ogy-- Costa Rica.pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaag203.pdf · -2 extensively cited in the literature from...
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Transcript of ogy-- Costa Rica.pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaag203.pdf · -2 extensively cited in the literature from...
AECY FOR INTKRNATIONAL DEVKLOPMENT FOR AID USE ONLY WASHINGTON, 0. C. 20523
BIBLIOGRAPHIC INPUT SHEET - " A. PNIMAIRY
I. SIhJECT Food production and nutrition AE50-0000-G354 CLASSI. FICATION. af~lsoiol ogy-- Costa Rica.
2. TITLE AND SUBTITLE Kinship links among small-scale fishermen in the Gulf of Nicoya;Costa Rica
2. AUTHORIS)
Pollnac ,R.B. 4. DOCUMENT DATE IS. NUMBER OF PAGES 6. ARC NUMBER
1977I 15p* PGC
7. REFERENCE ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
R,I*
8. SUPPLEMENT ARY NOTES (Sponsorlng Organltlaton. Publishafri A valabilit y)
(In Anthropology working paper no.17)
9. ABSTRACT
10. CONTROL NUMBER 11. PRICE OF DOCUMENT
PN-AAG-203
12. DESCRIPTORS Attitudes Psychological aspects
13i PROJECT NUMBER 931011300
Costa Ricadeveloment Small scale industries 14. CONTRACT NUMBER
Economic dCSD-2455 211(d) Family relations Technological change is. TYPE OF DOCUMENT
Fishermen AID 590-1 14-74)
C2S - 24* 5" 2/, )
Anthropology Working Paper No. 17
Kinship Links Among Small-Scale Fishermen in
The Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica
by
Richard B. Pollnac
Departmeht of Sociology and Anthropology
International Center for Marine Resource Development
University of Rhode Island
May 1977
Kinship Links among Small-Scale Fishermen in
the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica
by
Richard B. Pollnac
INTRODUCTION When changes are proposed at the productive level
of any sector of the economy it is important to understand
existing sociali'relations between individual workers at the
level involved. Workgroups with which individuals are
personally identified provide a degree of psychological security
and satisfaction, and innovations perceived as threatening the
structure of these groups often meet resistance (Foster 1973).
Among small-scale fishermen, changes in the nature or size
of technology can result in drastic changes in work group com
position (cf. Fraser 1966; Pollnac 1976). Additionally,
changes restricting access to resources can result in denial
of access to some group members who would-normally enter the
occupation (Gersuny and Poggie 1973). These individuals would be
dispossessed of what they normally considered a right, and re
sistance to the new regulations would probably develop. An
understanding of these potential problems will facilitate
development of policy and plans which will minimize social
dislocations and increase the probability that proposed changes
will succeed.
Kinship plays an important and varied role in the structure
of the occupation of fishing in many parts of the world. The
importance of kinship in fishe'rmen's workgroups has been
-2
extensively cited in the literature from regions as widely
separated as Ghana (Quinn 1971), Peru (Sabella 1974),
Micronesia (Knudson 1970), the Faroe Islands (Blehr 1963),
Ulithi (Lessa 1966), and the West Indies (Aronoff 1967). The
need for harmony on a vessel is essential for success at
sea, and kinship ties may enhance cooperativeness within the
workgroup. Other factors may also increase the tendency
toward kin based crews. For example, Gladwin (1970) notes
that among the Mfante of Ghana, boat crews with family cores
are more stable than non-kin linked crews. On Moala kinship
ties are related to the sharing and loaning of capital equip
ment such as boats (Sahlins 1962), while on Tikopia canoes
are nominally owned by heads of kin groups, but actually by
the kin group as a whole (Firth 1965). Sabella (1974) suggests
that the use of kin in the crew among small-scale fishermen from
Peru is often related to keeping boat production within the
family.
Among some fishing people, however, we find that kinship
plays little or no role in crew composition. Glacken (1955)
notes that family members fish from different vessels on
Okinawa. This is done to minimize loss to individual families
if a fatal accident occurs. Further, neither Taiwanese
(Diamond 1969) nor Malay (Firth 1966) fishing crews are
primarily based on kin ties. Norr (1972) reports a similar
situation in South India and suggests that the skilled nature
-3
of the 0ccupation of fishing results in worker recruitment
on the basis of skill and interpersonal ability rather than
social ties.
It also appears that recruitment to the occupation of
fishing takes place along kinship lines in many societies.
For example, in societies cited above wherein crew composi
tion is based on kinship links, kinship doubtless plays a
role in recruitment. Data from the Atlantic Coast of North
America also indicates a great deal of kinship ties between
fishermen (Liguori 1968; Proskie and Adams 1969; Gersuny and
Poggie 1973).
In this paper kinship links between fishermen in the
Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica will be examined. Specifically,
the paper provides a description of the role of kinship in
crew structure and recruitment to the industry. The
paper also examines variance in the role of kinship among different
age and residential groups.
- 4 -
METHODS
SAMPLE Data for this report are based on interviews with
125 small-scale fishermen from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica.
Part of the sample was drawn from Barrio el Carmen, Puntarenas.
Puntarenas, the major Pacific port of Costa Rica, is located
on a thin finger of land jutting westward into the Gulf of
Nicoya approximately 110 kilometers west of San Jose. Barrio
el Carmen is at the extreme western end of Puntarenas and is
inhabited primarily by small-scale fishermen. A sample of
50 small-scale fishermen were interviewed at Costa de Pajaros,
a concentration of fishermen in a rural region approximately
21 air-kilometers northwest of Puntarenas on the coast of the
Gulf of Nicoya. In both areas most small-scale fishermen
fish from motorized wooden plank or dugout vessels from
15 to 30 feet in length using handlines and/or nets. Some
still use sail or oars. Fishing crews usually consist of
three men. Sometimes unskilled individuals are taken along
as helpers. Fishermen report that crews are selected primarily
on the basis of fishing skill. Reported characteristics of
undesirable crew members (i.e. bad character, liar, thief,
etc.) suggest that social skills are also important. Fishermen
report that catches are usually divided fifty-fifty, with one
half going to the vessel and one-half being divided among the
crew members. If an unskilled helper is present, he gets a
much reduced share which is determined by the crew. In some
cases trip costs are removed before division of catch, and in
others, costs are deducted from the vessel share. Although
-5
this reportedsystem isthe most frequent , a random'sampling
..of landings over a five month'period,has thus far identified
some 25 systems (Sutinen, personal communication). It is
important to note for purposes of this paper that variance in
Somecatch distribution often occurs when kin fish together.
times the entire catch is pooled, and proceeds go to the
domestic group as a whole.
Data for this report were obtained from questions in-TESTS
cluded in a larger sociocultural questionnaire. Interviews
were conducted in Spanish.
ANALYSIS Turning first to the relationship between kinship
and crew membership we find that for the total sample, a
slight majority (52%) of the fishermen do not fish with kin.
34 percent of the fishermen fish with at least one,relative,
10 percent with two, while only 4 percent fish with three
or more kinsmen.
As can be seen in Table 1, however, the rural and urban
•areas differ significantly with regard to the role that
-kinshipplays in crew membership.
Table 1. Number of Relatives in Crew
Number Urban Rural
4 1 3
3 0 1
2 7
1 20 22
0. 48 17
TOTA .75 50
-6
66 percent of the rural as contrasted with 36 percent of the
urban fishermen fish with relatives. This difference is
statistically significant (X' = 10.817, p<.01).
Table 2 indicates kin types that fish with respondents
in both the rural and urban area. Tabular entries refer
to number of respondents reporting designated relative as
a crew member.
Table 2. Relationships Between Respondents and Crewmembers.
FREQUENCY
Relationship Urban Rural
Father 6 5
Brother 6 19
Son 5 4
Father's Brother 2 3
Mother's Brother 0 1
Nephew 2 1
Spouse 2 0
Cousin 2 5
Wife's Brother 2 2
Non-relative 48 17
The rural column in Table 2 sums to more than 50 because
some rural fishermen fish with more than one kin type. Over
all, the greatest difference between the rural and urban
area with respect to crew membership is the higher proportion
of brothers who fish together in the rural area. In the rural
-7
area',we find that 38 percent of the fishermen fish with a
sibling in contrast to only_8 percent in the urban area
( 16.875, p <.001). Age is not related to inclusion
of relatives in crew. The mean age of the sample is 30.7 years.
48 percent of those less than 30, and 48 percent of those
30 years of age and older fish with relatives.
STurning to familial involvement in fishing, Table 3
reflects number of relatives of each respondent in the rural and
urban areas who are involved in fishing. Tabular entries refer
to the number of respondents who report having the indicated
number of relatives involved in fishing.
Table 3. Number of Relatives Involved in Fishing.
FREQUENCY
Number of Urban Rural Relatives Fishing
20 0 1
16 0 1
13 0 4
12 0 3
11 1 5
10 0 3
9 0 3
8 0 4
7 0 2
.6 3 3
5 6 3
4 7 2
3 9 8
2 " 13, 4
1 19 1
q .0 17 3
TOTAL 75 50
-8-
For the total sample the mean number of relatives in
volved in fishing is 4.12. If we dichotomize the entries in
Table 3 at the sample mean we find that only 13 percent of the
urban fishermen have 5 or more relatives who fish in contrast
to 64 percent of the rural fishermen, a statistically sig
nificant difference (X2 = 34.519, p <.001).
Table 4 provides a breakdown of the various kin types in
volved in fishing. Tabular entries refer to the number
of respondents who report having one or more of the indicated
kin type involved in fishing.
Table 4. Kin Types Involved in Fishing FREQUENCY
Relationship Urban Rural
Father 32 34
Brother 38 38
Son 8 4 Father's Brother 6 22
Mother's Brother 4 8 Nephew 2 1
Spouse 2 0
Cousin 10 7
Confining our remarks to kin types reported by at least .
20 percent of the sample, we find that the rural sample reports
a significantly greater proportion of fathers, father's brothers,
2and brothers involved in fishing (X = 7.726, p<.0l; X2 = 22.367,
-9
p .00;.; X2= 8..8,.0l respectively).
The preponderance of kinship links between fishermen in the
rural area is also'indicated by the distribution of family
names. If we limit our examination to family names shared by
at least five fishermen, we find that in the rural area out
of a sample of fifty, one family name is shared by 19 fish
ermen, another by 8, and four others by 5 fishermen each.
In the urban area out of a sample of 75, three family names are
shared by more than five fishermen each, and in each case
only six fishermen share the name.
Turning to occupational succession, we have already seen
that a larger proportion -f rural fishermen have fathers who
were fishermen. This suggests that in the rural area expecta
tions are high that a fisherman's son will become a fisherman.
This suggestion is supported by the fact that in the rural
area more fishermen report that they would like it if their
son became a fisherman than in the urban area (64% versus
33%, = 11.373, p<.001). Further, individuals who fish
with relatives are more likely to want their sons to become
fishermen than those who do not (61% versus 37% respectively,
X2 = 7.541, p<.01). Finally, as can be seen in Table 5,
rural fishermen are more likely than urban to be introduced
into fishing by relatives.
- 10 -
Table 5. Distribution of Individuals who
Taught Respondent to Fish Classified by Kin Type
FREQUENCY
Relationship Urban Rural
Grand Father 0 1
Mother's Brother 1 1
Brother 3 6
Father and Cousin 1 0
Father 18 28
Non-relative 52 14
TOTAL 75 50
72 Percent of the rural fishermen were taught to fish by
relatives as opposed to only 31 percent of the urban. This
2difference is statistically significant (X = 20.565, p <.001).
DISCUSSION Overall, kinship appears to play an important
role in crew structure and occupational succession among
small-scale fishermen in the Gulf of Nicoya. The large number
of fishermen who have relatives who fish clearly indicates
the salience of kinship links in this occupation. It is
important to note that these links are primarily agnatic
(i.e. through the male line) as would be expected in an occupa
tion which is composed principally of males (all except one
of the fishermen interviewed were males). For the most part,
these kinship links are more salient in the rural area than
in the urban area.
These interrelationships between kinship and small-scale
,fishing'n the Gulf of Nicoya have several implications for
research and development in this sector of the economy:
(1) Changes in technology which would affect workgroup structure
(ile. by creating highly specialized jobs or radically increas
ing or decreasing crew size) should be examined to determine the
effect they would have on the role of kinship in crew structure.
Attitudes toward these potential effects should be investigated,
and if necessary, proposed changes should be adjusted to desired
workgroup structure. (2)Changes such as limiting entry to the
occupation need to be more carefully conducted in areas where
occupational succession follows kinship lines. Alternative occupa
tional opportunities need to be provided to take the place
of the occupation that individuals had normally considered their
birthright. To be most successful, these alternative occupa
tional opportunities should provide the same degree of satisfac
tion as small-scale fishing. As a means of achieving this
goal, we need to understand the fishermen's perceptions of
his occupation in comparison with other occupations. (3) Finally,
economic studies involving fishermen's income should be aware
of the degree of kinship involvement in crew structure.
Individual income may appear to be low in some cases, but if
kinship involvement is high and if the proceeds of the catch are
pooled for household use, household income may be higher than
individual income would suggest.
- 12 -
In sum, we have examined the extent of kinship involvement
in small-scale fishing in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, and
have found that it is relatively more extensive in the rural than
in the urban area. Implications of kinship links in crew
structure and occupational succession were discussed and
considered of sufficient importance to warrent their considera
tion in any program of planned change which would affect
the structure or recruitment of workgroups among these small
scale fishermen.
REFERENCES CITED
Aronoff, Joel 1967 Psychological Needs and Cultural Systems. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.
Blehr, 0. 1963 Action Groups in a Society with Bilateral Kinship: a case study from the Faroe Islands. Ethrology 2:269-275.
Diamond, Norma 1969 K'un Shen: a Taiwan Village. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Firth, Raymond 1966 Malay Fishermen (2nd ed.). Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books.
Firth, Raymond 1965 Primitive Polynesian Economy, London: Routledge and K. Paul.
Foster, George M. 1973 Traditional Societies and Technological Change (2nd Edition). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gersuny, C. and J. Poggie 1973 The Uncertain Future of Fishing Families.. The Family Coordinator (April): 241-244.
Glacken, Clarence J. 1955 The Great Loochoo. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- 13 -
Gladwin, Hugh 1970 Decision Making in the Cape Coast (Fante) Fishing and Fish Marketing System. PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University.
Knudson, Kenneth E. 1970 Resource Fluctuation, Productivity, and Social Organization on Micronesian Coral Islands. PhD. Dissertation, University of Oregon.
Lessa, William A. 1966 Ulithi: A Micronesian Design for Living. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Liguori, V.A. 1968 Stability and Change in the Social Structure of Atlantic Coast Commercial Fisheries. PhD. Dissertation, Princeton University.
Norr, Kathleen 1972 A South Indian Fishing Village in Comparative Perspective. PhD. Dissertation, University of Michigan.
Proskie, J. and J.C. Adams 1969 Survey of the Labour rorce in the Offshore Fishing Fleet-Atlantic Coast. Ottowa: Dept. of Fisheries and Forestry.
Quinn, Naomi R. 1971 Mfantese Fishing Crew Composition: A Decision Making Analysis. PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University.
Sabella, James C. 1974 The Fishermen of Caleta San Pablo. PhD. Dissertation. Cornell University.
Sahlins, Marshall D. 1962 Moala: Culture and Nature on a Fijian Island. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.