispersants and their role in 28oil spill response

Guide to oil spill exercise planning 32

Oil spill responder safety guide 34

Guide to tiered preparedness 36and response

A guide to oil spill compensation 38

INTRODUCTION

The IPIECA Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Report Series Summary

brings together, for the first time, the complete IPIECA oil spill report

series under one cover. It provides a complete overview of issues that can

be referenced in the preparation for, and response to, oil spills at sea.

The core content of this publication is made up of report summaries which

reference the full report series contained on the CD-ROM in English,

French, Spanish and Russian. Arabic and Chinese language sets are

planned for the future.

The 17 reports in the series focus on the biological impacts of spills on

sensitive environments and other general and specific aspects of oil spill

contingency planning and response. A number of the reports have been

produced in collaboration with the International Maritime Organization

(IMO) and the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited

(ITOPF).

In preparing these reports IPIECA has mobilized expertise both from

within its membership and beyond. The reports represent a consensus of

industry views on good practice in oil spill preparedness and response.

They are made available to guide oil spill response managers,

practitioners, trainers and government officials alike.

Whilst the report series focuses on key aspects of oil spill preparedness

and response, it is recognized that it is of paramount importance to

concentrate on preventing spills. In this context, a guide to the

intergovernmental and industry organizations involved in the prevention

and mitigation of oil pollution in the marine environment, entitled Action

Against Oil Pollution, was collectively published in 2005 by key

international stakeholders. Action Against Oil Pollution is included on the

CD-ROM that accompanies this publication.


1

PART 1Biological impacts of

oil pollution


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GUIDELINES ON BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION

These Guidelines summarize what is known about thebiological effects of oil pollution. The scope is global, withexamples from tropical, temperate and cold environments.The emphasis is marine with some reference to otherenvironments.

by clean-up teams can speed recovery by minimizingsmothering effects and asphalt pavement formation.

The Metula spill in the Straits of Magellan was not followedby a clean-up. Mousse masses with sand, gravel and stoneshardened into asphalt pavements, remnants of which couldbe found 16 years later. After the Exxon Valdez spill inPrince William Sound, there was a massive clean-up andasphalt pavement formation was largely averted.

Geographical factorsIn the open sea, oil slicks may disperse. Close to shore,most damage occurs in sheltered bays and inlets, whereoil becomes concentrated. This is also true of inland lakesand some rivers.

On the shore, the fate and effects of oil vary with exposureto wave energy and shore type. On exposed rocky shores,effects tend to be minimal and recovery rates rapid. Themost sheltered shores have high biological productivityand are the worst oil traps.

If oil penetrates into the substratum, residence times arelikely to be increased. Shores with sand, gravel or stonesare porous, and oil penetrates relatively easily. If itweathers in situ to become more viscous, it may remain inthe sediment for many years. In contrast, oil does notreadily penetrate into firm waterlogged fine sand or mud.However, sheltered sand and mud shores with highbiological productivity provide oil pathways in the form ofanimal burrows and plant stems and roots. Oil penetrationcan kill the organisms that normally maintain thesepathways, which then become filled with sediment; oiltrapped within them degrades very slowly.

Climate, weather and seasonHigh temperatures and wind speeds increase evaporation,which decreases the toxicity of the remaining oil.Temperature also influences the rate of microbialdegradation which is the ultimate fate of oil in theenvironment.

According to season, vulnerable birds or mammals may becongregated at breeding colonies, and fish may bespawning in shallow waters. In winter large groups ofmigratory waders feed in estuaries. Winter oiling of a saltmarsh can affect over-wintering seeds and reduce

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME ONE

A small part of the extensive mangrove swamps of the Niger Delta.The intricate sheltered creek systems can act as an oil trap, withpotentially serious effects on the mangrove trees.

Gulf of Guinea

0 2km

fishing village sandy beach

North

Oil pollution damage and biological concerns

Initial impact can vary from minimal to the death ofeverything in a biological community, such as a mangroveswamp. Recovery times can vary from a few days to morethan ten years. A case history is included on ‘Theimportance of coastal wetlands and shallows’.

Factors influencing impact and recovery

Oil typeOil products differ widely in toxicity. The greatest toxicdamage has been caused by spills of lighter oil. Spills ofheavy oils can kill organisms through smothering ratherthan through toxic effects. Toxicity is reduced as oilweathers.

Oil loadingHigh oil loading encourages penetration into sediments; ifstones and gravel are incorporated in the oil, asphaltpavements may be formed. These can form a physicalbarrier which restricts recolonization. Removal of bulk oil


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germination in the spring. Marked reduction of floweringcan occur if plants are oiled when the flower buds aredeveloping, leading to loss of seed production.

Biological factorsDifferent species have different sensitivities. A tablesummarizes the sensitivities of the main groups of plantsand animals.

Clean-up and rehabilitationClean-up efforts can decrease or increase damage.Sometimes there has to be a trade-off between differentbiological concerns.

The physical removal of oil from the water surfacedecreases overall damage, by reducing the threat to birds,mammals and shorelines. The physical removal of thick oil

from shorelines can also decrease damage. However,there seems to be little point in disturbing the shore toremove residual deposits if biological recovery isprogressing. It may be justifiable if absorbed oil ishindering recovery.

Biological trade-offs are most often made whendispersants are used. Dispersants may break up a floatingslick and so reduce the threat to birds and mammals butthe dispersed oil enters the water column. In deep, openwaters it is rapidly diluted but in shallow waters it mayincrease the threat to plankton, fish eggs and larvae.Dispersant use may be prohibited from some areas atcertain times of year.

Rehabilitation can speed up recovery, notably in marshesand mangroves where transplant programmes have beensuccessful.

The Guidelines conclude with case histories on ‘What isrecovery?’ and ‘An example of a sensitive inland area: theAfrican Great Lakes’.

The full report is contained on the CD-ROM included at theend of this publication.

Riverine forest, Amazonia

Mangrove rehabilitation programme


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BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are extremely productive ecosystems found intropical and sub-tropical areas. There is a potential dangerto corals from tanker accidents, refinery operations, oilexploration and production. This report summarizesinformation on the effects of oil on corals, and providesbackground information on coral reefs. Clean-up optionsand their implications are also discussed.

Structure and functionA reef consists partly of living corals but mostly of coralsthat have been broken down and re-consolidated intocalcite rock. Lime-encrusted algae give some protectionagainst storms. Reefs include stony reef-building corals andsoft corals which do not have solid skeletons.

The stony corals have a symbiotic relationship with algae(zooxanthellae).

Threats to coral reefsSerious damage can result from:● oil pollution;● sedimentation; ● heated effluents from power plants; ● sewage and nutrient pollution; ● the use of dynamite to catch fish; ● collection for the aquarium and souvenir trades; ● anchor damage from recreational boating.

Major natural disturbances, such as hurricanes, also affectcoral reefs. Increasingly warm temperatures have resultedin ‘coral bleaching’ in which corals release the algae fromtheir tissues.

Effects of oil pollution

How oil comes into contact with coralsOil is less dense than water so it generally floats overreefs. However, some reef areas are exposed to the airduring low tides. Waves can also create droplets of oilthat may come into contact with the corals. In some areas,oil can combine with mineral particles and sink, thusaffecting the corals. Weathering can cause oil to sink andcome into contact with deeper corals. The use of oildispersants can also increase the potential for contact withthe corals.

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME THREE

distribution of coral reefs today

The coral reef ecosystem

SignificanceCoral reefs cover more than 600,000 km2 and are themost diverse and complex marine communities. They arethe source of an important fishery resource and provide abarrier to coastal erosion. Their amenity value is often thebasis of tourist economies.

Distribution and types of reefCoral reefs occur where the average minimum watertemperature is not less than 20˚C. There are three types:fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.

Coral reefs occur in warm tropical and sub-tropical seas: this mapshows the global distribution of coral reefs today.

The effects of exposure to oil onbrain coral. A healthy coral is shownon the left; the centre picture shows acoral after exposure to oil, with oilsticking to mucus. Compared withthe healthy coral, the polyps (coralanimals) are retracted, as the detailon the right indicates.


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Laboratory studiesThe effects of exposing corals to oil in the laboratoryinclude decrease in growth, decrease in reproductiveand colonization capacity, negative effects on feedingand behaviour, and alteration of secretory activity ofmucous cells.

Field studiesFew reports deal specifically with the effects of oil spills oncorals. A study in the Gulf of Eilat, Red Sea, has shownthat a steady discharge of oil onto a coral reef areacauses decreased colonization, decreased coral viability,coral mortality, damage to the reproductive system andmany other changes. A study downstream from a major oilrefinery on the Caribbean island of Aruba also showeddecreased viability of the reef over time, over a distance of10–15 km from the refinery.

A field experiment in the Arabian Gulf showed no long-term effects from exposure to a floating crude oil film of0.10 mm for five days. Work in a lagoonal reef system onthe Atlantic coast of Panama showed that shallow corals(0–0.5 m) were only slightly affected by a 24-hourexposure to fresh oil. However, a recent study in Panamashowed substantial damage, even at 3–6 m depth.

Factors influencing impact and recoveryThe most obvious factors are:● the amount and type of oil spilled; ● the degree of weathering of the oil prior to contact

with corals; ● the frequency of the contamination; ● the presence of other factors, such as high

sedimentation; ● physical factors such as storms, rainfall, currents and

the tide; ● the nature of the clean-up operation; ● the type of coral; and ● seasonal factors such as coral spawning.

Clean-up and rehabilitation

Mechanical clean-upNavigation can be difficult or impossible over coral reefs,and often natural clean-up is the only option—although inlagoonal areas, booms and skimmers can be used.

Dispersants and the TROPICS experimentIn the TROPICS experiment in Panama, booms weredeployed around three sites and crude oil was delivered toone site, oil and chemical dispersant to the second, whilethe third remained as a control. Untreated oil had severelong-term effects on mangroves, and relatively minor effectson seagrasses, corals and associated organisms.Chemically-dispersed oil caused a decline in theabundance of corals, sea urchins and other reeforganisms, reduced coral growth in one species, but hadminor or no effects on seagrasses and mangroves.

These results suggest that no action after a spill will affectmangroves and some inter-tidal organisms but coralswould remain healthy. Dispersants could expose sub-tidalorganisms to more oil, and result in more coral andseagrass damage. However, the mangroves would be lesslikely to be affected.


TROPICS experimental site with oil being released.


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BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:MANGROVES

Mangroves have traditionally provided plant products, fishand shellfish for coastal communities in the tropics. Theyalso provide services such as coastal stabilization andfood chain support for near-shore fisheries. This reportprovides information on the ecology and human use ofmangroves, and on the fate and effects of oil. These topics,together with clean-up methods and rehabilitation, arediscussed with reference to case history experience andresults from field experiments.

Ecology of mangrove forests

Mangroves are salt-tolerant species which grow in thetropics and some sub-tropical regions. They desalinate seawater by a filtration process. Mangrove roots typicallygrow in anaerobic sediment and receive oxygen throughsmall pores on the aerial roots and trunks. Mangrovessupport many different biological communities, and can beone of the most productive ecosystems, supporting largepopulations of invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals.

Services include: ● protection of shorelines; ● trapping of water-borne pollutants; ● nursery and feeding grounds for fish, prawns, crabs

and molluscs; ● nesting sites for birds; and ● resources for tourism and recreation.

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME FOUR

The mangrove Sonneratia, showing aerial ‘breathing roots’(pneumatophores), Strait of Malacca, Indonesia

Net cages for fish culture, Pulau Ketam, Malaysia

Human use of mangroves

Sustainable usesThe mangrove ecosystem produces both ‘goods’ (products)and ‘services’. Products include fuelwood, paper pulp,poles, railway sleepers, wood for furniture, roof thatching,bark for tannin, medicines, sugar, alcohol and dyes.Mangroves also provide fish and shellfish.

Non-sustainable uses Non-sustainable uses lead to loss of the mangrove habitat,and associated losses of shoreline, organic matter andspecies. Mangrove forests are felled to make room foraquaculture, salt pans, rice fields, airport and roadconstruction, port and industrial development, resettlementand village development. The report includes a casehistory on the uses made of mangroves in Malaysia.

Conservation

Conservation objectives include: ● maintenance of ‘reservoirs’ for natural restocking of

adjacent exploited areas; ● protection of breeding and feeding areas for fisheries; ● protection of shorelines; and ● preservation of rare and endangered species.

Several countries have established national mangrovecommittees, and the Malaysian committee hasrecommended that not more than 20 per cent ofmangroves in any one area should be cleared for pondconstruction. Other countries have developed specialpolicies on coastal areas. The report includes a casehistory on conservation and development in Venezuela.

Fate and effects of oil

Oil slicks enter mangrove forests when the tide is high, andare deposited on the aerial roots and sediment surface as the

0 50metres

oil concentration in surfacesediments (ppm dry weight)

North0

650

120

50

live Rhizophora mangrove

dead Rhizophora mangrove

live Sonneratia mangrove


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tide recedes. Mangroves can be killed by heavy oil that coversthe trees’ breathing pores and by the toxicity of substancesin the oil, which may impair the salt exclusion process.

Oil may kill many organisms in the mangrove habitat. Forexample, it can penetrate burrows in sediments, killingcrabs and worms. Furthermore, dead trees rot quickly,leading to a loss of habitat.

With time, the amount and toxicity of oil is reduced byrain and tides, by evaporation and by oxidation.Degradation can be rapid in the tropics, with regrowthoccurring within a year of a spill.

Oil spill response

Mangroves are priority areas for protection by:● mechanical recovery offshore; ● dispersal offshore; and ● booming of mangrove shorelines and inlets.

The dispersal option gives rise to the most debate.Mangrove trees tolerate dispersed oil better thanuntreated oil. If the objective is to protect the trees, thehabitat they provide and some wildlife species (notablywater birds), then chemical dispersal offshore can beeffective. However, the effects on organisms in the wateralso need to be considered (see the summary of theIPIECA report Dispersants and their Role in Oil SpillResponse, on page 28).

If oil enters mangroves, the main clean-up options are:● booming and skimming in mangrove creeks; ● pumping of bulk oil from the sediment surface; ● water flushing of free oil from sediment surface and

mangroves; and ● use of absorbent materials.

Clean-up may be difficult because some forests arevirtually impenetrable, and heavy clean-up operations maycause physical damage. If a large spill of light oil enters aforest, damage can occur very quickly and it is unrealisticto expect to save many trees.

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation of oil-damaged mangroves is possiblethough most schemes have to focus on one or a few keyspecies, and wait until toxicity has been reduced. Thetime that must elapse depends on the kind of oil spilled,the type of soil, local tidal flushing and rainfall. It is notnecessary to wait until all oil has been eliminated.Natural regeneration may be slow because of residualtoxicity or because seeds cannot reach the affected sitesbecause of barriers of fallen branches, roots and trunksof the killed forest.

It is useful to set up a nursery to grow mangroves.Rehabilitation was successful in Panama, where more than75 hectares of oil-killed mangrove forest were replantedwith some 86,000 nursery-grown seedlings. More than90 per cent of the seedlings survived.


0 20metres

terrestrialforest dead Rhizophora

live Sonneratia

high tidelow tide

Survey results from the Strait of Malacca, Indonesia, illustratingpatchiness of oil effects:Above: Patches of oil-killed mangroves, Pemping Island. The figuresare oil concentrations in the surface sediments (ppm dry weight). Below: Transect through mangroves, Kepala Jernih Island. These resultswere obtained two years after the Showa Maru spill, but chemicalanalysis of oil from the sediments indicated more than one source.


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BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:SALTMARSHES

Saltmarshes are priority areas for protection following oilspills because they can trap large quantities of oil and aredifficult to clean. While some marshes take decades torecover, others do so within one or two years. This reportconsiders factors affecting the fate and effects of oil onsaltmarshes, and provides guidelines on clean-up options.

Saltmarsh ecology and dynamics

Saltmarsh vegetation develops between the high-waterlevels of neap and spring tides. Saltmarshes are found allover the world; depending on latitude, the vegetation maybe dormant for some periods or may grow all year. Thisaffects what may happen to oiled vegetation.

Tropical saltmarshes are species poor and species richnessincreases with more temperate conditions. Saltmarshesoften occur in conjunction with mangroves.

Human use of saltmarshes

The importance of marshes as nursery grounds for fish iswell documented. Plant material from marshes alsocontributes to the food webs which sustain near-shorefisheries. Some marshes provide valuable grazing forsheep, cattle and horses.

Saltmarshes are important in dissipating wave energy, andpreserving them thus helps protect coastlines—especiallyimportant with increasing concern about rising sea levelsand coastal erosion.

Marshes are useful for assimilating sewage nutrients suchas phosphorus. They are also valued for conservationreasons, and are a resource for ‘ecotourism’.


Saltmarshes tend to trap oil, and the damage caused and therecovery times are very variable. Lighter, more penetratingoils are more likely to cause acute toxic damage than heavyor weathered oils. Three different scenarios are analysed:● Light to moderate oiling, with little penetration of

sediment; recovery in one to two years.● Oiling of shoots with substantial penetration of light oil

into sediments; recovery is delayed, with traces of oildetectable for many years.

● Thick deposits of viscous oil or mousse on the marshsurface. Persistent deposits inhibit recolonization for adecade or more.

IPIECAREPORTSERIESVOLUME SIX

Species are often zoned according to tidal height. With time,sediments may build up, leading to a change in conditionsfavouring other species. Sometimes the grass Spartina bringsabout waterlogged conditions that cause natural dieback.This needs to be distinguished from oil pollution effects.

Salinity also affects species composition. The uppermostreaches of some estuaries may contain virtually non-saline water but oil may be carried into them at hightide. Low salinities may also be caused by freshwaterseepage from inland.

Saltmarsh fauna include crabs, molluscs and worms,whose burrows can provide pathways for oil penetration.Saltmarshes are an important habitat for birds and fish.

Saltmarshes in tropicalregions, such as thisone in north-eastSumatra, Indonesia,have no dormantseasons and are thusvulnerable to oil spillsthroughout the year.

Two years after a light fuel oil spill. There is a belt of marsh whereSpartina was killed by the oil, which penetrated into the sediments.


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Delayed recovery can also occur if species composition isaltered.

Oil spill response

The protection of saltmarshes after an oil spill is a highpriority because cleaning of vegetation and sediments isvery difficult. The main options are:● mechanical recovery offshore from the marsh;● dispersal (using oil spill dispersants) offshore; and● booming of saltmarsh shorelines and inlets.

If saltmarshes become oiled, the best option is often toallow natural recovery. Intervention may be needed if:● free oil is present which may be spread with tidal

action;● oil on the marsh surface threatens birds or other wildlife;● recovery time of vegetation is predicted to take several

years.

The main clean-up options are as follows.

Physical containment and recoveryBooming and skimming of oil on the water in creeks, andpumping bulk oil from the marsh surface, depressions andchannels.

Low pressure water flushingResults are variable, and the method must be used beforeoil penetrates the sediment.

SorbentsThe rapid deployment of sorbents can reduce penetrationinto sediments.

In-situ burning of oiled vegetationWhile burning can increase damage, in winter much ofthe vegetation is dead, and the ground is likely to be wetenough to protect underground systems from heat damage.

Vegetation cutting Cutting may be justified if there is a threat to birds or otherwildlife. There is least effect on subsequent yield in autumnand winter.

Combined vegetation/sediment removalAn extreme method used for serious cases, usuallyfollowed by rehabilitation (seeding and/or transplanting).The technique caused severe problems (described in acase history) following the Amoco Cadiz spill.

Rehabilitation

Restoration has often been successful and examples aredescribed. Restoration is needed if natural recovery maytake an unacceptably long time, or if vegetation andsediments have had to be removed. Re-vegetation can bedone with seeds or seedlings. Fertilizer may be needed,and transplant performance should be monitored.


Nineteen years after the Metula spill, thick mousse deposits are inhibiting recolonization (left). This site is being used experimentally to test newapproaches for treatment. Where thinner deposits are weathering and cracking some plants have become established (middle). This is a result ofseeds lodging in cracks and germinating (right).


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BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:ROCKY SHORES

Rocky shores have a range of vulnerabilities to oil. Whilesome are quickly cleaned by natural forces, others cantrap oil and take years to recover. This report describes thefactors that make rocky shores sensitive to oil spills, andconsiders the most appropriate methods of clean-up.

The importance and variety of rocky shores

Rocky shores dominate the world’s coastlines and playimportant roles within their local marine ecosystem.

Seaweeds are common on rocky shores and theirproductivity can be very high. Rocky shore animals alsoplay a part in this productivity, releasing enormousnumbers of eggs and larvae into the sea. When the tide isin, fish and other animals move in to feed directly on theanimals and plants of the rocky shore; when the tide is out,many birds and some mammals do the same.

Human economic benefits include seaweed collected forfood, fertilizer or alginate production, and fisheries andaquaculture based on, for example, limpets, sea-squirts,barnacles and mussels. Rocky shores are variable. Bedrockshores range from vertical cliffs to gradually slopingplatforms. In tropical regions they may be formed fromraised fossil coral reefs. The rock may be pitted orcracked, with rock pools, overhangs, gullies and caves.Some shores are dominated by porous boulders.

Ecology and dynamics

Rocky shore organisms have adapted to manyenvironmental regimes, resulting in distinct vertical zonesand substantial differences between the communities onexposed and sheltered shores. Lower shore communitiesare the most diverse and productive. Communities onexposed shores have fewer large algae and morebarnacles and mussels than sheltered shores. Exposedboulder shores usually support only small mobilecrustaceans.

The areas that support soft-bodied animals such as seaanemones are also the places where oil can becomeconcentrated. Rich animal communities underneath therocks on stable boulder shores are also the most vulnerableto oil pollution.

Most rocky shore organisms reproduce by producing largenumbers of larvae or spores. This distributes the speciesover larger areas and helps it colonize new areas.Plankton can therefore recolonize shores affected by oilspills fairly rapidly. Direct developers are more vulnerable.

Fate of oil

Vulnerability varies widely. A vertical rock wall on anexposed coast is likely to remain unoiled if an oil slick isheld back by reflected waves. A sloping boulder shore ina calm backwater can trap enormous amounts of oil. Someshores act as natural collection sites for litter and oil iscarried there in the same way. Oil tends not to remain onwet rock or algae but is likely to stick on dry rock.

The rate of weathering depends mainly on exposure,weather conditions and shore characteristics but watertemperature, the presence of silt and clay particles, andgrazing animals also play a role. As oil is weathered itbecomes more viscous and less toxic, often leaving only asmall residue unlikely to cause ecological damage.

Impacts of oil spills

The impact of oil depends on the toxicity, viscosity andamount of oil, the sensitivity of the organism and length ofcontact time. In some spills, rocky shores have been coatedin a large amount of oil that caused little effect. In otherspills, a moderate amount of oil has caused heavymortality. Long-term damage is generally rare, and recoveryover two or three years is common. This is because oil isnot normally retained on rocky shores in a form or quantity

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME SEVEN

The extremely wave-exposed Cliffs of Moher,on the west coastof Ireland


11

that causes long-term impacts and because rocky shorespecies can quickly re-establish their populations.

The brown seaweeds are relatively insensitive due to theslimy mucilage which coats their surfaces. Many animalshave also been found to withstand heavy oiling. Barnaclesand intertidal sea anemones are typically only killed afterbeing smothered by a viscous oil for a few tides. Limpets,snails and other grazing molluscs are more susceptible.

The effect is related to the toxicity and freshness of the oil.Weathered crude oil may have limited effects while freshdiesel or gasoline can cause acute toxic effects.

Clean-up methods

Natural weathering will remove the oil from most rockyshores within a few years. The clean-up response musttherefore either greatly reduce recovery time or be drivenby over-riding economic, amenity or wildlife concerns.

Examples are given of clean-ups that resulted in greaterimpacts and longer recovery times for shore organisms.Techniques that remove bulk oil without causing severephysical or chemical damage are preferable. A summaryof the main techniques is given under the headings: ● suction devices; ● low-pressure flushing with ambient temperature

seawater; ● high-pressure cold or hot water flushing and steam

cleaning; ● dispersants; ● sorbents; and ● manual removal.

The choice will need to take into account ease of access.

Rehabilitation

The least sensitive shores, and those with the greatestpotential for natural recovery, are found on exposedcoasts. Attempts to clean these shores are normallyunnecessary. Rocky shores in sheltered areas are moresensitive to both oil spills and damage from clean-upmeasures.

Rocky shores vary greatly in value. Some deserve aconsiderable protection effort. It is essential thatcontingency plans tailor the response to the particularshore. A pre-requisite for a good plan is a good set ofsensitivity maps, shoreline access details and clean-upguidelines, and good communication between theenvironmental advisors and the clean-up managers.


Porphyra

Fucus vesiculosusf. evesiculosus

Chthamalusstellatus

Himanthalia

Alaria

Caloplaca

Laminaria

Semibalanusbalanoides

Chthamalus

Verrucaria

Pelvetia

Fucusspiralis

Ascophyllum

Fucus serratus

Laminaria

Caloplaca

Verrucaria

An extremely exposed shore A semi-exposed shore A very sheltered shore

Mytilus patches Fucus vesiculosus Patella aspera Patella vulgata

Typical zonation patterns of rocky shores. Pelvetia is one of the fewseaweeds that can survive being almost completely dried out betweenhigh tides while Fucus serratus and Laminaria have to remain moist.Barnacles close their valves to stop moisture escaping while limpetshave a ‘home’ where the shell and the rock form a perfect fit. Softunprotected animals have to remain on the lower shore unless they canfind a moist crevice or pool.

Hot water washing of a beach in Prince William Sound, Alaska, thathad been oiled by the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989. Much of the shorelife could not survive temperatures that reached 60°C.


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BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:FISHERIES

This report describes the effects of oil spills on commercialfish and indirect effects on their habitats. The impact onfishing gear and aquaculture is also considered. Responseto spills is discussed, and case histories described.

Ecology of fisheries species

The species covered include fin-fish (or fish), crustaceansand molluscs. Pelagic fish swim in open water. Mostcommercial species, such as herring, tuna and mackerel,are caught within 200 metres of the surface. Benthicspecies live on the seabed; they include plaice, rays, mostcrustaceans and almost all shellfish. Demersal fish live nearthe seabed, mostly feeding on bottom-living animals.

Most bony fish produce large numbers of floating eggs.Sharks and rays lay small numbers of eggs in protectivecapsules and some give birth to live young. Most bivalvesshed their eggs into the water where they develop intofloating larvae which drift away.

The ecosystems in which fish play a major part includecoral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds and estuaries.

The sea’s harvests

Half the world’s commercial catch comes from two maingroups:● pelagic species, of which herring, sardines and

anchovies are the most important; squid are the onlymolluscs in this category; and

● demersal fish, such as cod, hake and haddock, andshrimps and prawns.

Most of the world’s catch comes from the highly productivewaters overlying the continental shelves, relatively close toland. Small-scale traditional fisheries are widespread amongcoastal people. The 10 per cent of the world’s catch providedby such fisheries is vitally important to many communities.

Many marine and freshwater species are cultivated. Effortsare mainly concentrated on those that command highprices (such as salmon and prawns) and those thatproduce a high yield under intensive culture (such asmussels). More than 80 per cent of aquaculture productionis in Asia (on which there is a detailed case history).

Effects of oil spills

Direct effects on fishKillsThere is no evidence that any oil spill has killed sufficientfish to affect adult populations. Shipping incidents ininshore areas can cause potentially more damage. Thedirect effects of oil on inshore shellfish beds, and fish andshellfish in aquaculture units, are of particular concern.

Effects on planktonEggs and young stages are more vulnerable to oil pollutionthan adults. Even though many commercial species spawnover large areas, direct effects on plankton have beenrecorded.

Effects on fish behaviour Wild fish swim away from oil spills and long-term effectson local populations are avoided. However, fishpopulations moving back into an area following a spillmay take some time to recover. Fisheries can also bedisrupted if migration routes are changed as a result of anoil spill. Spills that affect spawning migration into riverscan affect fisheries in subsequent years.

Sub-lethal effectsEven very low concentrations of oil can affect reproduction andfeeding in fish and shellfish. Unfortunately, laboratory studiescannot take full account of aspects such as continuous dilution

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME EIGHT

Changes in world fisheries catch, 1938–92

1940

fishe

ries c

atch

(mill

ion

tonn

es)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

total fisheriesmarine fisheriescod groupherring groupbivalve shellfishshrimps and prawns

Sour

ce: F

AO Y

earb

ooks

After a five-fold increase over 40 years, the world catch in marinefishing areas appears to have reached a plateau. Estimates suggest thataround 90 per cent of the world’s fish stocks are now being over-fished.


13

with time, animal predation and human predation (fisheries),which may in nature completely hide the studied effects.

Direct effects on fisheriesTaintingFish exposed to oil may become tainted by oil-derivedsubstances. Tainting is of particular concern in caged fishand immobile shellfish which cannot swim away.Commercial catches may also become contaminated fromcontact with oil-fouled fishing gear. Taint is usually lostthrough the normal processes of metabolism once the oilsource has gone, but testing is needed to determine whenfish are fit to eat. Studies have not demonstrated anyincreased risk of diseases in humans through eatingseafood from areas where oil spills have occurred.

Fishing activitiesMajor spills can result in loss of fishing opportunities withboats unable or unwilling to fish due to the risk of fouling.Exclusion zones may be imposed until the target specieshas been declared taint-free. This may cause temporaryfinancial loss to commercial fishermen and temporary foodshortage to artisanal fishermen.

Aquaculture and shellfishAs aquaculture expands, so too does the potential for oil spillimpacts. Oil may contaminate fixed aquaculture equipmentand intertidal shellfish, and will damage stock in tanks orponds if there is an intake of contaminated sea water.

Indirect effects: ecosystem disturbanceNatural dispersion and dilution of oil is relatively restrictedin semi-enclosed, estuarine and shallow near-shore areas,

where oil spills may affect the plant and animal speciesused for shelter and food by fish and shellfish.

Clean-up and rehabilitation

Knowledge of ecosystems and species in vulnerable areas,and their relative sensitivities to oil pollution, is essential forcontingency planning. Government agencies charged withthe management of fisheries or environmental resources arelikely to have information on local fisheries. Local peoplecan also provide inputs and, in the case of traditionalfisheries, may be the only source of information. Relevantinformation includes the location of spawning and nurseryareas, fixed equipment and fish farms, fleets and fishingareas, and the seasons in which they operate.

Fish farmers and fishermen should be quickly notified of oilspills. Consideration may also be given to harvesting theresource before impact. Fishing is normally suspended in an oilspill area if there is a risk of contamination. Such restrictionsmust be quickly lifted once the problem has been removed.

Methods used to protect fishery interests include deflectivebooms and the priority clean-up of relevant areas. Theimplications to fisheries of the use of dispersants is analysed.

Case studies of the Braer and the Exxon Valdez oil spillsdescribe the effects of these spills on fisheries and theresponses that were made.


Philippine seagrass ecosystem showing food chainsand interrelationships with fisheries

puffer

sea turtle

sea urchin

siganid

dugong

driftand export

epiphytes

epizoansuspension

feeders

zooplanktonphytoplankton

leaffragments

sinkingand decay

dissolvedorganicmatter

particulateorganicmatter

shore birds

mulchfor crops

coral reefs,mangroves

crabinfaunal

deposit feeders sea cucumber detritusrootsbindingsediments

juvenile fish,shrimps

high primaryproductionand growth

drift and export

seaweed

Extensive oyster farms near Xiamen, China.Aquaculture is particularly susceptible to oil spills.


14

BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL POLLUTION:SEDIMENTARY SHORES

This report describes the main types of sedimentaryshores—including pebble and sandy beaches andmudflats—their vulnerability to oil spill damage, thetechniques available for clean-up and their capacity torecover.

The variety and ecology ofsedimentary shores

Sedimentary shores range from coarse cobble beachesthrough sandy beaches to mudflats. The more exposed theshore, the steeper it is and the coarser the materialaccumulated. Sheltered areas tend to have gentlegradients and finer particles. Mudflats in estuaries are alsoformed from the material brought down by the river.

Cobble and pebbles are usually unstable, drain quicklyand support little life. Sand and mud, however, hold waterafter the tide has retreated, providing a habitat for manyburrowing species and for micro-organisms.

The distribution of organisms on the shore is influenced bytheir ability to avoid predators when the tide is out. Thisresults in zonation of species.

The longer the tide is out, the greater the exposure ofintertidal organisms to any material, such as oil, strandedby the retreating tide. Relatively few species can exist onthe upper reaches of the shore, and numbers increasetowards low water. In tropical areas, strong sunlight andmonsoon rains also limit numbers. All intertidal animalshave to exist under adverse conditions and but theyrecover quickly when more favourable conditions return.This helps them recover from an oil spill.

Some species are particularly vulnerable to changes inbeach use or pollution. Turtles, for example, lay their eggsabove the high tide and have to drag themselves acrossthe beach since their flippers are not strong enough tosupport their body weight. Their meat and eggs are highlysought after and most species have become seriouslydepleted. Some marine mammals—such as seals—also usesedimentary shores.

Human uses

Humans use sedimentary shores for recreation,aggregate extraction and reclamation. They also provideshellfish beds, bait species, fish or prawns that come inwith the tide and a site for the mariculture of oysters andother bivalves.


Oil may be cleaned from the shore surface by naturalprocesses, particularly wave action. Self cleaning is usuallyfaster on coarse beaches than on sheltered mud. Clay-oilflocculation can promote self-cleaning by reducing the

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME NINE

high tide level

low tide level

strong wave actionsteep profile, particles highly mobile

organisms none or absent

large interstitialspaces—water

drains freely

low water table

high tide level

gentle wave actionanaerobic layer

high water tableretained by capillary action

many organisms present

gradual profile,sediment relatively stable

low tide level

The nature of a sedimentary shore is influenced by the degree ofexposure to wave action.

Turtles drag themselves across sandy beaches to lay their eggs above thehigh tide mark.


15

adherence of oil to pebbles or cobbles. Oil may persist forlong periods if it is buried by wind-blown or water-movedsediments, if it penetrates deeply into the sediments, or if itforms asphalt pavements. Depth of penetration isinfluenced by particle size, oil viscosity, drainage, animalburrows and root pores.

Asphalt pavements or oil crusts form when large quantitiesof oil or mousse consolidate the surface sediment. Suchpavements can be persistent, though wave actioneventually breaks them up.

Oil biodegradation is not likely to be significant untilphysical processes have removed much of the oil.Biodegradation can then make a greater contribution,particularly to reducing oil toxicity. However,biodegradation is slow where oxygen is limited—forexample in poorly-drained fine sediments.

The greatest concern is likely to be the effects of oil onsheltered sediments. These retain oil and many worms,molluscs and crustaceans may be killed.

Recovery depends partly upon the sensitivity of the speciesconcerned. For example, following the Sea Empress spill,populations of mud snails recovered within a few monthsbut some amphipod populations had not returned tonormal after a year. Recovery is also related to thepersistence of oil in the sediments.

Long-term depletion of sediment fauna could have an adverseeffect on birds or fish that use tidal flats as feeding grounds, and

on turtle breeding. There have been some cases of oil killingseal pups, and adult seals may fail to breed in oiled areas.

Detailed examples are described for the Sivand oil spill of1983 in the Humber estuary, United Kingdom, and of howoil penetrates animal burrows.

Oil spill response

Responses include protection and clean-up. Protection isparticularly important for mudflats because they are highlyproductive but difficult to access. Shores important forbirds or turtles, or which are amenity, tourist or fishingbeaches should receive high priority. However, seasonalvariation in importance should be taken into account.

Protection techniquesA number of techniques are described including booms,dispersants and the construction of sand barriers.

Clean-up and rehabilitation Natural cleaning is suitable where wave action is sufficientto remove oil. It is also appropriate for sheltered shoreswhere other techniques would cause unacceptable damage.The other options described include flushing, manualremoval, mechanical removal, mechanical relocation,sorbents, tilling, vacuum pumping and bioremediation.


Serial photographs showing changes in appearance of an experimentally oiled sheltered sandflat over time:1. immediately after experimental application of 1 litre/m2 of Nigerian crude oil; 2. four days after oiling, having been covered by one high tide, the sediment oil concentration was over 90,000 mg/kg; 3. seven days after oiling, clean sand ripples migrated over the oiled surface;4. 44 days after oiling, the oil crust was being undercut from the left, but average oil content was still almost 20,000 mg/kg; 5. 388 days after oiling, oil concentration was about 5,000 mg/kg. The green algae are transient features of the sandflat and not related

necessarily to the oil.

1 2 3 4 5

PART 2Contingency planning for,

and response to, marine oil spills


18

A GUIDE TO CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR OIL SPILLS ON WATER

This Guide is provided by IPIECA to assist industry andgovernments in the preparation of oil spill contingencyplans. It focuses on spills on water, primarily from ships,but also contains information relevant to spills fromexploration and production activities.

The Tiered response

Oil risks and the responses they require should be classifiedaccording to the size of spill and its proximity to a company’soperating facility. This leads to the concept of a ‘Tieredresponse’ to oil spills. Refer to Volume 14, Guide to TieredPreparedness and Response, for full details on designing andbuilding levels of preparedness and response capabilities.

A contingency plan should cover each Tier and be directlyrelated to the company’s potential spill scenarios.

and to develop their own laws and procedures to preparefor, and respond to, oil spills.

It is crucial that industry works with governments todevelop a clear, common interpretation of the nationalrequirements and responsibilities of government agencies,industry and others.

Information gathering and risk assessment

Historic data, oil properties, climate, local meteorologyand environmental sensitivities are important factors inassessing the risk, behaviour, fate and potentialconsequences of spilled oil.

Oil propertiesThe base properties of an oil will determine the physicaland chemical changes that occur when it is spilled ontowater, and will account for its persistence and toxicity.

It is recommended that organizations prepare a list of theproperties of oils commonly traded or produced in their area.

Current and wind dataLocal current data and weather forecasts will assist indetermining oil spill response strategies and allowprediction of the movements of a slick.

Sea conditionsSea conditions influence the behaviour of spilled oil anddetermine effectiveness of response techniques.

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME TWO

largespill

mediumspill

smallspill

proximity to operations

Tierthree

Tiertwo

Tierone

local regional remote

The Tiered response:Tier 1: operational-type spills that may occur at or near a company’sown facilities as a consequence of its own activities. An individualcompany would typically provide resources to respond at this Tier.Tier 2: a larger spill in the vicinity of a company’s facilities whereresources from other companies, industries and possibly governmentagencies can be called in on a mutual aid basis.Tier 3: larger spills where substantial further resources will berequired and support from national or international cooperativestockpile may be necessary.

The influence of 3 per cent of the wind speed combined with 100 percent of the current speed results in the movement of oil from A to B.

Cooperation with government agencies

Governments are encouraged to ratify the IMOInternational Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,Response and Cooperation, 1990 (the OPRC Convention),

A

B

current 2 knots

oil movement at 2.08 knots

100%

3%

win

d 20

kno

ts


19

Computer trajectory modellingOil spill computer models have been developed that canprovide valuable support to both contingency planners andpollution response teams.

Sensitivity mapping of the environmentat risk

Making and updating sensitivity maps are key activities inthe contingency planning process. Sensitivity maps providespill responders with essential information by showing thelocation of different coastal resources and indicatingenvironmentally sensitive areas.

Strategy development

Viable response strategies should be developed. Thesemay have to be adaptable to different locations, underdifferent conditions and at different times of the year. Theymust be established in consultation with the relevantauthorities and stakeholders.

Equipment and supplies

The assessment of risk, data collection and responsestrategies already described are the cornerstones fordetermination of equipment requirements.

Recovered oil and debris management

Processing and final disposal of oil and oily debris in anacceptable manner requires planning. Care must be takennot to create another environmental problem.

0 1 hour 10 hours day week month year

spread

drift

evaporation

dissolution

dispersion

emulsification

sedimentation

biodegradation

photo-oxidation

A spill of typical medium crude oil onto water will follow a certainpattern. The line length denotes the duration of each stage; linethickness denotes the most critical phase of each stage.

Planning for response options tominimize damage

Ecological, recreational and commercial concerns shouldbe carefully balanced and the consequences of applyingor not applying a particular strategy should beunderstood by all parties.

Oil wastes intemporary storagenear a shoreline.

Management, training, exercises and planreview

In order to react quickly to an oil spill, response staffshould be assigned specific roles and responsibilities. It isalso vital that staff with an identified response role aregiven effective training.

Spill simulations are an excellent way to exercise and trainpersonnel in their emergency roles and to test plans andprocedures. Contingency plans will require periodicreview and maintenance.

The report also contains Appendices giving an example ofa contingency plan, showing functional responsibilities in aresponse organization, and indicating titles for follow-up reading.



20

SENSITIVITY MAPPING FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE

Introduction

Sensitivity maps convey essential information to thoseresponding to oil spills by identifying the sites of coastalresources and environmentally-sensitive areas. Makingsuch maps involves assembling information on resourcesand deciding what guidelines for spill response should beincluded. Uses range from planning practical site-specificshore protection and clean-up to strategic planning forlarge remote areas.

User groups and their needs

Different types of map will be used at different stagesduring the response. The first requirement is for a strategicmap covering a large area, showing the most importantresources in all the possible directions that a slick maytravel. When the direction of travel becomes clear, there isa need for intermediate-scale tactical maps. When oil isdeposited on the shore, there is a need for detailedoperational maps.

A cost-effective approach is to invest in intermediate scaletactical maps for the whole coastline, and detailed mapsfor high-risk areas. Maps should show information onsensitive resources (such as the locations of mangroves,fish farms and bird colonies) and on spill response andclean-up (such as areas where dispersants can be used,booming points, and shore access roads).

Map requirements

The publication lists the basic requirements for anunderstandable and easily useable map and the scales atwhich the different types of map should be prepared.Examples are shown of both the single map approach andthe series approach. The advantages of different mapformats and types of printing are discussed.

Information to be included on the maps

Shoreline typesMany maps classify shorelines using an environmentalsensitivity index (ESI). This is convenient but gives only partof the picture because it does not take into account uses ofthe shore by wildlife and people. Alternatives arediscussed.

Sub-tidal habitatsSome habitats and species are particularly sensitive to oilspills. These should be identified on maps, and a list of themost common is included.

Wildlife and protected areasMaps should show the areas of greatest sensitivity forwildlife species. Examples are given.

Fish, fishing activities, shellfish and aquacultureBoth commercial and subsistence fishing need to beconsidered, and the publication lists the features that needto be included.

Socio-economic featuresThese include boat facilities, industrial facilities,recreational resources, and sites of cultural, historical orscenic significance, on or close to the shore.

Oil spill response featuresThe types of response that can be included are listed, asare the means used to identify areas with differentprotection priorities.

IMO/IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME ONE

An extract from the Coastal Sensitivity Atlas of Mauritius, a largeformat atlas in which each map is accompanied by a page ofdescriptive text and information on specific resources. Note the insetlocation map.


21

SymbolsESI ratings have been indicated using either symbols orcolours. Symbols, or a combination of symbols and colour,are recommended. Examples of generalized symbols arereproduced.

Seasonal aspectsThe sensitivity of many resources may vary seasonally, andseasonal information should therefore be included.

Obtaining and agreeing information

Some information can be obtained from existing maps,photographs, publications and environmental data banks.Inconsistencies can be reduced by simplifying theinformation and by filling gaps. For larger areas, aerialphotographs or satellite images may be needed.

The information to be included needs to be agreed withbodies such as fisheries departments, tourist boards andconservation groups. Maps need to be updated atintervals, and this may involve reassessment of priorities.

Geographic Information Systems

The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) isgrowing rapidly. One of their most valuable features is thatthey can be easily altered and updated. As GIS becomemore widely used, the possibilities of linking different GISsystems and data are increasing.

A fully utilized GIS can be much more than just a map—indeed the data shown on a map may simply represent thetip of an iceberg. Maps themselves can easily becomecluttered and confusing but a well-designed GIS can helpavoid this problem. The World Conservation MonitoringCentre (WCMC) Biodiversity Map Library is an example ofa fully functional GIS operating at a small scale; otherexamples are described.

Conclusions

The publication concludes with a list of guidelines intendedto promote harmonization in the production of sensitivitymaps. These focus on clarity, the distinction betweensensitive resource information and spill response andclean-up information, environmental sensitivity ranking,cost-effectiveness, the use of symbols, and the treatment ofseasonality.


5 144 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13°E°W

°N 62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

size of symbol indicates scale ofimportance of concentration

type of bird in concentration

auk shorebirds

vulnerability categorieshighest vulnerability

lowest vulnerabilityunsurveyed or inland water

diver

seaduck

other seabirds

Many maps characterize sites with an environmental sensitivity index (ESI). Recovery times are rapid on exposed headlands, classified ESI 1.ESI 5 beaches of mixed sand and coarser sediments have medium to high permeability to oil, and usually low biological productivity. The mostvulnerable shores, ESI 10, include saltmarshes and mangroves. These often act as oil traps due to their extreme shelter.

Methods of indicating seasonality. In Seabird Concentrations in theNorth Sea: an Atlas of Vulnerability to Surface Pollutants, adifferent map is given for each month of the year. The map for Aprilshows seabird distribution heavily influenced by the breeding season,with birds concentrated around coastal and island breeding areas.

ESI 1 ESI 5 ESI10


22

CHOOSING SPILL RESPONSE OPTIONS TO MINIMIZE DAMAGENet Environmental Benefit Analysis

Introduction

After an oil spill, urgent decisions need to be made abouthow to minimize environmental and socio-economicimpacts. The advantages and disadvantages of differentresponses need to be compared with each other and withnatural clean-up. This process is called Net EnvironmentalBenefit Analysis.

The process must take into account the circumstances ofthe spill, the practicalities of clean-up response, therelative impacts of oil and clean-up options, and somekind of judgement on the relative importance of social,economic and environmental factors. Decisions are bestand most rapidly made if contingency planning hasincluded reviews of environmental and socio-economicinformation, and consultations and agreements byappropriate organizations.

Aims of spill response

The aims are to minimize damage to environmental andsocio-economic resources, and to reduce the time forrecovery. This can involve: ● guiding or re-distributing the oil into less sensitive

environmental components;● removing oil from the area of concern and disposing of

it responsibly.

Initiation of a response, or a decision to stop cleaning andleave an area for natural clean-up, should be based on anevaluation made both before the spill (as part of thecontingency planning process) and after it.

The evaluation process

Evaluation typically involves the following steps:● Collect information on physical characteristics, ecology

and human use of environmental and other resources ofthe area of interest.

● Review previous spill case histories and experimentalresults which are relevant to the area and to responsemethods which could be used.

● On the basis of previous experience, predict the likelyenvironmental outcomes if the proposed response isused, and if the area is left for natural clean-up.

● Compare and weigh the advantages and disadvantagesof possible responses with those of natural clean-up.

Each of these steps is considered in detail in the text.

Considerations and examples

Oil on the waterWhen a large spill occurs many miles offshore and it is notclear where the oil will move, a wide-ranging preliminaryevaluation is an appropriate precaution, Rapid decisionmaking is particularly important for nearshore situations,where there may be only a few hours available before theoil reaches the shore.

If sea conditions preclude containment and recovery,dispersant spraying may be the only possible option ifthere is to be any at-sea response.

Oil on the shoreIf large volumes of mobile oil are present on the shoresurface, a rapid response is necessary before the oilspreads. For some shores, ecological recovery times maybe reduced by rapid action to remove smothering orparticularly toxic oil. In contrast, more time can be given todecisions involving small amounts of weathered oil firmlystuck to the shore or retained beneath the surface.

For many spills which do not involve thick or particularlytoxic oil deposits, moderate shore cleaning has little effect

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME TEN

Mangrove swamps, such as this one in Nigeria, are typicallyimportant both ecologically and socio-economically (e.g. for shellfishproduction). They are also vulnerable to damage by oil.


23

on longer-term recovery rates of shore organisms. This isan important finding for shoreline response, because itraises key issues for decision making about clean-up.

The text discusses these issues in detail, dealing in turnwith severity of oiling, whether there are interactingsystems (wildlife species or nearshore ecosystems) whichmight be damaged if the shore is not cleaned, and socio-economic issues such as the importance of protectingamenity beaches, marinas and fisheries.

Conclusions

Some damage caused by specific response options maybe justifiable if the response has been chosen for thegreatest environmental and socio-economic benefit overall.● Groundwork for evaluation of response options is best

done before a spill as part of contingency planning.● The advantages and disadvantages of different

responses should be weighed up and compared bothwith each other and with the advantages anddisadvantages of natural clean-up.

● Response options need to be reviewed when a spilloccurs, and such a review should be an ongoingprocess in cases of lengthy clean-up operations.

● Offshore and nearshore dispersant spraying can leadto an outcome of least environmental harm.

● For onshore evaluation, it is necessary to consider boththe shore in itself, and systems which interact with theshore.

● In many cases of oiling there is no long-term ecologicaljustification for clean-up.

● For extremely oiled shores, moderate clean-up canfacilitate ecological recovery, but aggressive clean-upmay delay it.

● In most cases of shore oiling where moderate clean-upis considered likely to reduce the damage to socio-economic resources, wildlife or near-shore habitats, thiswill not make a significant difference to the shoreecological recovery times.


After the Sea Empress spill in southwest Wales it was important toclean this rocky shore quickly because there was free oil which mighthave moved elsewhere, the bay is an important area for tourists, andthe shore is an area of outstanding ecological interest.

This beach near Madras, India, is an example of an area which is soimportant for amenity and tourism that restoration of human useafter oil pollution would take precedence over ecological considerations(such as protecting any crabs that survived the oil).


24

GUIDELINES FOR OIL SPILL WASTE MINIMIZATIONAND MANAGEMENT

This report explains the waste generation implications ofdifferent oil spill clean-up techniques and describes bestpractice options for oiled waste management, which inmany countries is strictly regulated.

The importance of waste management

There is a constant risk of oil spills in almost everyenvironment worldwide. If a spill occurs at sea, the actionof currents, winds and tides will often result in the spilt oilimpacting a shoreline. This has many implications but oneof the most difficult problems to deal with is the quantity ofwaste generated in a very short period. Historical datashow that oil spills impacting the shoreline can, in extremecases, produce up to 30 times more waste than the volumeof oil originally spilt. Although there may be differentreasons for the amount of waste generated, it is alsoevident that a significant number of smaller spills havecreated large amounts of waste. The management of allwaste in any spill should be regarded as a high priority.

Waste management considerations

The waste hierarchyA useful model when dealing with a waste streamoriginating from any source is the ‘waste hierarchy’. Thisconcept uses principles of waste reduction, reuse andrecycling to minimize the amount of waste produced, thusreducing environmental and economic costs and ensuring

that legislative requirements are met. It provides a tool forstructuring a waste management strategy and can be usedas a model for all operations.

SegregationIn the event of a spill and the subsequent clean-upoperation, oil and oiled debris collected becomes a wastethat should be segregated, stored, treated, recycled ordisposed of. Assuming segregated disposal routes areavailable, an important process in the first stages of an oilspill response is to classify and segregate waste streams atsource. Waste should be channelled into separate storagedependent upon type, taking into consideration the mostsuitable containment for that material.

MinimizationMinimization is a method of reducing the amount of wasteentering the waste stream. This is essential to reduce theamount of waste for final disposal, thus limitingenvironmental and economic impacts.

Secondary contaminationSecondary contamination is the spread of oil via people,transport and equipment to otherwise unpolluted areas.This should be avoided to control the overall impact of thespill, and can be achieved in a number of ways.

Health and safetyAll hydrocarbons potentially pose some degree of healthrisk and it is therefore essential that a health and safetyplan is drawn up before any activity commences. Risksfrom physical hazards, e.g. storage pits, should not beoverlooked. Each stage of the management process shouldbe assessed to establish any potential health and safetyrisks together with appropriate mitigating methods.

Waste generated by different oilrecovery methods

The nature of the environments in which spills occur andthe clean-up techniques used all determine the waste typeand quantity generated. The key is to ensure that eachwaste type is segregated at source and the amount ofwaste kept to a minimum. This will facilitate recycling aswell as the environmental and economic efficiency ofdisposal. Examples are given of the types of wastegenerated by different recovery methods.

IPIECAREPORTSERIES

VOLUME TWELVE

Reduction

Reuse

Recoveryrecycling;

composting;energy recovery

Refuse

Efficient methods should be developed for oil spill clean up to ensure that the minimum material is used and/or contaminated during the process.

This is the reuse of an item for its original purpose, i.e. clean-up equipment should be cleaned and reused in place of disposable items. An example might be the cleaning of PPE so that it can be reused.

This is the production of a marketable product from waste, e.g.taking waste oil to a refinery for conversion into other usableproducts. This will be directly affected by the quality of therecovered product, i.e. highly contaminated material is less likelyto be suitable for recycling.

Refuse is the final and least desirable option. If none of the abovemethods can be carried out for whatever reason the waste must bedisposed of effectively through some means. This may be the casefor highly mixed wastes of oil, plastics, organic debris, water,sediments etc. which cannot be separated.

most desirableoption

least desirableoption

The ‘waste hierarchy’ provides a tool for structuring an efficientwaste management strategy. (Modified from Williams 2000)


25

On-site/near-site temporary storage

Location of the storage site should be carefully plannedand should, ideally, be above high-water, spring tide andstorm wave limits to avoid being washed away. In regionssubjected to extreme heat certain storage containers,especially plastic bags, should be protected fromprolonged exposure to direct sunlight as this can causebreakdown of their material. Storage containers should belabelled with the contents, quantities and relevant hazardlabels before transportation, and relevant documentationpassed to the driver or waste manager. In some countriesthis is enforced by legislation. The appropriateness ofdifferent storage methods is discussed in the report for avariety of spill situations.

Intermediate/long-term storage and transfer

It is essential that all long-term storage sites be set up assoon as possible after a spill in order to facilitate efficienttransfer of waste from the spill site. Storage sites should bestrategically placed at locations which are suitable for thestorage of contaminated waste. Effective management ofthese sites is also important in order to ensure that the wasteis correctly handled, stored and prepared for final disposal.

If possible waste transfer, storage and disposal issuesshould be addressed at the contingency planning stagewhen different authorities can discuss the situationrationally without the pressure of an emergency situation. Itis also essential that contingency plans be kept up to datewith organizational or legislative changes.

Treatment, recycling and final disposal ofoiled waste

The objective of any oil spill clean-up operation is ultimately totreat, recycle or dispose of the oily waste in the most efficientand environmentally sound manner. The disposal optionchosen will depend upon the amount and type of oil andcontaminated debris, the location of the spill, environmentaland legal considerations and the likely costs involved: themerits of various options are explored in the report.

Examples of temporary storage on the shoreline and at sea (clockwisefrom top left): portable tanks; barrels; sacks; inflatable barges; in-builtvessel tanks; lined pits.

Beach washinginvolves the cleaningof pebbles and cobbles.

Conclusions

An oil spill inevitably leads to numerous difficult decisionshaving to be made with regard to the supply of resources,prioritizing of resources, best practice clean-up techniques,and the safety of those involved, to name just a few. Theissue of waste management can be one of the mostsignificant aspects, in terms of both the operational impact,and the environmental and financial burdens. For successfulmanagement of these problems it is essential that the issuesare well understood in advance so that they can be plannedfor, and ultimately mitigated. This should be possible throughthe use of the best practice techniques which are describedin greater detail in the report and the implementation of aneffective contingency plan that includes waste management.



26

A GUIDE TO OILED WILDLIFE RESPONSE PLANNING

This Guide provides an overview of the differentcomponents of oiled wildlife response. It focuses on criticalplanning issues and response options and is intended as areference guide for oil spill managers, government officialsand industry representatives who may be called upon tomake important decisions regarding the fate of wildlife inthe immediate aftermath of an oil spill.

Animals suffering from oil exposure or contamination needprompt and appropriate treatment, ranging fromrehabilitation to euthanasia. Dead animals can revealimportant information and need to be collected in asystematic way to allow for a proper impact assessment.Wildlife mortality can mobilize a myriad of groups andindividuals, some of whom will assist while others willhinder rehabilitation efforts through protest. The media willtend to pay disproportionate attention to the wildlifeproblem in an oil spill incident. If a wildlife problem doesoccur as a consequence of the oil spill incident, adequateassessment of environmental impacts and the success ofoiled wildlife rehabilitation will depend on acomprehensive wildlife response plan.

What are the key features of an effectiveoiled wildlife response?

1. Responders working safely.2. Joint primary aims of the response to mitigate the

impacts on wildlife welfare and conservation valuesthreatened or impacted by the oil spill event.

3. Systematic objective data collection to facilitate impactstudies where legislative and compensation regimesmandate such assessments.

4. Responsible utilization of resources, and auditabledocumentation of costs.

5. Cooperative and collaborative inclusion of wildlife andenvironmental stakeholders in planning and operations.

6. Utilization of widely accepted protocols and practices.7. Minimization of the environmental impact of the wildlife

response activities.8. Adherence to legal permitting requirements for wildlife

interactions, including capture, holding, marking andrelease of wildlife.

9. Wildlife response integrated into wider oil spillresponse effort.

Effects of oil on wildlife

When oil spills occur, there is likely to be an immediateimpact on the environment and on the wildlife present.Birds may be perceived by the media as the highestpriority for response attention, but other groups of animals,including invertebrates, fish, reptiles and mammals, canalso be affected. The likely adverse affects on these groupsare described.

Resources at risk

Any wildlife response plan should include an assessment ofthe species that occur within its geographic limits and theresources at risk that may need protection in the event of aspill. This information is important in the pre-spill planningprocess, in real-time spill planning, and in the initiation ofthe wildlife response and its ongoing efforts. If fullyintegrated with the wider oil spill response plan it couldidentify whether the protection of various resources wouldrequire the use of, for example, protective booming,specialized hazing stockpiles, capture or rehabilitationequipment, or coating of shorelines with sorbents etc. Allof this information should be presented in a user-friendlyformat that responders can access readily to determine theimportant areas and species to protect.

Objectives of oiled wildlife response

Human safety must always be considered first. If a wildliferesponse cannot be done safely, it should not beattempted. Risk assessment conducted during the pre-spill

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External effects, e.g.

• fur/feather damage• skin irritation• hypothermia• decreased foraging

Population changes, e.g.

• decreased abundance• population shifts• decreased genetic diversity

General internal effects, e.g.

• organ damage• gastrointestinal irritation• hematological changes

Reproductive effects, e.g.

• abnormal behaviour• decreased fertility• embryo malformation/death• juvenile malformation/death

The effects of oil on animals and their populations


27

planning process can help to identify unacceptable risksand offer removal or mitigation actions to reachacceptable levels of risk.

The most important objective of any response to oilpollution is to minimize environmental impacts. This can beaccomplished by:● preventing oil reaching critical habitats by using

protective booming and/or other response technologies;● reducing the oiling of wildlife by preventing animals

from entering the impacted environment; and ● if practical, the initiation of pre-emptive capture and

removal of animals at risk.

If animals are oiled and the necessary resources are available,rehabilitation can be effective in minimizing the impact.

Response activities

The following mix of activities may be considered the maincomponents of a good oiled wildlife response and aredescribed more fully in the guide:● incident assessment and monitoring;● preventing wildlife from getting oiled;● record keeping, evaluation, reporting;● dealing with dead casualties; and● dealing with live casualties.

Operational aspects

When live animals are involved, time is a pressing factor.There is also the matter of public attention, which can beexacerbated by media interest. A number of operationalaspects that need careful planning are summarized belowand discussed in this volume of the report series:● mobilization;● coordinating wildlife response;● moving from incident response to project management;● management of animal care;● geographical organization of facilities;● planning;● management of volunteers;● minimizing waste and secondary pollution—waste

management;● international management;● wildlife operations and the media; anf● demobilization.

Health and safety

The first priority of an incident response, beforeconsideration is given to oiled wildlife response activities,must be the health and safety of the people involved.

The cleaning of a birdrequires experiencedwashers—the plumagecan easily be damaged.

Working with animalsWild animals are not used to being handled. Their naturalresponse to human interference is aggression, as a means ofprotection, which can be prompted by sudden movements,capture and noise—in fact by anything that they mightperceive as a ‘disturbance’. Beaks, claws, wings, etc. are allpotential weapons and can cause severe damage to thosehandling the wildlife. Cuts, scratches, etc. should be treatedimmediately because these can be a source of infection.

ZoonosesThese are diseases which can be transmitted fromvertebrate animals to man, and include bacteria, viruses,fungi and parasites. For marine mammals, the two mostimportant are salmonellosis and other bacterial infectionsdue to direct contact, including bites.

Protective clothingAs a minimum, staff should be equipped with personalprotective equipment (PPE) as follows:● Field team: oil impermeable coveralls, rubber boots,

hard hats, nitrile gloves;● Working with animals: oil impermeable coveralls,

nitrile gloves, safety glasses;● Washing animals: waterproof clothing, nitrile gloves,

safety glass.

Response planning

The structure, prescriptions and approaches of anyoperational contingency plan will typically reflect specificcultural traditions and philosophies on how emergencies arebest dealt with. It is therefore not possible for this guide topresent a ‘blueprint’ of a plan that can simply be copied andused in any local setting, although a suggested structure forcontingency planning is included, and some key componentsdescribed more fully. Detail is also given on key issues in theplanning process: plan ownership; selecting responsibleofficers and personnel; the tiered response concept; fundingand compensation. Training, exercises and regular review ofthe oiled wildlife response plan is essential.



28

DISPERSANTS AND THEIR ROLE IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE

Dispersants are one option for reducing damage from oilspills. By breaking up slicks, they can lessen effects fromoil coating and smothering, reducing biological damage.However, dispersants are not a panacea. This reportconsiders when they should be used, and when theyshould not, and how the dispersant option relates tocontingency planning.

Dispersants and how they work

It is common knowledge that oil and water do not mixeasily. Spilled oil floats on the sea surface in calmconditions. The mixing action of the waves can cause oiland water to combine in two ways:

Natural dispersionWaves break up the oil slick, forming oil droplets thatbecome suspended in the water. The majority of these oildroplets will float back to the surface; but a smallproportion of tiny droplets with neutral buoyancy willremain dispersed in the water almost indefinitely.

Water-in-oil emulsificationThe mixing action of waves can cause water droplets to beincorporated into the oil, forming a water-in-oil emulsionwhich has a much higher viscosity than the oil from whichit is formed. This emulsion is often referred to as ‘chocolatemousse’ and can increase in volume by up to four timesthat of the spilled oil.

Dispersants alter the balance between natural dispersionand emulsification, pushing the balance strongly towardsdispersion and away from emulsification. By applyingdispersant onto the spilled oil, it is possible to inhibitemulsion formation while promoting oil dispersion.

Dispersants—the active ingredientsDispersants promote the formation of numerous tiny oildroplets, and delay the reformation of slicks because theycontain surfactants with hydrophilic heads which associatewith water molecules, and oleophilic tails which associatewith oil (see diagram). Oil droplets are thus surrounded bysurfactant molecules and stabilized. This helps promoterapid dilution by water movements.

The formation of droplets increases the exposure of oil tobacteria and oxygen, favouring biodegradation. However,the distribution of oil into the water column is increased.How to weigh up these advantages and disadvantages isone of the main subjects of this report.

Advantages and disadvantagesof dispersants

Dispersion of floating oil into the water column provides anumber of advantages, including:● reducing risk of contamination of marine habitats and

wildlife;● assisting with biodegradation of the oil by increasing

exposure to naturally-occurring bacteria and oxygen;● reducing the amount of surface oil susceptible to

drifting with the wind;● rapid treatment of large areas through application of

dispersant from aircraft compared to alternativeresponse methods;

● dispersed oil droplets can become associated withsuspended sediment, producing a neutrally buoyant‘aggregate’ which is distributed naturally over largeareas at very low concentrations.

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oil

hydrophilic(water-seeking)

headgroupwater

oleophilic (oil-seeking)tailgroup

Surfactant Surfactant-stabilizedoil droplet

oil slickdispersant spray

1. Surfactant locating at oil/water interface

2. Oil dispersed into surfactant stabilized droplets

Surfactants consist of two parts; a water-seeking hydrophilicheadgroup and an oil-seeking oleophilic tailgroup. This allows themto stabilize oil droplets.


29

The main potential disadvantage of dispersion of oil is thelocalized and temporary increase in oil in waterconcentration which could effect marine life in theimmediate vicinity of the spill.

Subsequent sections of this report consider the importanceof weighing up the advantages and disadvantages ofdispersant application.

Types of dispersants available

This section of the report looks at the types, effectivenessand means of application of dispersants developed overthe years.

Low toxicity dispersants, known as ‘Type 1 dispersants’(UK classification) were developed at the beginning ofthe 1970s. Still available today, they are of relativelylow effectiveness and need to be used at very hightreatment rates.

More efficient dispersants were produced using a highersurfactant content. The higher viscosity of these dispersantsmade them difficult to apply using certain existing sprayingmechanisms, but this was later overcome by substitutingsome of the solvent with seawater. Such water-dilutabledispersants became known as ‘Type 2’ (UK classification)dispersants.

Higher performance dispersants using blends of differentsurfactant types were developed in 1972 andimprovements in formulations continued into the 1990s.Most modern dispersants can be sprayed from aircraft,and from boats and ships.

What dispersants can and cannot do

Dispersants function by enhancing the rate of naturaldispersion caused by wave action. The results of field andlaboratory tests are described. A table summarizes casehistories of effective dispersant use.

When appropriate, and under most circumstances,dispersants can remove more oil than physical methods.However, dispersants do not always work well: dispersantspraying was ineffective on heavy fuel oil spilled from theVista Bella (Caribbean, 1991).

Properties of spilled oil which affect dispersanteffectiveness (e.g. viscosity, wax content, pour point, seatemperature) are discussed. The need to recognize thedifferent types of dispersants and their characteristics isemphasized.

The potential for natural dispersion of light crude oil wasspectacularly demonstrated when the Braer grounded in severeweather on the Shetland Isles, Scotland, in January 1993, losing itsentire 85,000-tonne cargo. Some 120 tonnes of dispersant wasapplied from aircraft, mainly to treat slicks that formed close to thewreck during periods of slightly calmer weather.

Effectiveness and toxicity testing

Dispersant effectiveness is usually judged visually, althoughit is difficult to assess concentrations of dispersed oil in thewater column through visual analysis alone. Laboratoryanalysis of water samples indicates that oil levels following

Dispersant-treatedoil breaking up intoclouds of droplets.


30

DISPERSANTS AND THEIR ROLE IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE (continued)

dispersion are not high. UVF techniques have been usedover the past ten years to confirm that dispersants arehaving a positive effect.

Laboratory procedures for testing toxicity are also useful butcannot be used to predict environmental effects. Studieshave shown that toxicity concerns should be focused on thepotential environmental effects of chemically-dispersed oilrather than on dispersants themselves.

To spray or not to spray

Weighing up the advantages and disadvantages ofdispersant spraying is of primary importance in thedecision-making process. The evidence from spill casehistories and experiments is summarized.

Dispersed oil in the water columnInformation on concentrations of oil below dispersant-treated slicks comes mainly from field experiments inopen water. Measured oil concentrations range from<1 to >60 ppm. How damaging are such exposures tomarine life? Information from the US National ResearchCouncil, and the Searsport, TROPICS and BIOSexperiments is summarized. A case history is included onthe Searsport experiment.

Field experiments on chemically dispersed and untreated oilThere is little comparative information for birds andmammals. Direct fouling of birds and fur-insulatedmammals is disastrous for them, and it is assumed thatdispersion of surface slicks must be beneficial because itreduces the risk of such fouling. However, use ofdispersants as ‘shampoos’ increases the wettability of furand feathers, which can lead to death by hypothermia.Spraying should be kept as far as possible from birdsand mammals.

Economic considerationsEconomic factors are important in deciding whether or notto spray dispersants—for example, beaches and marinasmay need to be protected by dispersants but industriesusing saltwater intakes may be adversely affected bydispersants. Economic and biological considerations maycoincide; for example, a mangrove swamp may beimportant both ecologically and economically and sorequire priority protection.

Dispersants and contingency planning

The ‘window of opportunity’ for dispersant sprayinggenerally lasts for only two to three days, so it is essentialthat the dispersant option has pre-approval under certainconditions depending on water depths, currents, wavecharacteristics and mixing energy, and distance fromsensitive resources. Named products have to be approvedand stocked. There are also logistical requirements, suchas approval in principle for aircraft to operate in certainareas. Details are provided on the pre-approval process.

The pre-approval process involves:● definition of oil types, scenarios and geographical

locations where dispersants are a viable option fromthe logistical point of view;

● net environmental benefit analysis, i.e. consideration ofthe advantages and disadvantages of dispersant usecompared with those of other response options;

● on the basis of the above, identification of locationsand situations where dispersant use can or cannot bepre-approved—any restrictions should be indicated onsensitivity maps.

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The Searsport experiment: the objective of this field experiment was toobtain quantitative information on the fate and effects of chemicallydispersed and untreated oil in a nearshore area.Below left: aerial view of chemically dispersed oilRight: clam sampling


31

The dispersant option is then discussed in relation to anumber of hypothetical scenarios:● the open sea, slick moving rapidly towards a fishing

ground and islands with important bird colonies;● a large river;● nearshore, slick moving through area of shallow water

with coral reefs, towards a mangrove area;● nearshore, slick moving through area of shallow water

with coral reefs, towards a sandy shore; ● nearshore, slick moving towards industrial water

intakes or harbours;● nearshore, slick moving through area of shallow water

with sub-tidal shellfish, towards tourist resort; and ● rocky shore, with sub-tidal seafood resources (e.g.

lobsters) near the shore.

Dispersant use on shorelines

The use of dispersants on shorelines requires carefulconsideration of the risks and benefits. The approaches toshoreline clean-up are discussed, and the report notes thatspecialized shoreline cleaning agents are now availablewhich should be considered in preference to dispersants.


Application optionsIdeal spraying systems deliver dispersant uniformly to theslick in a way which maximizes dispersant-oil mixing andminimizes wind drift. The various dispersant applicationsystems—boat-based systems, aircraft-based systems andhelicopter-based systems—are summarized.

Dispersant options are discussed in relation to a number ofhypothetical scenarios: options are assessed for a range of open sea,inland and nearshore environments.

Dispersant application options are discussed, including boat-basedsystems, fixed wing aircraft-based systems (above), and helicopter-based systems.


32

GUIDE TO OIL SPILL EXERCISE PLANNING

This report is designed to guide those who areresponsible for developing and managing oil spillresponse exercises. It is illustrated with eight casehistories of exercises that have been held by industriesin different parts of the world.

The Guide describes four categories of exercise andestablishes an exercise planning process that involvesfour steps—designing, developing, conducting andreviewing.

Exercises provide many advantages. Response teamscan practise their skills, work together closely and makecomplex decisions under stressful circumstances. Plans,equipment and systems can be tested and improved.And government and industry can demonstrate theircommitment to managing the risk of oil spills.

It is essential that the roles of the different partiesinvolved are properly reflected in exercises.Government representatives should be involved inindustry-led exercises and industry representatives ingovernment-led exercises. This enables all parties toexplore and understand their separate roles andresponsibilities. The final authority, however, almostalways lies with government.

Exercise categories

A well-coordinated programme of oil spill exercisesincludes activities of varying degrees of interaction andcomplexity. Four exercise categories are identified, lastingfrom about one hour up to about 14 hours: ● notification exercises;● tabletop exercises;● equipment deployment exercises; and● incident management exercises.

Planning process

Exercise planning consists of four separate activities—design, develop, conduct and review—that collectivelydescribe the process for creating and running realistic andsuccessful exercises. The process cycle is illustrated in thefigure below.

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GUIDING PRINCIPLES

● Ensure that management from the top down supports the exercise activity.

● Set clear, realistic and measurable objectives for an exercise.

● The thrust of exercising is to improve—not to impress.

● Simpler, more frequent exercises lead to faster improvements initially.

● Do not tackle complex exercises until personnel areexperienced and competent.

● Too many activities, locations and participants canovercomplicate an exercise.

● Evaluating the exercise successfully is as important asconducting it successfully.

● Planning and conducting a successful exercise is a significant accomplishment.

Design phase

The design phase is described in six activities: ● appoint Exercise Coordinator;● set objectives;● determine exercise scope;● establish exercise plan;● set the date; and● obtain management approval.

Design● appoint coordinator● set objectives● determine scope● establish plan● set the date● obtain approval

Develop● establish coordination/

initiate Steering Group● develop scenario● finalize plans● set public affairs

objectives Conduct● brief participants● initiate play● maintain exercise● evaluate activities● terminate play

Review● collect data● analyse events● report findings● make recommendations● effect improvements

Exercise programme Contingency plan

The exercise planning process


33

Development phase

The development steps covered here are common and maybe applied to exercises of different categories, scope andobjectives:● establish coordination/initiate Steering Group;● develop scenario;● finalize plans; and● select public affairs objectives.

should be given a couple of weeks in advance but the exacttime and day of the exercise should not be disclosed.Deciding how the exercise should be initiated is importantfor establishing realism and urgency. Clear responsibility forinitiating play at a predetermined time and in a prescriptedmanner should be established. It is often worthwhile to checkthat lines of communication have been established at anearly stage, rather than risk delays in starting the exercise.

The pace and direction of the exercise is set by theinterjections that update information on the imaginedincident. Evaluation should begin during the exercise andcarry through until after completion. Orderly termination ofexercise activities is critical to ensuring that play endspositively and tidily.

Review phase

Evaluation is critical to improving emergency and crisisresponse capabilities. This phase of an exercise consistsof collecting and analysing data and reports,documenting the findings and making recommendationsfor improvements. Summaries of the findings andrecommendations should be copied to exerciseparticipants and to management, as feedback.

A schedule should be set for reporting and discussing thefindings of an exercise to ensure details and opinions arenot forgotten. A target of two to four weeks for completionof the process might be appropriate.

Once the reports have been discussed and conclusionsdrawn, recommendations for improvement can be made.Priority should be given to those options that can beimplemented quickly and easily. It is perhaps appropriatethat the Exercise Coordinator be made responsible forimplementing and communicating the changes. Alternatively,the individual or group with overall responsibility for thecontingency planning process should effect the changes.

Exercising contingency plans, however, is a reiterativeprocess. Any adaptation of the plan will need furthertesting. The process continues by returning to the designphase to start the planning of another exercise.


Building in realism: in thisoil spill exercise, theapplication of dispersants issimulated using vegetablecolouring as a substitute forthe real thing.

Public affairs

In major oil spill incidents, handling the media andmanaging the crisis consumes much time. Exercise plannersshould take care to choose public affairs objectives thatcreate realistic situations and provide public affairspersonnel with practice of managing oil spill issues. Whereexercise planners wish to test the capability of the responseorganization to handle the media, it is best to employcompany personnel or outside consultants to simulate mediainterjections. When involving outsiders, special care shouldbe taken to ensure the boundaries of the exercise areunderstood and maintained. The cooperation of the localcommunity is essential. Relationships with the community,therefore, should be established at an early stage.

Conducting the exercise

The conduct of an exercise consists of briefing participants,initiating play, maintaining the exercise, evaluatingactivities and, finally, terminating play.

All participants require an exercise briefing, In the case of anotification exercise, when one of the objectives is to testteam members’ availability and response times, any briefing


34

OIL SPILL RESPONDER SAFETY GUIDE

Health and safety should be the cornerstone of all oil spillpreparatory measures. The purpose of the report is toinvestigate the safety aspects of oil spills and theirresponse, focusing on identifying the principal safety issueswhen an oil spill occurs, their degree of severity and thepractical steps that can be taken to minimize the impact ofthe spill. It is recognized that safety is managed in manydifferent ways around the world and no attempt is made toprovide a ‘blue-print’ safety document.

Management control of spill safety

The safety of the general public and responders is assignedthe highest priority during spill response operations. Aresponse management system, with safety as its coreelement, should start from the top and penetrate to all levelswithin the organizations participating in response activities.

To ensure that safety takes its proper place during responseoperations special actions need to be taken. Themanagement team should appoint an individual and, ifnecessary, a supporting team, with a responsibility forsafety management. Responders can often become tooinvolved in operations and not be able to take an overallview of the situation. The safety manager needs to be ableto step back from the operation and consider wider issues.

The safety manager should be responsible for monitoringand maintaining awareness of active and developingsituations, assessing hazardous and unsafe situations anddeveloping measures to assure personnel safety. Thefollowing measures are described more fully in the report:

● site assessment;● developing and implementing a Site Safety and Health

Plan (SSHP);● participating in planning meetings to identify health

and safety concerns;● correcting unsafe acts or conditions through the regular

line of authority; and● establishing first-aid stations and medical facilities in

accordance with the SSHP.

Risk assessment

The first task that should be undertaken when preparing toconduct oil spill response operations is a comprehensiverisk assessment and hazard analysis. When an oil spilloccurs the management team will need to carry out a high-level risk assessment of the overall situation as soon aspossible to ensure that oil spill responders or the widerpopulation are not in danger. The initial approach shouldbe to answer such questions as:● Is there a potential gas cloud and therefore an

explosion risk?● Should people be evacuated or excluded?● Is the environment safe for people?● Will oil enter water systems that may affect people?

The risks posed by particular operations or locationsshould be assessed on a case by case basis; an exampleof a typical Site Safety Survey Form is given in the report.The risk assessment should be fully documented and filed.

Spilled product and response clean-up:chemical safety

Responses to oil spills inevitably put responders andchemicals together in the same environment. Potentialexposure of personnel should be assessed, monitoredand controlled if health effects are to be avoided. Eachtype of product, when spilled into the environment, willhave its own set of chemical characteristics that willdetermine the most effective response strategy and,indeed, which strategies are safe to use. It should beborne in mind that the chemical characteristics of thespilled product will usually change over a period of timeas a result of what is known as ‘the weathering process’,i.e. the action of the elements on the product and itsreaction with the surroundings.

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Briefing the response team prior to a day’s operations


35

Oils, whether in the crude state or as refined products,represent a safety hazard. The main hazards that canarise are described in the report and result from thefollowing properties:● flammability;● explosive vapours;● toxicity;● hydrogen sulphide;● exclusion of oxygen; and● the slippery nature of oil.

The working environment and safety duringresponse operations

Oil spills can occur in practically any type of environment andunder all climatic and meteorological conditions. This posesa number of challenges to responders and has an overridinginfluence on the response options available. Some aspects ofthe working environment (such as site layout, security, workingshifts) may be controlled by the responders themselves.Others, including the weather and the terrain, must be givenconsideration and accommodated when response targetsare set. In every working environment, safety must remainthe top priority, and measures to control any risks put in place.A variety of spill site hazards are described in the report.

Safety and welfare facilities on sitePotable water, non-potable water, toilets and personalhygiene facilities should be readily available. Details of thelocation of hygiene facilities should be contained on theSite Safety Map.

Decontamination is best performed in a specific sequence,described in the report, to reduce levels of contaminationon personnel, PPE, equipment or transport until nocontaminant remains. Facilities should be established todeal with the waste from cleaning stations so it can bedisposed of in an approved manner in order to preventsecondary pollution.

Management of volunteers

Volunteers will frequently offer their services to assist,either as part of the clean-up team or to assist withwildlife rescue. Volunteers are often inexperienced anduntrained in spill response activity, so this resource canbe both an asset and a liability if their use is notcontrolled and insufficient care is given to safety andwelfare. For this reason, safe use of volunteers needscareful thought and planning.

If volunteers are used in a response activity, it should be insuch a way that their safety is assured. A specific trainingprogramme should be provided, identifying the risk andhazards and how to avoid injury. Volunteers should alsobe provided with appropriate PPE and integrated in to theoverall command structure to ensure that they have thebenefit of safety information briefings.

Conclusions

The clean-up of spilled oil is important, but not asimportant as ensuring the safety of those who are involvedwith, or may be affected by, the spill. The health andsafety of the public and the responders is a critical aspectof a successful operation. The problem is not a particularlycomplex one, but one that requires management, planningand common sense to minimize the risk of accidents.


Providing safe access tothe worksite is criticalto reducing the risk ofaccidents.

Personal protective equipment selection and site facilities

PPE selectionPersonal protective equipment (PPE) is essential forensuring responders are able to work in a safe manner.The proper selection and use of PPE requires skill andexperience. The following points should be taken intoconsideration when selecting the appropriate PPE:● the expected working conditions and hazards;● the activities to be performed;● the person(s) being exposed; and● the compatibility of the equipment—each piece of PPE

should be capable of performing effectively withouthindering the proper operation of other pieces.


36

GUIDE TO TIERED PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

This report supersedes The Use of International Oil IndustrySpill Response Resources: Tier 3 Centres. It describes theprinciples of Tiered Preparedness and Response, providesguidance on designing and building oil spill responsecapabilities, and offers illustrations of the principles in practice.

Introduction

Developed originally by the oil industry in the 1980s, TieredPreparedness and Response ensures that appropriateresources can be mobilized rapidly to provide an effectiveresponse to any oil spill, ranging from small operationalspillages to a worst-case scenario, at sea or on land. Theapproach is entirely consistent with the InternationalConvention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response andCo-operation (OPRC). Taken together, they offer governmentand all sectors of the oil industry a structured approach toestablishing oil spill preparedness and responsearrangements commensurate to the risk in any situation.

Tiered Preparedness and Response

In essence, Tiered Preparedness and Response is a structuredapproach that allows potential oil spill incidents to becategorized in terms of their potential likelihood and severity,and the capabilities that need to be in place to respond.

Conventionally this has been based on considering the sizeand location of a potential oil spill, with three tiers typicallydefined. While this gives a useful starting point, in practicethere are potentially many factors that may influence theactual response capability needed at each tier.

These influencing factors will vary between locations andoperations, with their perceived importance being vieweddifferently by the various operators, governmental authoritiesand other stakeholders. As a result, it is entirely feasible thatcontrasting tiered capabilities could justifiably be establishedfor different operations in the same locality or the same typeof operation in different localities. There are four main typesof factor each influencing the way response capabilities aredesigned and built; operational factors, setting factors,response capability factors and legislative factors.

The process of defining the tiers of capability and theboundaries between them is part of a wider risk managementstrategy; ensuring that all potential risks are as low as

practicable and taking measures to mitigate the residualconsequences. The events that may lead to oil spills can beidentified, from which indicative scenarios can be developed.These scenarios can be categorized in terms of likelihood ofoccurrence and potential impact, taking into account theprevailing operational and setting factors, allowing the oil spillrisk to be determined. By considering scenarios in these terms,a tiered response capability can begin to be designed that iscommensurate with the identified risk. Then, by taking intoaccount other factors such as those related to the availabilityof Tier 2 and Tier 3 capabilities, along with any legislativefactors, tiered capabilities can be designed and theboundaries between tier levels defined (see diagram, facing).

There are no prescriptive answers for what capability isneeded to respond to any particular set of scenarios. Thechallenge for the planner is to look at the events that mayarise and how the scenarios may develop, and then makedecisions, in conjunction with the stakeholders involvedand based on the factors perceived of greatestsignificance, on the capability required at Tier 1 and onthe necessary arrangements at Tier 2 and Tier 3 levels.Through a process of balanced judgement, tieredcapabilities are therefore set at levels that are consideredmost appropriate or feasible in the circumstances.

The overall aim is to establish manageable resources at theTier 1 level that are appropriate to the perceivedimmediate risk, and for these same resources to be used as

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VOLUME FOURTEEN

Examples of factors influencing the response capability needed

Operational factors

• Probability and frequency of an oilspill occurring

• Spill volume• Oil type• Impact of the spill on business

operations• Feasibility to mount a safe, credible

response

Setting factors

• Proximity of the spill to operations• Climate, weather or operating

conditions altering fate andbehaviour of oil or impedingresponse operations

• Proximity to sensitive environments• Proximity to socio-economic resources

Response capability factors

• Tier 1 resources influenced bybudgetary commitments, provisionof personnel and logistics

• Availability and capability ofregional Tier 2 options

• Access to Tier 3 support

Legislative factors

• Political stability and culture of hostcountry

• Governmental requirements forspecific response actions orperformance criteria

• Influences of national, provincial orlocal government authorities

• Stipulated subscription to designatedTier 2 or Tier 3 support


37

Working Together

The way in which the tiered arrangement is set up andapplied, varies considerably depending on thecircumstances and factors influencing decision-makers andstakeholders. Starting with a Tier 1 spill, for whichresponse actions can be fairly well prescribed in advance,the Tiered Preparedness and Response system offers themost efficient way of setting appropriate higher levels ofpreparedness, and then calling on them for a response, inan entirely flexible manner. It is only through workingtogether in a collaborative way that the full benefits can berealised both at the planning stage and during a response.

Applying the principles of Tiered Preparedness and Responseduring contingency planning can ensure suitable capabilitiesare developed, commensurate with the oil spill risk atlocal, regional, national and international levels. Whenestablishing tiered capabilities and setting boundariesbetween tiers, consideration must be given to all of the factorsthat characterize a particular situation, focusing on thoseperceived of greatest importance to the stakeholders involved,with the definition of individual tiers being entirely flexible.

Concluding statement

By drawing on the principles of the Tiered Preparednessand Response approach and the OPRC Convention,industry and government have an internationallyrecognized, consistent, efficient and highly effectiveframework for building preparedness and responsecapabilities for oil spills worldwide.


a first response until additional supportfrom the higher tiers is integratedeffectively for the more severe oil spills.

The fundamental components ofpreparedness and response areconsistent across all tiers of capability:● spill assessment and notification;● management framework and roles

and responsibilities;● response strategies;● equipment;● response personnel;● training programme for all

stakeholders;● exercises to test and practice the

arrangements; and● escalation and integration for people,

equipment and other resources.

Tier 1

Tier 1 events are likely to be relatively small and/or affecta localized area. They may be dealt with best using localresources, often prepositioned close by, and managed bythe operator.

Tier 2

Tier 2 events are more diverse in their scale and by theirnature involve potentially a broad range of impacts andstakeholders. Correspondingly, Tier 2 response resources arealso varied in their provision and application, and maycome from a number of sources. Examples include: mutualaid agreements between industry operators; industryfunded oil spill response cooperatives; specialized Tier 2services; or cooperation at the local/provincial governmentlevel. Management responsibilities are usually shared in acollaborative approach and a critical feature is the integrationof all resources and stakeholders in the response efforts.

Tier 3

Tier 3 events are rare but have the potential to causewidespread damage, affecting many people andoverwhelming the capabilities of local, regional and evennational resources. Tier 3 response resources areconcentrated in a relatively few locations, held in readinessto be brought to the country when needed. Examples of suchresources include Tier 3 Response Centres, stockpiles in highrisk areas and governmental Tier 3 capabilities. Suchsignificant events usually call for the mobilization of verysubstantial resources and a critical feature is their rapidmovement across international borders and the integration ofall resources into a well organized and coordinated response.

Operational and Setting Factors Response Capability Factors

For e

xam

ple:

pro

babi

lity

and

frequ

ency

of a

spill

eve

nt,

oil v

olum

e and

type

, im

pact

on

busin

ess o

pera

tions

, etc

.

App

ropr

iate

ope

ratio

nal f

acto

rs

Appropriate setting factorsIn most cases arange of factorswill need to be

taken intoaccount

For example: proximity to operations, operatingconditions, sensitive resources at risk, etc.

Narrowed Tier 2 capabilityA lack of adequate Tier 2 options may result inenhanced Tier 1 capabilities, allowing a greaterfirst response to be initiated prior to mobilizingany Tier 2 and then Tier 3 resources.Alternatively a closer availability of Tier 3 supportmay lessen the reliance on Tier 2 options.

Large Tier 2 capabilityIn areas where there are comprehensive Tier 2options, there is less reliance on the Tier 1 andeven Tier 3 capabilities. Although Tier 1 may beset at a comparatively lower level, there must stillbe sufficient capability to respond appropriatelyto those scenarios derived from Tier 1 events.

Less reliance on Tier 3 capabilityWhere it is difficult initially to introduce Tier 3resources, perhaps due to remoteness ordifficulty with customs and immigrationprocedures, a greater reliance may fall on boththe Tier 2 and Tier 1 capabilities.

Legislative Factors• Certain response capabilities may be set by governmental authorities that may not match the risk-based approach underlying Tiered Preparedness

and Response.• The planner may be influenced in the design of response capabilities by the presence of legislative controls and/or the existence of pollution-

related penalties.

Tier 3

Tier 2

Tier 1

Tier 3

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3


38

A GUIDE TO OIL SPILL COMPENSATION

The purpose of this Guide is to provide a summary of the1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 FundConvention, and to provide a basis on which tankerowners, oil companies and other interested parties canpromote their ratification by all coastal States.

Introduction

The Torrey Canyon incident in 1967 stimulated thedevelopment of two voluntary agreements and twointernational Conventions regarding compensation tothose who incur clean-up costs or suffer pollution damageas a result of oil spills from a tanker. The voluntaryagreements were terminated on 20 February 1997. TheConventions were the 1969 International Convention onCivil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (‘1969 CLC’) andthe 1971 International Convention on the Establishmentof an International Fund for Compensation for OilPollution Damage (‘1971 Fund Convention’). In 1992 this‘old’ regime was amended by two Protocols whichincreased the compensation limits and broadened thescope of application of the original Conventions. Theamended Conventions are known as the 1992 CivilLiability Convention (‘1992 CLC’) and the 1992 FundConvention. This Guide deals primarily with the ‘new’1992 regime and also introduces the InternationalSupplementary Fund Protocol for Compensation for OilPollution Damage, 2003 (‘Supplementary Fund’), whichentered into force in May 2005. Two voluntarycompensation agreements introduced in 2006 are alsodescribed: the Small Tanker Oil Pollution IndemnificationAgreement (STOPIA) and the Tanker Oil PollutionIndemnification Agreement (TOPIA).

More than 100 countries have ratified one or other of theConventions and compensation of many hundreds ofmillions of US dollars has been paid.

Fundamental features of the compensationConventions

A two-tier system of compensation is established by theinternational Conventions, with the owner of the tanker thatcaused the spill being legally liable for the payment ofcompensation under the first tier, and with oil receiverscontributing once the tanker owner’s limit of liability hasbeen exceeded. A third tier is introduced by the‘Supplementary Fund’. The provisions of STOPIA andTOPIA are also described.

First layer of compensation—the tanker owner andhis P&I ClubThe text describes the scope of application of the 1992CLC; the concept of strict liability; the limitation of liability;who can be held liable; the concept of compulsoryinsurance and the Protection and Indemnity Clubs (P&IClubs—mutual, non-profit making associations whichinsure their shipowner members against various third-partyliabilities, including oil pollution).

Second and third layers of compensation—the 1992Fund and Supplementary FundThe text discusses the administration of the International OilPollution Compensation Fund 1992 (‘1992 Fund’); when itpays; the contributors to the 1992 Fund; and how claimsare approved and settled. The Supplementary Fund, whichis closely modelled on the 1992 Fund, is also described.

Voluntary Agreements—STOPIA and TOPIAThe text describes the provisions of STOPIA and TOPIA whichare voluntary agreements introduced by the InternationalGroup of P&I Clubs on behalf of ship owners in 2006. Theagreements are designed to maintain an equitable sharing

A JOINTIPIECA / ITOPF

BRIEFING PAPER

Source of money

Up to about US$135 million,dependent on the size of the ship

Up to about US$306 million

Up to about US$1 billion

Legally liable party

SupplementaryFund

Insurance(P&I Clubs)

Levies on oil receiversin 1992 FundMember States

Levies on oil receivers inSupplementary Fund

Member States

Primary tier of compensation

1992 CIVIL LIABILITYCONVENTION

Second tier of compensation

1992 FUNDCONVENTION

Tanker owner

IOPC Fund1992

Third tier of compensation

SUPPLEMENTARYFUND PROTOCOL

The three levels of compensation established by the internationalConventions: the owner of the tanker from which the oil is spilled islegally liable for the payment of compensation under the first level;oil receivers in Fund Member States contribute to the second andthird level once the tanker owner’s applicable limit of liability hasbeen exceeded.

30

100,000gross tonnage

2003 Supplementary Fund & TOPIA

1

1992 Fund

1992 CLC

STOPIA

1

US$ million Special Drawing Rights (million)1,125

5,00029,548

50,000140,000

5

100

7

200200

750

50

100

10

300

10

203050


39

of the financial burden of oil spill compensation betweentanker owners and oil cargo interests.

Working togetherThe final part of this section deals with how to address aclaim; the relations between the P&I Clubs and the1992 Fund; submissions to joint claims offices that thesetwo bodies may set up in special cases; and the role oftechnical experts. These experts are often members oftechnical staff from the International Tanker OwnersPollution Federation (ITOPF).

Compensation limits

The amounts of compensation available under the 1992 CLCand 1992 Fund Convention, and the Supplementary Fund,are illustrated and detailed in the text of the Guide, whichalso explains the relationship between the variousConventions and the voluntary agreements. What happens ifthe approved claims might exceed the compensationavailable is also described.

Record keeping

The speed with which claims are settled depends largelyupon how long it takes claimants to provide the P&I Cluband the 1992 Fund with the information they require in aformat that permits easy analysis. It is vital that all thoseinvolved keep records of what was done, when, whereand why in order to support claims for the recovery of themoney spent in clean-up. The text describes how theserecords should be kept and what they should contain.

Claims presentation

The text discusses who is entitled to compensation, theperiod in which a claim must be made, how the claimshould be presented. Information on how to obtain furtherguidance on these issues is included.

Compensation in states not Party to theConventions

Some States which have not ratified the internationalcompensation Conventions have their own domesticlegislation for compensating those affected by oil spillsfrom tankers within their territory. In other countries thathave not acceded to the Conventions, reliance has to beplaced on broader laws developed for other purposes. Thetext discusses the problems this can cause and urgesratification of the Conventions.

Conclusions

The Conventions provide a straightforward mechanismwhereby the costs of clean-up measures and pollutiondamage can be recovered on a strict liability (‘no fault’)basis from the individual tanker owner and P&I Clubinvolved in an incident and from the 1992 Fund andSupplementary Fund. So long as the clean-up measurestaken in response to an incident and the associated costsare ‘reasonable’ in the particular circumstances, and theclaims for compensation are well presented and supportedby relevant documentation and evidence, few difficultiesshould be encountered. The compensation available(approximately US$1,125 million) should be adequate inmost cases.

The Guide concludes with a section providing answers tocommonly asked questions relating to compensationmechanisms for oil pollution damage.


Scope of compensation—admissible claims

For a claim to be admissible it must fall within thedefinition of pollution damage or preventive measures inthe 1992 CLC and 1992 Fund Convention. Claims inrespect of pollution damage can fall under: ● preventive measures (including clean-up);● damage to property;● economic losses; and● reinstatement/restoration of impaired environments.

Each of these categories is considered in turn, including adiscussion of how ‘reasonable’ clean-up measures areinterpreted for the purpose of the Conventions.


40

IPIECA reports

Volume number Title First published

1 Guidelines on biological impacts of oil pollution 1991

2 A guide to contingency planning for oil spills on water 1991 (2nd edition 2000)

3 Biological impacts of oil pollution: coral reefs 1992

4 Biological impacts of oil pollution: mangroves 1993

5 Dispersants and their role in oil spill response 1993 (2nd edition 2001)

6 Biological impacts of oil pollution: saltmarshes 1994

7 Biological impacts of oil pollution: rocky shores 1995

8 Biological impacts of oil pollution: fisheries 1997

9 Biological impacts of oil pollution: sedimentary shores 1999

10 Choosing spill response options to minimize damage:net environmental benefit analysis 2000

11 Oil spill responder safety guide 2002

12 Guidelines for oil spill waste minimization and management 2004

13 A guide to oiled wildlife response planning 2004

14 Guide to tiered preparedness and response 2007

Reports published jointly with IMO

Volume number Title First published

1 Sensitivity mapping for oil spill response 1996

2 Guide to oil spill exercise planning 1996

Reports published jointly with ITOPF

Title First published

Oil spill compensation: a guide to the international conventions on liability and compensation for oil pollution damage 2000 (2nd edition 2007)

LIST OF TITLES IN THE IPIECA OIL SPILL REPORT SERIES


42

IPIECA’S ROLE AND MEMBERSHIP

IPIECA is the single global association representing both the upstream and downstream oil and gas industry on keyenvironmental and social issues, including: oil spill response; global climate change; fuels and products; health;biodiversity; social responsibility; and sustainability reporting.

Founded in 1974 following the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), IPIECAprovides a principal channel of communication with the United Nations. IPIECA Members are drawn from privateand state-owned companies as well as national, regional and international associations. Membership covers Africa,Latin America, Asia, Europe, the Middle East and North America.

Through a Strategic Issues Assessment Forum, IPIECA also helps its members identify emerging global issues andevaluates their potential impact on the oil industry. IPIECA’s programme takes full account of internationaldevelopments in these issues, serving as a forum for discussion and cooperation, involving industry and internationalorganizations.

Company Members

BG Group

BHP Billiton

BP

Chevron

CNOOC

ConocoPhillips

Eni

ExxonMobil

Hess

Hunt Oil

KPC

Mærsk

Marathon

Nexen

NOC Libya

Occidental

OMV

Petrobras

Petronas

Petrotrin

PTT EP

Repsol YPF

Saudi Aramco

Shell

SNH

StatoilHydro

TNK-BP

Total

Woodside Energy

Association Members

American Petroleum Institute (API)

Australian Institute of Petroleum (AIP)

Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)

Canadian Petroleum Products Institute (CPPI)

The Oil Companies’ European Association forEnvironment, Health and Safety in Refining andDistribution (CONCAWE)

European Petroleum Industry Association (EUROPIA)

International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (OGP)

Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ)

Regional Association of Oil and Natural Gas Companiesin Latin America and the Caribbean (ARPEL)

South African Petroleum Industry Association (SAPIA)

World Petroleum Council (WPC)

The attached CD-ROM includes the complete IPIECA Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Report Series, publishedbetween 1990 and 2007, in PDF format†. Each report in the series is included in full, and the majority are availablein English, French, Spanish and Russian. Some reports are also included in Italian, Chinese and Japanese.

The publication Action Against Oil Pollution, which was published jointly by key international stakeholders in 2005,is also included. Action Against Oil Pollution contains links to related topics and more detailed information, includingother files on the CD-ROM and resources on the Internet.*

†Requires Acrobat Reader™ *Web browser and Internet connection required

Oil Spill Preparedness and Response

IPIECA Report Series on CD-ROM

Oil spill preparedness Sensitivity mapping Oil spill and response for oil spill … ·...

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